Elementary Greek Grammar: PART II: INFLECTION: VERBS

English Grammar Elementary 19th century William W. Goodwin

Pages 79–179 of the book.

§ 88.

The Greek verb has three voices, the active, middle, and passive.

Note. The middle voice generally signifies that the subject performs an action upon himself or for his own benefit (§ 199), but sometimes it is not distinguished from the active voice in meaning. The passive differs from the middle in form in only two tenses, the future and the aorist.

Deponent verbs are those which have no active voice, but are used in the middle or passive forms with an active sense.

Note. Deponents generally have the aorist and future of the middle form. A few, which have an aorist (sometimes a future) of the passive form, are called passive deponents; while the others are called middle deponents.

§ 89.

There are five moods, the indicative, subjunctive, optative, imperative, and infinitive. To these are added, in the conjugation of the verb, participles of all the principal tenses.

Note. The first four moods, as opposed to the infinitive, are called finite moods. The last four, as opposed to the indicative, are called dependent moods.

§ 90.

There are seven tenses, the present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, aorist, future, and future perfect.

The imperfect and pluperfect are found only in the indicative. The future and future perfect are wanting in the subjunctive and imperative. The future perfect belongs regularly to the passive voice, but sometimes has the meaning of the active or middle.

The present, perfect, future, and future perfect indicative are called primary (or principal) tenses; the imperfect, pluperfect, and aorist indicative are called secondary (or historical) tenses.

Note 1. Many verbs have tenses known as the second aorist (in all voices), the second perfect and pluperfect (active), and the second future (passive). These tenses are generally of more primitive formation than the first (or ordinary) aorist, perfect, &c. Very few verbs have both forms in any tense; when this occurs, the two forms generally differ in meaning (§ 92, 5).

Note 2. The aorist corresponds to the indefinite or historical perfect in Latin, and the Greek perfect corresponds generally to the English perfect or to the definite perfect in Latin.

Note 3. No Greek verb is in use in all these tenses, and the paradigm of the regular verb (§ 96), therefore, includes parts of three different verbs.

§ 91.

There are three numbers, as in nouns, the singular, the dual, and the plural.

In each tense of the indicative, subjunctive, and optative, there are three persons in each number, the first, the second, and the third; in each tense of the imperative there are two, the second and the third.

Note. The first person dual is the same as the first person plural, except in a very few poetic forms (§ 113, N. 3). This person is therefore omitted in the paradigms.

In a verb which has but one stem, like λύω, the stem is the fundamental part which appears in all forms of the verb (§ 32, 2). In λύω this fixed part is λυ-, which is seen equally (though with change in the quantity of υ) in λύ-ω, ἔ-λυ-ον, λύ-σω, ἔ-λυ-σα, λέ-λυ-κα, ἐ-λε-λύ-κειν, λέ-λυ-μαι, ἐ-λε-λύ-μην, ἐ-λύ-θην, λυ-θήσομαι. So in λέγ-ω, πλέκ-ω.

The stem which is the basis of the present and imperfect, however, is often not the same as the stem which appears in some or all of the other tenses. Thus in λείπω (§ 95), we find the stem λειπ- in most of the tenses; but in the second aorists ἔ-λιπ-ον and ἐ-λιπ-όμην we find the stem λιπ-. In φαίνω (§ 95) we have φαιν- only in the present and imperfect, and a stem φαν- (sometimes in the form φην-) as the basis of the other tenses. Again, in μανθάνω, learn, we have the stem μαθ- in ἔμαθον; and in λαμβάνω, take, we have λαβ- in ἔλαβον. (See the Catalogue of Verbs.) As these stems λιπ-, φαν-, μαθ-, λαβ-, are simpler and more primitive than λειπ-, φαιν-, μανθαν-, λαμβαν-, they are called the simple stems of these verbs.

Note. The simple stem, or (in verbs like λύ-ω, λέγ-ω) the single stem, is often identical with the root (§ 32, 2, Note); as λιπ-, λαβ-, λυ-, λεγ-, πλεκ-. In other verbs the stem is formed by adding a suffix to the root; as in τιμάω the single stem τιμα- (the same as that of the noun τιμή, § 37, 1) is formed from the root τι- by adding μα; so in φαίνω the simple stem φαν- is itself derived from the root φα-. The term simple stem or stem (if there is but one) denotes the simplest form which appears in the conjugation of a verb, whether it is the same as the root or not.

The stems of verbs are called vowel stems or consonant stems, and the latter are called mute stems (including labial, palatal, and lingual stems) or liquid stems, according to their final letter. Thus we name the stems of φιλέω (φιλε-), λείπω (λειπ-, λιπ-), τρίβω (τριβ-), γράφω (γραφ-), πλέκω (πλεκ-), φεύγω (φευγ-, φυγ-), πείθω (πειθ-, πιθ-), φαίνω (φαιν-, φαν-), στέλλω (στελλ-, στελ-).

Note. A verb which has a vowel stem in all its tenses is called a pure verb; and one which has a mute stem or a liquid stem in all its tenses is called a mute or a liquid verb.

It will be seen by the synopsis (§ 95), that even the single stem λυ- appears in several modified forms in different tenses of λύω; as λυ-, λυσ-, λελυκ-, and λυθε- (or λυθη-) enlarged to λυθησ-. In φαίνω the simple stem φαν- appears also as φην-, πεφαν-, φανθε- (or φανθη-), φανε(η)-, and φανησ-. In λείπω we find λειπ-, λελειπ-, λειφθε(η)-; and λιπ- is modified in λε-λοιπ-. The form of stem which belongs to each tense (or group of tenses) is called a tense stem, and the forms of the verb which are based upon it constitute a tense system.

The following tense stems [1] are distinguished in the Greek verb: —

[1]: The term tense stem is here used, in conformity with general usage in elementary works, to denote the fixed form which (with certain internal modifications) is the basis of a tense. Strictly, the present stem of λέγω is λεγ- + a variable vowel (ο or ε); the aorist stem of λύω is λυσ- + α or ε, &c.; see § 112, 4. This variable element is not included in the tense stems as they are here given.

I. The Present stem, of the present and imperfect of all voices; as λυ- in λύ-ω, ἔ-λυ-ον, λύ-ομαι, ἐ-λυ-όμην; φαιν- in φαίν-ω, ἔφαιν-ον, &c.; λειπ- in λείπ-ω, ἔλειπ-ον, λείπ-ομαι, &c.

II. The Future stem, of the future active and middle; as λυσ-, in λύσ-ω, λύσ-ομαι; λειψ- in λείψ-ω, λείψ-ομαι; φανε- in (φανέ-ω) φανῶ, (φανέ-ομαι) φανοῦμαι. The last form (in ε) belongs to liquid stems.

III. The First-Aorist stem, of the aorist active and middle; as λυσ- in ἔ-λυσ-α, ἐ-λυσ-ά-μην; φην- in ἔ-φην-α, ἐ-φην-άμην. The last form (without σ) belongs to liquid stems.

IV. The Perfect stem, of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect. Of this there are four forms: (a) The Perfect-Middle stem; as λελυ- in λέλυ-μαι and ἐλελύ-μην, λελειπ- in λέλειμ-μαι and ἐλελείμ-μην (§ 16, 3), πεφαν- in πέφασ-μαι and ἐπεφάσ-μην (§ 16, 6, N. 4). (b) The Perfect-Active stem; as λελυ-κ- in λέλυκ-α and ἐλελύκ-ειν, πεφαν-κ- (§ 16, 5) in πέφαγκα and ἐπεφάγκειν. (c) The Future-Perfect stem; as λελυ-σ- in λελύσ-ομαι, λελειψ- in λελείψ-ομαι. (d) The Second-Perfect stem; as λελοιπ- in λέλοιπ-α and ἐ-λελοίπ-ειν, πεφην- in πέφην-α and ἐ-πεφήν-ειν.

V. The Second-Aorist stem, of the second aorist active and middle; as λιπ- in ἔ-λιπ-ον and ἐ-λιπ-όμην.

VI. The First Passive stem, of the first aorist and the first future passive; as (a) λυθε- (or λυθη-) in ἐ-λύθη-ν and (λυθέ-ω) λυθῶ (subj.), λειφθε(η)- in ἐ-λείφθη-ν and (λειφθέ-ω) λειφθῶ (subj.), φανθε(η)- in ἐ-φάνθη-ν and (φανθέ-ω) φανθῶ (subj.); (b) λυθησ- in λυθήσ-ομαι, λειφθησ- in λειφθήσ-ομαι.

VII. The Second Passive stem, of the second aorist and the second future passive; as (a) φανε(η)- in ἐ-φάνη-ν and (φανέ-ω) φανῶ (subj.); (b) φανησ- in φανήσ-ομαι.

Note. The three verbs λύω, λείπω, and φαίνω, from which the preceding examples are taken, give a general idea of the most common forms which the seven tense stems assume.

The principal parts of a Greek verb (by giving which we describe the verb) are the first person singular of the present, future, first aorist, and (first or second) perfect indicative active, the perfect and (first or second) aorist indicative passive, with the second aorist (active or middle) when one occurs. E.g.

Λύω, λύσω, ἔλυσα, λέλυκα, λέλυμαι, ἐλύθην.

Λείπω, λείψω, λέλοιπα, λέλειμμαι, ἐλείφθην, ἔλιπον.

Φαίνω, φανῶ, ἔφηνα, πέφαγκα (and πέφηνα), πέφασμαι, ἐφάνθην (and ἐφάνην).

Πράσσω, do, πράξω, ἔπραξα, πέπρᾱχα (2 pf. πέπρᾱγα), πέπραγμαι, ἐπράχθην.

Στέλλω, send, στελῶ, ἔστειλα, ἔσταλκα, ἔσταλμαι, ἐστάλην.

We thus give every tense system which is in use, with two tenses formed from the perfect stem. Verbs with two perfects active, like πράσσω, or with two aorists passive, like φαίνω, are very rare.

In deponent verbs the principal parts are the present, future, perfect, and aorist (or aorists) indicative. E.g.

Βούλομαι, wish, βουλήσομαι, βεβούλημαι, ἐβουλήθην.

Γίγνομαι, become, γενήσομαι, γεγένημαι, ἐγενόμην.

(Αἰδέομαι) αἰδοῦμαι, respect, αἰδέσομαι, ᾔδεσμαι, ᾐδέσθην.

Σκέπτομαι, view, σκέψομαι, ἔσκεμμαι, ἐσκεψάμην.

To conjugate a verb is to give all its voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons in their proper order.

These various parts of the verb are formed as follows: —

(a). By modifications of the stem itself in forming the different tense stems (§ 92, 4). These are explained in §§ 107–111.

(b). In all cases, by adding certain syllables to the tense stems; as in λύ-ομεν, λύσ-ετε, λέλυ-ται, λελύκ-ατε. These syllables and their composition are explained in §§ 112–117.

(c). In the secondary tenses of the indicative, by also prefixing ε to the tense stem (if this begins with a consonant), or lengthening its initial vowel (if it begins with a short vowel); as in ἔ-λυ-ον, ἔ-λυσ-ε, ἐ-φήν-ατο, ἐ-λελύκ-ειν, and in ἤκου-ον, ἤκουσ-α, imperfect and aorist of ἀκούω, to hear. This prefix or lengthening does not belong to the tense stem, but disappears in the dependent moods and in the participle.

A prefix, seen in λε- of λέλυκα and λέλειμμαι, in πε- of πέφασμαι, and ἐ- of ἔσταλμαι (§ 97, 4), for which a lengthening of the initial vowel is found in ἤλλαγμαι (ἀλλαγ-) from ἀλλάσσω (§ 97, 4), belongs to the perfect tense stem, and remains in all the moods and in the participle.

These prefixes and lengthenings (c), called augment (increase), are explained in §§ 99–106.

There are two principal forms of conjugation of Greek verbs, that of verbs in ω and that of verbs in μι.

Note. Verbs in μι form a small class, compared with those in ω, and are distinguished in their inflection almost exclusively in the present and second-aorist systems, in the other systems agreeing with verbs in ω. The conjugation of the latter is therefore given first, and under this head are stated the general principles which belong equally to both conjugations.

§ 94.

The present stem of a verb in ω is found by dropping ω of the present indicative active, or ομαι of the present indicative middle; as λύω (λυ-), λείπω (λειπ-), πράσσω (πρασσ-); βούλομαι (βουλ-), γίγνομαι (γιγν-).

Note. The simple stem, when there is one distinct from the present stem, must be learnt by observation and by familiarity with the principles upon which the present stem is formed from the simple stem (§ 108).

§ 95.

The following synopses include: —

I. All the tenses of λύω, loose.

II. All the tenses of λείπω, leave; the second perfect and pluperfect active and the second aorist active and middle being in heavy-faced type.

III. All the tenses of φαίνω, show; the future and aorist active and middle and the second aorist and second future passive being in heavy-faced type.

The synopsis of λύω, with the forms in heavier type in the synopses of λείπω and φαίνω, will thus show the full conjugation of the verb in ω; and only these forms are inflected in § 96. For the peculiar inflection of the perfect and pluperfect middle and passive of verbs with consonant stems, see § 97.

Note. The paradigms in § 96 include the perfect imperative active of λύω, λείπω, and φαίνω, although it is hardly possible that this tense can actually have been formed in any of these verbs. As it occurs, however, in some verbs (§ 118, 2, Note), it is given here to complete the illustration of the forms. For the perfect subjunctive and optative active, which are more common in periphrastic forms, see § 118, 2.

For the quantity of υ in λύω, see § 109, 1, N. 1.

I. λύω.

ACTIVE VOICE.

Tense-stem	Tense	Indicative	Subjunctive
I. λῡ-	Present	λύω	λύω
	Imperfect	ἔλυον	
II. λῡσ-	Future	λύσω	
III. λῡσ-	Aorist	ἔλυσα	λύσω
IV. (b) λελῡ-κ-	Perfect	λέλυκα	λελύκω or λελυκὼς ὦ
	Pluperfect	ἐλελύκειν	

MIDDLE VOICE.

Tense-stem	Tense	Indicative	Subjunctive
I. λῡ-	Present	λύομαι	λύωμαι
	Imperfect	ἐλυόμην	
II. λῡσ-	Future	λύσομαι	
III. λῡσ-	Aorist	ἐλυσάμην	λύσωμαι
IV. (a) λελῡ-	Perfect	λέλυμαι	λελυμένος ὦ
	Pluperfect	ἐλελύμην	

PASSIVE VOICE.

Tense-stem	Tense	Indicative	Subjunctive
I. λῡ-	Present and Imperfect	Same as in Middle.	
IV. (a) λελῡ-	Perfect and Pluperfect	Same as in Middle.	
IV. (c) λελῡ-σ-	Future Perfect	λελύσομαι	
VI. (a) λῡθε(η)-	Aorist	ἐλύθην	λυθῶ (for λυθέω)
VI. (b) λῡθη-σ-	Future	λυθήσομαι	

I. λύω.

ACTIVE VOICE.

Tense	Optative	Imperative	Infinitive	Participle
Present	λύοιμι	λῦε	λύειν	λύων
Future	λύσοιμι		λύσειν	λύσων
Aorist	λύσαιμι	λῦσον	λῦσαι	λύσας
Perfect	λελύκοιμι or λελυκὼς εἴην	[λέλυκε, § 95, 1, N.]	λελυκέναι	λελυκώς

MIDDLE VOICE.

Tense	Optative	Imperative	Infinitive	Participle
Present	λυοίμην	λύου	λύεσθαι	λυόμενος
Future	λυσοίμην		λύσεσθαι	λυσόμενος
Aorist	λυσαίμην	λῦσαι	λύσασθαι	λυσάμενος
Perfect	λελυμένος εἴην	λέλυσο	λελύσθαι	λελυμένος

PASSIVE VOICE.

Tense	Optative	Imperative	Infinitive	Participle
Future Perfect	λελυσοίμην		λελύσεσθαι	λελυσόμενος
Aorist	λυθείην	λύθητι	λυθῆναι	λυθείς
Future	λυθησοίμην		λυθήσεσθαι	λυθησόμενος

II. λείπω (λιπ-).

ACTIVE VOICE.

Tense-stem	Tense	Indicative	Subjunctive
I. λειπ-	Present	λείπω	λείπω
	Imperfect	ἔλειπον	
II. λειψ-

for λειπ-σ- | Future | λείψω | | | III. [λειψ-] | Aorist | [ἔλειψα, &c.] | Not in good use. | | IV. (a) λελοιπ-

(§ 109, 3) | 2 Perfect | λέλοιπα | λελοίπω or λελοιπὼς ὦ |
|	| 2 Pluperfect | ἐλελοίπειν |	|
| V. λιπ- | 2 Aorist | ἔλιπον | λίπω |

MIDDLE VOICE.

Tense-stem	Tense	Indicative	Subjunctive
I. λειπ-	Present	λείπομαι	λείπωμαι
	Imperfect	ἐλειπόμην	
II. λειψ-	Future	λείψομαι	
IV. (a) λελειπ-

As Passive. | Perfect | λέλειμμαι (§ 16, 3) | λελειμμένος ὦ |
|	| Pluperfect | ἐλελείμμην |	|
| V. λιπ- | 2 Aorist | ἐλιπόμην | λίπωμαι |

PASSIVE VOICE.

Tense-stem	Tense	Indicative	Subjunctive
I. λειπ-	Present and Imperfect	Same as in Middle.	
IV. (a) λελειπ-	Perfect and Pluperfect	Same as in Middle.	
IV. (c) λελειψ-

for λελειπ-σ- | Future Perfect | λελείψομαι | | | VI. (a) λειφθε(η)-

(§ 16, 1) | Aorist | ἐλείφθην | λειφθῶ (for λειφθέω) | | VI. (b) λειφθη-σ- | Future | λειφθήσομαι | |

II. λείπω (λιπ-).

ACTIVE VOICE.

Tense	Optative	Imperative	Infinitive	Participle
Present	λείποιμι	λεῖπε	λείπειν	λείπων
Future	λείψοιμι		λείψειν	λείψων
2 Perfect	λελοίποιμι or λελοιπὼς εἴην	[λέλοιπε, § 95, N.]	λελοιπέναι	λελοιπώς
2 Aorist	λίποιμι	λίπε	λιπεῖν	λιπών

MIDDLE VOICE.

Tense	Optative	Imperative	Infinitive	Participle
Present	λειποίμην	λείπου	λείπεσθαι	λειπόμενος
Future	λειψοίμην		λείψεσθαι	λειψόμενος
Perfect	λελειμμένος εἴην	λέλειψο	λελεῖφθαι (§ 16, 1 & 4)	λελειμμένος
2 Aorist	λιποίμην	λιποῦ	λιπέσθαι	λιπόμενος

PASSIVE VOICE.

Tense	Optative	Imperative	Infinitive	Participle
Future Perfect	λελειψοίμην		λελείψεσθαι	λελειψόμενος
Aorist	λειφθείην	λείφθητι	λειφθῆναι	λειφθείς
Future	λειφθησοίμην		λειφθήσεσθαι	λειφθησόμενος

III. φαίνω (φαν-).

ACTIVE VOICE.

Tense-stem	Tense	Indicative	Subjunctive
I. φαιν-	Present	φαίνω	φαίνω
	Imperfect	ἔφαινον	
II. φᾰνε-	Future	(φανέω) φανῶ	
III. φην-	Aorist	ἔφηνα	φήνω
IV. (b) πεφαγκ- for πεφαν-κ- (§ 16, 5)	Perfect	πέφαγκα	πεφάγκω or πεφαγκὼς ὦ
	Pluperfect	ἐπεφάγκειν	
IV. (a) πεφην- (§ 109, 3)	2 Perfect	πέφηνα	πεφήνω or πεφηνὼς ὦ
	2 Pluperfect	ἐπεφήνειν	

MIDDLE VOICE.

Tense-stem	Tense	Indicative	Subjunctive
I. φαιν-	Present	φαίνομαι	φαίνωμαι
	Imperfect	ἐφαινόμην	
II. φᾰνε-	Future	(φανέομαι) φανοῦμαι	
III. φην-	Aorist	ἐφηνάμην	φήνωμαι
IV. (a) πεφαν-	Perfect	πέφασμαι	πεφασμένος ὦ
	Pluperfect	ἐπεφάσμην	

PASSIVE VOICE.

Tense-stem	Tense	Indicative	Subjunctive
I. φαιν-	Present and Imperfect	Same as in Middle.	
IV. (a) πεφαν-	Perfect and Pluperfect	Same as in Middle.	
VI. (a) φανθε(η)-	Aorist	ἐφάνθην	φανθῶ (for φανθέω)
VI. (b)	Future	Wanting.	
VII. (a) φανε(η)-	2 Aorist	ἐφάνην	φανῶ (for φανέω)
VII. (b) φανησ-	2 Future	φανήσομαι	

III. φαίνω (φαν-).

ACTIVE VOICE.

Tense	Optative	Imperative	Infinitive	Participle
Present	φαίνοιμι	φαῖνε	φαίνειν	φαίνων
Future	(φανέοιμι) φανοῖμι or (φανεοίην) φανοίην		(φανέειν) φανεῖν	(φανέων) φανῶν
Aorist	φήναιμι	φῆνον	φῆναι	φήνας
Perfect	πεφάγκοιμι or πεφαγκὼς εἴην	[πέφαγκε, § 95, N.]	πεφαγκέναι	πεφαγκώς
2 Perfect	πεφήνοιμι or πεφηνὼς εἴην	[πέφηνε, § 95, N.]	πεφηνέναι	πεφηνώς

MIDDLE VOICE.

Tense	Optative	Imperative	Infinitive	Participle
Present	φαινοίμην	φαίνου	φαίνεσθαι	φαινόμενος
Future	(φανεοίμην) φανοίμην		(φανέεσθαι) φανεῖσθαι	(φανεόμενος) φανούμενος
Aorist	φηναίμην	φῆναι	φήνασθαι	φηνάμενος
Perfect	πεφασμένος εἴην	πέφανσο	πεφάνθαι (§ 16, 4)	πεφασμένος

PASSIVE VOICE.

Tense	Optative	Imperative	Infinitive	Participle
Aorist	φανθείην	φάνθητι	φανθῆναι	φανθείς
2 Aorist	φανείην	φάνηθι	φανῆναι	φανείς
2 Future	φανησοίμην		φανήσεσθαι	φανησόμενος

The following table shows the meaning of each tense of λύω, λείπω, and φαίνω, in the indicative, imperative, infinitive, and participle of the active voice: —

I. Λύω.

Tense	Indicative	Imperative	Infinitive	Participle
Pres.	I loose or am loosing.	Loose thou.	To loose or to be loosing.	Loosing.
Imp.	I loosed or was loosing.			
Fut.	I shall loose.		To be about to loose.	About to loose.
Aor.	I loosed.	Loose thou. (§ 202, 1.)	To loose or to have loosed.	Having loosed or loosing.
Perf.	I have loosed.	(§ 118, 2, N.)	To have loosed.	Having loosed.
Plup.	I had loosed.			

The middle of λύω commonly means to release for one’s self, or to release some one belonging to one’s self, hence to ransom (a captive) or to deliver (one’s friends from danger). See § 199, 3. In the passive the tenses are changed merely to suit that voice; as I am loosed, I was loosed, I shall be loosed, I have been loosed, &c. The future perfect passive means I shall have been loosed (i.e. before some future event referred to).

II. Λείπω.

ACTIVE VOICE.

Tense	Indicative	Imperative	Infinitive	Participle
Pres.	I leave or am leaving.	Leave thou.	To leave or to be leaving.	Leaving.
Imperf.	I left or was leaving.			
Fut.	I shall leave.		To be about to leave.	About to leave.
2 Perf.	I have left (sometimes I have failed or am wanting).	(§ 118, 2, N.)	To have left.	Having left.
2 Plup.	I had left.			
2 Aor.	I left.	Leave thou. (§ 202, 1.)	To leave or to have left.	Having left or leaving.

The passive of λείπω is used in all tenses, with the meanings I am left, I was left, I have been left, I had been left, I shall have been left, I was left, I shall be left. It also means I am inferior (left behind). The middle of λείπω means properly to remain (leave one’s self), in which sense it differs little (or not at all) from the passive. But the 2nd aor. ἐλιπόμην often means I left for myself (as a memorial or monument): so with the present and future middle in composition. Ἐλιπόμην in Homer sometimes means I was left behind or was inferior, like the passive.

III. Φαίνω.

Tense	Indicative	Imperative	Infinitive	Participle
Pres.	I show or am showing.	Show thou.	To show.	Showing.
Imperf.	I showed or was showing.			
Fut.	I shall show.		To be about to show.	About to show.
Aor.	I showed.	Show thou. (§ 202, 1.)	To show or to have shown.	Having shown or showing.
1 Perf.	I have shown.	(§ 118, 2, N.)	To have shown.	Having shown.
1 Plup.	I had shown.			
2 Perf.	I have appeared.	(§ 118, 2, N.)	To have appeared.	Having appeared.
2 Plup.	I had appeared.			

The passive of φαίνω means properly to be shown or made evident, the middle, to appear (show one’s self). But these two meanings are often hard to distinguish, and it is therefore sometimes impossible to decide whether φαίνομαι, πέφασμαι, &c. are passive or middle. The 2nd fut. pass. φανήσομαι, I shall appear or be shown, does not differ in sense from the fut. mid. φανοῦμαι; but ἐφάνθην is generally passive, I was shown, while ἐφάνην is I appeared. The aor. mid. ἐφηνάμην is transitive, I showed; it is rare and poetic in the simple form, but ἀπεφηνάμην is common in the meaning I declared.

Note. The meaning of the various forms of the subjunctive and optative cannot be fully understood until the constructions are explained in the Syntax. But the following examples will make them clearer than a mere translation of the forms, some of which (e.g. the future optative) cannot be used alone: —

Λύωμεν (or λύσωμεν) αὐτόν, let us loose him; μὴ λύσῃς αὐτόν, do not loose him. Ἐὰν λύω (or λύσω) αὐτόν, χαιρήσει, if I (shall) loose him, he will rejoice. Ἔρχομαι, ἵνα αὐτὸν λύω (or λύσω), I am coming that I may loose him. Εἴθε λύοιμι (or λύσαιμι) αὐτόν, O that I may loose him. Εἰ λύοιμι (or λύσαιμι) αὐτόν, χαίροι ἄν, if I should loose him, he would rejoice. Ἦλθον ἵνα αὐτὸν λύοιμι (or λύσαιμι), I came that I might loose him. Εἶπον ὅτι αὐτὸν λύοιμι, I said that I was loosing him; εἶπον ὅτι αὐτὸν λύσαιμι, I said that I had loosed him; εἶπον ὅτι αὐτὸν λύσοιμι, I said that I would loose him. For the difference between the present and aorist in these moods, see § 202, 1; for the perfect, see § 202, 2.

Λύω in all its tenses, and λείπω and φαίνω in the tenses above mentioned (§ 95), are thus inflected: —

I. Λύω (λυ-), to loose.

ACTIVE VOICE.

PRESENT.

Number and person	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
S. 1	λύω	λύω	λύοιμι	
S. 2	λύεις	λύῃς	λύοις	λῦε
S. 3	λύει	λύῃ	λύοι	λυέτω
D. 2	λύετον	λύητον	λύοιτον	λύετον
D. 3	λυέτην	λύητον	λυοίτην	λυέτων
P. 1	λύομεν	λύωμεν	λύοιμεν	
P. 2	λύετε	λύητε	λύοιτε	λύετε
P. 3	λύουσι	λύωσι	λύοιεν	λυέτωσαν or λυόντων

Infinitive: λύειν.

Participle: λύων, λύουσα, λῦον (§ 68).

IMPERFECT.

Number and person	Indicative
S. 1	ἔλυον
S. 2	ἔλυες
S. 3	ἔλυε
D. 2	ἐλύετον
D. 3	ἐλυέτην
P. 1	ἐλύομεν
P. 2	ἐλύετε
P. 3	ἔλυον

FUTURE.

Number and person	Indicative	Optative
S. 1	λύσω	λύσοιμι
S. 2	λύσεις	λύσοις
S. 3	λύσει	λύσοι
D. 2	λύσετον	λύσοιτον
D. 3	λυσέτην	λυσοίτην
P. 1	λύσομεν	λύσοιμεν
P. 2	λύσετε	λύσοιτε
P. 3	λύσουσι	λύσοιεν

Infinitive: λύσειν.

Participle: λύσων, λύσουσα, λῦσον (§ 68).

AORIST.

Number and person	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
S. 1	ἔλυσα	λύσω	λύσαιμι	
S. 2	ἔλυσας	λύσῃς	λύσαις, λύσειας	λῦσον
S. 3	ἔλυσε	λύσῃ	λύσαι, λύσειε	λυσάτω
D. 2	ἐλύσατον	λύσητον	λύσαιτον	λύσατον
D. 3	ἐλυσάτην	λύσητον	λυσαίτην	λυσάτων
P. 1	ἐλύσαμεν	λύσωμεν	λύσαιμεν	
P. 2	ἐλύσατε	λύσητε	λύσαιτε	λύσατε
P. 3	ἔλυσαν	λύσωσι	λύσαιεν, λύσειαν	λυσάτωσαν or λυσάντων

Infinitive: λῦσαι.

Participle: λύσας, λύσασα, λῦσαν (§ 68).

PERFECT.

Number and person	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
S. 1	λέλυκα	λελύκω (§ 95, 1, N.)	λελύκοιμι (§ 95, 1, N.)	
S. 2	λέλυκας	λελύκῃς	λελύκοις	λέλυκε (§ 95, 1, N.)
S. 3	λέλυκε	λελύκῃ	λελύκοι	λελυκέτω
D. 2	λελύκατον	λελύκητον	λελύκοιτον	λελύκετον
D. 3	λελύκατον	λελύκητον	λελυκοίτην	λελυκέτων
P. 1	λελύκαμεν	λελύκωμεν	λελύκοιμεν	
P. 2	λελύκατε	λελύκητε	λελύκοιτε	λελύκετε
P. 3	λελύκασι	λελύκωσι	λελύκοιεν	λελυκέτωσαν

Infinitive: λελυκέναι.

Participle: λελυκώς, λελυκυῖα, λελυκός (§ 68).

PLUPERFECT.

Number and person	Indicative
S. 1	ἐλελύκειν
S. 2	ἐλελύκεις
S. 3	ἐλελύκει
D. 2	ἐλελύκειτον
D. 3	ἐλελυκείτην
P. 1	ἐλελύκειμεν
P. 2	ἐλελύκειτε
P. 3	ἐλελύκεσαν or ἐλελύκεισαν

Λύω — MIDDLE VOICE.

PRESENT.

Number and person	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
S. 1	λύομαι	λύωμαι	λυοίμην	
S. 2	λύῃ, λύει	λύῃ	λύοιο	λύου
S. 3	λύεται	λύηται	λύοιτο	λυέσθω
D. 2	λύεσθον	λύησθον	λύοισθον	λύεσθον
D. 3	λύεσθον	λύησθον	λυοίσθην	λυέσθων
P. 1	λυόμεθα	λυώμεθα	λυοίμεθα	
P. 2	λύεσθε	λύησθε	λύοισθε	λύεσθε
P. 3	λύονται	λύωνται	λύοιντο	λυέσθωσαν or λυέσθων

Infinitive: λύεσθαι.

Participle: λυόμενος, λυομένη, λυόμενον (§ 62, 3).

IMPERFECT.

Number and person	Indicative
S. 1	ἐλυόμην
S. 2	ἐλύου
S. 3	ἐλύετο
D. 2	ἐλύεσθον
D. 3	ἐλυέσθην
P. 1	ἐλυόμεθα
P. 2	ἐλύεσθε
P. 3	ἐλύοντο

FUTURE.

Number and person	Indicative	Optative
S. 1	λύσομαι	λυσοίμην
S. 2	λύσῃ, λύσει	λύσοιο
S. 3	λύσεται	λύσοιτο
D. 2	λύσεσθον	λύσοισθον
D. 3	λύσεσθον	λυσοίσθην
P. 1	λυσόμεθα	λυσοίμεθα
P. 2	λύσεσθε	λύσοισθε
P. 3	λύσονται	λύσοιντο

Infinitive: λύσεσθαι.

Participle: λυσόμενος, -η, -ον (§ 62, 3).

AORIST.

Number and person	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
S. 1	ἐλυσάμην	λύσωμαι	λυσαίμην	
S. 2	ἐλύσω	λύσῃ	λύσαιο	λῦσαι
S. 3	ἐλύσατο	λύσηται	λύσαιτο	λυσάσθω
D. 2	ἐλύσασθον	λύσησθον	λύσαισθον	λύσασθον
D. 3	ἐλυσάσθην	λύσησθον	λυσαίσθην	λυσάσθων
P. 1	ἐλυσάμεθα	λυσώμεθα	λυσαίμεθα	
P. 2	ἐλύσασθε	λύσησθε	λύσαισθε	λύσασθε
P. 3	ἐλύσαντο	λύσωνται	λύσαιντο	λυσάσθωσαν or λυσάσθων

Infinitive: λύσασθαι.

Participle: λυσάμενος, -η, -ον (§ 62, 3).

PERFECT.

Number and person	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
S. 1	λέλυμαι	λελυμένος ὦ	λελυμένος εἴην	
S. 2	λέλυσαι	λελυμένος ᾖς	λελυμένος εἴης	λέλυσο
S. 3	λέλυται	λελυμένος ᾖ	λελυμένος εἴη	λελύσθω
D. 2	λέλυσθον	λελυμένω ἦτον	λελυμένω εἴητον or εἶτον	λέλυσθον
D. 3	λέλυσθον	λελυμένω ἦτον	λελυμένω εἰήτην or εἴτην	λελύσθων
P. 1	λελύμεθα	λελυμένοι ὦμεν	λελυμένοι εἴημεν or εἶμεν	
P. 2	λέλυσθε	λελυμένοι ἦτε	λελυμένοι εἴητε or εἶτε	λέλυσθε
P. 3	λέλυνται	λελυμένοι ὦσι	λελυμένοι εἴησαν or εἶεν	λελύσθωσαν or λελύσθων

Infinitive: λελύσθαι.

Participle: λελυμένος, -η, -ον (§ 62, 3).

PLUPERFECT.

Number and person	Indicative
S. 1	ἐλελύμην
S. 2	ἐλέλυσο
S. 3	ἐλέλυτο
D. 2	ἐλέλυσθον
D. 3	ἐλελύσθην
P. 1	ἐλελύμεθα
P. 2	ἐλέλυσθε
P. 3	ἐλέλυντο

Λύω — PASSIVE VOICE.

Present, Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect Passive, same as Middle.

FUTURE PERFECT.

Number and person	Indicative	Optative
S. 1	λελύσομαι	λελυσοίμην
S. 2	λελύσῃ, λελύσει	λελύσοιο
S. 3	λελύσεται	λελύσοιτο
D. 2	λελύσεσθον	λελύσοισθον
D. 3	λελύσεσθον	λελυσοίσθην
P. 1	λελυσόμεθα	λελυσοίμεθα
P. 2	λελύσεσθε	λελύσοισθε
P. 3	λελύσονται	λελύσοιντο

Infinitive: λελύσεσθαι.

Participle: λελυσόμενος, -η, -ον (§ 62, 3).

AORIST.

Number and person	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
S. 1	ἐλύθην	λυθῶ	λυθείην	
S. 2	ἐλύθης	λυθῇς	λυθείης	λύθητι
S. 3	ἐλύθη	λυθῇ	λυθείη	λυθήτω
D. 2	ἐλύθητον	λυθῆτον	λυθείητον, λυθεῖτον	λύθητον
D. 3	ἐλυθήτην	λυθῆτον	λυθειήτην, λυθείτην	λυθήτων
P. 1	ἐλύθημεν	λυθῶμεν	λυθείημεν, λυθεῖμεν	
P. 2	ἐλύθητε	λυθῆτε	λυθείητε, λυθεῖτε	λύθητε
P. 3	ἐλύθησαν	λυθῶσι	λυθείησαν, λυθεῖεν	λυθήτωσαν or λυθέντων

Infinitive: λυθῆναι.

Participle: λυθείς, λυθεῖσα, λυθέν (§ 68).

FUTURE.

Number and person	Indicative	Optative
S. 1	λυθήσομαι	λυθησοίμην
S. 2	λυθήσῃ, λυθήσει	λυθήσοιο
S. 3	λυθήσεται	λυθήσοιτο
D. 2	λυθήσεσθον	λυθήσοισθον
D. 3	λυθήσεσθον	λυθησοίσθην
P. 1	λυθησόμεθα	λυθησοίμεθα
P. 2	λυθήσεσθε	λυθήσοισθε
P. 3	λυθήσονται	λυθήσοιντο

Infinitive: λυθήσεσθαι.

Participle: λυθησόμενος, -η, -ον (§ 62, 3).

II. Λείπω (λιπ-), to leave.

ACTIVE VOICE.

SECOND PERFECT.

Number and person	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
S. 1	λέλοιπα	λελοίπω	λελοίποιμι	
S. 2	λέλοιπας	λελοίπῃς	λελοίποις	λέλοιπε
S. 3	λέλοιπε	λελοίπῃ	λελοίποι	λελοιπέτω
D. 2	λελοίπατον	λελοίπητον	λελοίποιτον	λελοίπετον
D. 3	λελοίπατον	λελοίπητον	λελοιποίτην	λελοιπέτων
P. 1	λελοίπαμεν	λελοίπωμεν	λελοίποιμεν	
P. 2	λελοίπατε	λελοίπητε	λελοίποιτε	λελοίπετε
P. 3	λελοίπασι	λελοίπωσι	λελοίποιεν	λελοιπέτωσαν

Infinitive: λελοιπέναι.

Participle: λελοιπώς, λελοιπυῖα, λελοιπός (§ 68).

SECOND PLUPERFECT.

Number and person	Indicative
S. 1	ἐλελοίπειν
S. 2	ἐλελοίπεις
S. 3	ἐλελοίπει
D. 2	ἐλελοίπειτον
D. 3	ἐλελοιπείτην
P. 1	ἐλελοίπειμεν
P. 2	ἐλελοίπειτε
P. 3	ἐλελοίπεσαν or ἐλελοίπεισαν

SECOND AORIST.

Number and person	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
S. 1	ἔλιπον	λίπω	λίποιμι	
S. 2	ἔλιπες	λίπῃς	λίποις	λίπε
S. 3	ἔλιπε	λίπῃ	λίποι	λιπέτω
D. 2	ἐλίπετον	λίπητον	λίποιτον	λίπετον
D. 3	ἐλιπέτην	λίπητον	λιποίτην	λιπέτων
P. 1	ἐλίπομεν	λίπωμεν	λίποιμεν	
P. 2	ἐλίπετε	λίπητε	λίποιτε	λίπετε
P. 3	ἔλιπον	λίπωσι	λίποιεν	λιπέτωσαν or λιπόντων

Infinitive: λιπεῖν.

Participle: λιπών, λιποῦσα, λιπόν (§ 68).

Λείπω — MIDDLE VOICE.

SECOND AORIST.

Number and person	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
S. 1	ἐλιπόμην	λίπωμαι	λιποίμην	
S. 2	ἐλίπου	λίπῃ	λίποιο	λιποῦ
S. 3	ἐλίπετο	λίπηται	λίποιτο	λιπέσθω
D. 2	ἐλίπεσθον	λίπησθον	λίποισθον	λίπεσθον
D. 3	ἐλιπέσθην	λίπησθον	λιποίσθην	λιπέσθων
P. 1	ἐλιπόμεθα	λιπώμεθα	λιποίμεθα	
P. 2	ἐλίπεσθε	λίπησθε	λίποισθε	λίπεσθε
P. 3	ἐλίποντο	λίπωνται	λίποιντο	λιπέσθωσαν or λιπέσθων

Infinitive: λιπέσθαι.

Participle: λιπόμενος, -η, -ον (§ 62, 3).

III. Φαίνω (φαν-), to show.

ACTIVE VOICE.

FUTURE.

Number and person	Indicative	Optative
S. 1	(φανέω) φανῶ	(φανέοιμι) φανοῖμι, or (φανεοίην) φανοίην
S. 2	(φανέεις) φανεῖς	(φανέοις) φανοῖς, or (φανεοίης) φανοίης
S. 3	(φανέει) φανεῖ	(φανέοι) φανοῖ, or (φανεοίη) φανοίη
D. 2	(φανέετον) φανεῖτον	(φανέοιτον) φανοῖτον, or (φανεοίητον) φανοίητον
D. 3	(φανεέτην) φανείτην	(φανεοίτην) φανοίτην, or (φανεοιήτην) φανοιήτην
P. 1	(φανέομεν) φανοῦμεν	(φανέοιμεν) φανοῖμεν, or (φανεοίημεν) φανοίημεν
P. 2	(φανέετε) φανεῖτε	(φανέοιτε) φανοῖτε, or (φανεοίητε) φανοίητε
P. 3	(φανέουσι) φανοῦσι	(φανέοιεν) φανοῖεν, or (φανεοίησαν) φανοίησαν

Infinitive: (φανέειν) φανεῖν.

Participle: (φανέων) φανῶν (§ 69).

AORIST.

Number and person	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
S. 1	ἔφηνα	φήνω	φήναιμι	
S. 2	ἔφηνας	φήνῃς	φήναις or φήνειας	φῆνον
S. 3	ἔφηνε	φήνῃ	φήναι or φήνειε	φηνάτω
D. 2	ἐφήνατον	φήνητον	φήναιτον	φήνατον
D. 3	ἐφηνάτην	φήνητον	φηναίτην	φηνάτων
P. 1	ἐφήναμεν	φήνωμεν	φήναιμεν	
P. 2	ἐφήνατε	φήνητε	φήναιτε	φήνατε
P. 3	ἔφηναν	φήνωσι	φήναιεν or φήνειαν	φηνάτωσαν

Infinitive: φῆναι.

Participle: φήνας, φήνασα, φῆναν (§ 68).

Φαίνω — MIDDLE VOICE.

FUTURE.

Number and person	Indicative	Optative
S. 1	(φανέομαι) φανοῦμαι	(φανεοίμην) φανοίμην
S. 2	(φανέῃ, φανέει) φανῇ, φανεῖ	(φανέοιο) φανοῖο
S. 3	(φανέεται) φανεῖται	(φανέοιτο) φανοῖτο
D. 2	(φανέεσθον) φανεῖσθον	(φανέοισθον) φανοῖσθον
D. 3	(φανέεσθον) φανεῖσθον	(φανεοίσθην) φανοίσθην
P. 1	(φανεόμεθα) φανούμεθα	(φανεοίμεθα) φανοίμεθα
P. 2	(φανέεσθε) φανεῖσθε	(φανέοισθε) φανοῖσθε
P. 3	(φανέονται) φανοῦνται	(φανέοιντο) φανοῖντο

Infinitive: (φανέεσθαι) φανεῖσθαι.

Participle: (φανεόμενος) φανούμενος, -η, -ον (§ 62, 3).

AORIST.

Number and person	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
S. 1	ἐφηνάμην	φήνωμαι	φηναίμην	
S. 2	ἐφήνω	φήνῃ	φήναιο	φάνηθι
S. 3	ἐφήνατο	φήνηται	φήναιτο	φανήτω
D. 2	ἐφήνασθον	φήνησθον	φήναισθον	φάνητον
D. 3	ἐφηνάσθην	φήνησθον	φηναίσθην	φανήτων
P. 1	ἐφηνάμεθα	φηνώμεθα	φηναίμεθα	
P. 2	ἐφήνασθε	φήνησθε	φήναισθε	φάνητε
P. 3	ἐφήναντο	φήνωνται	φήναιντο	φανήτωσαν or φανέντων

Infinitive: φήνασθαι.

Participle: φηνάμενος, -η, -ον (§ 62, 3).

Φαίνω — PASSIVE VOICE.

SECOND AORIST.

Number and person	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
S. 1	ἐφάνην	φανῶ	φανείην	
S. 2	ἐφάνης	φανῇς	φανείης	φάνηθι
S. 3	ἐφάνη	φανῇ	φανείη	φανήτω
D. 2	ἐφάνητον	φανῆτον	φανείητον or φανεῖτον	φάνητον
D. 3	ἐφανήτην	φανῆτον	φανειήτην or φανείτην	φανήτων
P. 1	ἐφάνημεν	φανῶμεν	φανείημεν or φανεῖμεν	
P. 2	ἐφάνητε	φανῆτε	φανείητε or φανεῖτε	φάνητε
P. 3	ἐφάνησαν	φανῶσι	φανείησαν or φανεῖεν	φανήτωσαν or φανέντων

Infinitive: φανῆναι.

Participle: φανείς, φανεῖσα, φανέν (§ 68).

SECOND FUTURE PASSIVE.

Number and person	Indicative	Optative
S. 1	φανήσομαι	φανησοίμην
S. 2	φανήσῃ, φανήσει	φανήσοιο
S. 3	φανήσεται	φανήσοιτο
D. 2	φανήσεσθον	φανήσοισθον
D. 3	φανήσεσθον	φανησοίσθην
P. 1	φανησόμεθα	φανησοίμεθα
P. 2	φανήσεσθε	φανήσοισθε
P. 3	φανήσονται	φανήσοιντο

Infinitive: φανήσεσθαι.

Participle: φανησόμενος, -η, -ον (§ 62, 3).

Note 1. The uncontracted forms of the future active and middle of φαίνω, enclosed in ( ) above, and of other futures with liquid stems, are not Attic, but are found in Homer and Herodotus. So with some of the uncontracted forms of the aorist subjunctive passive in εω, &c.

Note 2. The tenses of λείπω and φαίνω which are not inflected above follow the corresponding tenses of λύω; except the perfect and pluperfect middle, for which see § 97. Λέλειμ-μαι is inflected like τέτριμ-μαι (§ 97, 3), and πέφασ-μαι is inflected in § 97, 4.

Note 3. Some of the dissyllabic forms of λύω do not show the accent so well as corresponding forms with three or more syllables. The correct accent will be seen in the following forms of κωλύω, to hinder: —

Pres. Imp. Act.	Aor. Opt. Act.	Aor. Imp. Act.	Aor. Imp. Mid.
κώλυε	κωλύσαιμι	κώλυσον	κώλυσαι
κωλυέτω	κωλύσαις or -ύσειας	κωλυσάτω	κωλυσάσθω
κωλύετον	κωλύσαι or -ύσειε	κωλύσατον	κωλύσασθον
&c.	&c.	&c.	&c.

Aor. Infin. Act. κωλῦσαι.

The three forms κωλύσαι, κωλῦσαι, and κώλυσαι (λύσαι, λῦσαι, and λῦσαι) are distinguished in form only by the accent. See § 26, with N. 3 (1); and § 22, N. 1.

In the perfect and pluperfect middle and passive, many euphonic changes (§ 16) occur when a final consonant of the stem comes before an initial μ, τ, σ, or σθ of the ending (§ 118).

When the stem ends in a consonant, the third person plural of these tenses is formed by the perfect participle and εἰσί, are, and ἦσαν, were, the present and imperfect of εἰμί, be (§ 127).

These tenses of τρίβω (stem τριβ-), rub, πλέκω (πλεκ-), weave, πείθω (πειθ-), persuade, and στέλλω (στελλ-, στελ-, σταλ-), send, are thus inflected:—

Perfect Indicative.

Number and person	τρίβω	πλέκω	πείθω	στέλλω
S. 1	τέτριμμαι	πέπλεγμαι	πέπεισμαι	ἔσταλμαι
S. 2	τέτριψαι	πέπλεξαι	πέπεισαι	ἔσταλσαι
S. 3	τέτριπται	πέπλεκται	πέπεισται	ἔσταλται
D. 2	τέτριφθον	πέπλεχθον	πέπεισθον	ἔσταλθον
D. 3	τέτριφθον	πέπλεχθον	πέπεισθον	ἔσταλθον
P. 1	τετρίμμεθα	πεπλέγμεθα	πεπείσμεθα	ἐστάλμεθα
P. 2	τέτριφθε	πέπλεχθε	πέπεισθε	ἔσταλθε
P. 3	τετριμμένοι εἰσί	πεπλεγμένοι εἰσί	πεπεισμένοι εἰσί	ἐσταλμένοι εἰσί

Perfect Subjunctive and Optative.

Mood	τρίβω	πλέκω	πείθω	στέλλω
Subj.	τετριμμένος ὦ	πεπλεγμένος ὦ	πεπεισμένος ὦ	ἐσταλμένος ὦ
Opt.	τετριμμένος εἴην	πεπλεγμένος εἴην	πεπεισμένος εἴην	ἐσταλμένος εἴην

Perfect Imperative.

Number and person	τρίβω	πλέκω	πείθω	στέλλω
S. 2	τέτριψο	πέπλεξο	πέπεισο	ἔσταλσο
S. 3	τετρίφθω	πεπλέχθω	πεπείσθω	ἐστάλθω
D. 2	τέτριφθον	πέπλεχθον	πέπεισθον	ἔσταλθον
D. 3	τετρίφθων	πεπλέχθων	πεπείσθων	ἐστάλθων
P. 2	τέτριφθε	πέπλεχθε	πέπεισθε	ἔσταλθε
P. 3	τετρίφθωσαν or τετρίφθων	πεπλέχθωσαν or πεπλέχθων	πεπείσθωσαν or πεπείσθων	ἐστάλθωσαν or ἐστάλθων

Perfect Infinitive and Participle.

Form	τρίβω	πλέκω	πείθω	στέλλω
Infinitive	τετρῖφθαι	πεπλέχθαι	πεπεῖσθαι	ἐστάλθαι
Participle	τετριμμένος	πεπλεγμένος	πεπεισμένος	ἐσταλμένος

Pluperfect Indicative.

Number and person	τρίβω	πλέκω	πείθω	στέλλω
S. 1	ἐτετρίμμην	ἐπεπλέγμην	ἐπεπείσμην	ἐστάλμην
S. 2	ἐτέτριψο	ἐπέπλεξο	ἐπέπεισο	ἔσταλσο
S. 3	ἐτέτριπτο	ἐπέπλεκτο	ἐπέπειστο	ἔσταλτο
D. 2	ἐτέτριφθον	ἐπέπλεχθον	ἐπέπεισθον	ἔσταλθον
D. 3	ἐτετρίφθην	ἐπεπλέχθην	ἐπεπείσθην	ἐστάλθην
P. 1	ἐτετρίμμεθα	ἐπεπλέγμεθα	ἐπεπείσμεθα	ἐστάλμεθα
P. 2	ἐτέτριφθε	ἐπέπλεχθε	ἐπέπεισθε	ἔσταλθε
P. 3	τετριμμένοι ἦσαν	πεπλεγμένοι ἦσαν	πεπεισμένοι ἦσαν	ἐσταλμένοι ἦσαν

The same tenses of (τελέω) τελῶ (stem τελε-, § 109, 2), finish, φαίνω (φαν-), show, ἀλλάσσω (ἀλλαγ-), exchange, and ἐλέγχω (ἐλεγχ-), convict, are thus inflected:—

Perfect Indicative.

Number and person	τελέω	φαίνω	ἀλλάσσω	ἐλέγχω
S. 1	τετέλεσμαι	πέφασμαι	ἤλλαγμαι	ἐλήλεγμαι
S. 2	τετέλεσαι	πέφανσαι	ἤλλαξαι	ἐλήλεγξαι
S. 3	τετέλεσται	πέφανται	ἤλλακται	ἐλήλεγκται
D. 2	τετέλεσθον	πέφανθον	ἤλλαχθον	ἐλήλεγχθον
D. 3	τετέλεσθον	πέφανθον	ἤλλαχθον	ἐλήλεγχθον
P. 1	τετελέσμεθα	πεφάσμεθα	ἠλλάγμεθα	ἐληλέγμεθα
P. 2	τετέλεσθε	πέφανθε	ἤλλαχθε	ἐλήλεγχθε
P. 3	τετελεσμένοι εἰσί	πεφασμένοι εἰσί	ἠλλαγμένοι εἰσί	ἐληλεγμένοι εἰσί

Perfect Subjunctive and Optative.

Mood	τελέω	φαίνω	ἀλλάσσω	ἐλέγχω
Subj.	τετελεσμένος ὦ	πεφασμένος ὦ	ἠλλαγμένος ὦ	ἐληλεγμένος ὦ
Opt.	τετελεσμένος εἴην	πεφασμένος εἴην	ἠλλαγμένος εἴην	ἐληλεγμένος εἴην

Perfect Imperative.

Number and person	τελέω	φαίνω	ἀλλάσσω	ἐλέγχω
S. 2	τετέλεσο	πέφανσο	ἤλλαξο	ἐλήλεγξο
S. 3	τετελέσθω	πεφάνθω	ἠλλάχθω	ἐληλέγχθω
D. 2	τετέλεσθον	πέφανθον	ἤλλαχθον	ἐλήλεγχθον
D. 3	τετελέσθων	πεφάνθων	ἠλλάχθων	ἐληλέγχθων
P. 2	τετέλεσθε	πέφανθε	ἤλλαχθε	ἐλήλεγχθε
P. 3	τετελέσθωσαν or τετελέσθων	πεφάνθωσαν or πεφάνθων	ἠλλάχθωσαν or ἠλλάχθων	ἐληλέγχθωσαν or ἐληλέγχθων

Perfect Infinitive and Participle

Form	τελέω	φαίνω	ἀλλάσσω	ἐλέγχω
Infinitive	τετελέσθαι	πεφάνθαι	ἠλλάχθαι	ἐληλέγχθαι
Participle	τετελεσμένος	πεφασμένος	ἠλλαγμένος	ἐληλεγμένος

Pluperfect Indicative

Number and person	τελέω	φαίνω	ἀλλάσσω	ἐλέγχω
S. 1	ἐτετελέσμην	ἐπεφάσμην	ἠλλάγμην	ἐληλέγμην
S. 2	ἐτετέλεσο	ἐπέφανσο	ἤλλαξο	ἐλήλεγξο
S. 3	ἐτετέλεστο	ἐπέφαντο	ἤλλακτο	ἐλήλεγκτο
D. 2	ἐτετέλεσθον	ἐπέφανθον	ἤλλαχθον	ἐλήλεγχθον
D. 3	ἐτετελέσθην	ἐπεφάνθην	ἠλλάχθην	ἐληλέγχθην
P. 1	ἐτετελέσμεθα	ἐπεφάσμεθα	ἠλλάγμεθα	ἐληλέγμεθα
P. 2	ἐτετέλεσθε	ἐπέφανθε	ἤλλαχθε	ἐλήλεγχθε
P. 3	τετελεσμένοι ἦσαν	πεφασμένοι ἦσαν	ἠλλαγμένοι ἦσαν	ἐληλεγμένοι ἦσαν

Note 1. The regular third person plural in these tenses (τέτριβ-νται, ἐπέπλεκ-ντο, &c. formed like λέλυ-νται, ἐλέλυ-ντο) could not be pronounced. The periphrastic form is necessary also when σ is added to a vowel stem in these tenses (§ 109, 2), as in τετέλεσ-μαι. On the other hand, when final ν of a stem is dropped in these tenses (§ 109, 6), the regular forms in νται and ντο are used; as κλίνω, κέκλι-μαι, κέκλινται (not κεκλιμένοι εἰσί).

Note 2. The euphonic changes in these tenses follow the principles stated in § 16, 1-4. Thus τέτριμ-μαι is for τετριβ-μαι (§ 16, 3); τέτριψαι for τετριβ-σαι (§ 16, 2); τέτριπ-ται for τετριβ-ται (§ 16, 1); τέτριφ-θον for τετριβ-σθον, τετριβ-θον (§ 16, 4 and 1). So πέπλεγ-μαι is for πεπλεκ-μαι (§ 16, 3); πέπλεχ-θον for πεπλεκ-σθον (§ 16, 4 and 1). Πέπεισ-μαι is for πεπειθ-μαι (§ 16, 3); πέπει-σαι for πεπειθ-σαι (§ 16, 2); πέπεισ-ται for πεπειθ-ται (§ 16, 1); πέπεισ-θον for πεπειθ-σθον (§ 16, 4 and 1). Ἔσταλ-θον is for ἐσταλ-σθον (§ 16, 4); ἔσταλ-θε for ἐσταλ-σθε.

In τετέλε-σ-μαι, σ is added to the stem before μ and τ (§ 109, 2), the stem remaining pure before σ; lingual stems change the lingual (τ, δ, θ) to σ before μ and τ (§ 16, 1 and 3) and before θ (for σθ, § 16, 4); these two classes of verbs therefore inflect these tenses alike, though on different principles. On the other hand, the σ before μ in πέφασμαι and ἐπεφάσμην is a substitute for ν of the stem (§ 16, 6, N. 4); which ν reappears before all other letters, causing the σ of σθ to be dropped in σθον, σθε, &c. (§ 16, 4). In the following comparison the distinction is shown by the hyphens: -

Vowel stem	Lingual stem	Stem in ν
τετέλε-σ-μαι	πέπεισ-μαι	πέφασ-μαι
τετέλε-σαι	πέπει-σαι	πέφαν-σαι
τετέλε-σ-ται	πέπεισ-ται	πέφαν-ται
τετέλε-σ-θε	πέπεισ-θε	πέφαν-θε

In ἤλλαγ-μαι no change was required (§ 16, 3); ἤλλα-ξαι is for ἤλλαγ-σαι (§ 16, 2); ἤλλακ-ται for ἤλλαγ-ται (§ 16, 1); ἤλλαχ-θον for ἤλλαγ-σθον (§ 16, 4 and 1), cf. πέπλεχ-θον (above). In ἐλήλεγ-μαι, γγμ (for γχμ, § 16, 3) drops one γ (§ 16, 3, Note); ἐλήλεγξαι and ἐλήλεγκ-ται are for ἐληλεγχ-σαι and ἐληλεγχ-ται (§ 16, 1, 2); ἐλήλεγχ-θε is for ἐληλεγχ-σθε (§ 16, 4); see also § 102.

Note 3. (a) All perfect-middle stems ending in a labial inflect these tenses like τέτριμ-μαι, &c.; as λείπω, λέλειμ-μαι; γράφω (γραφ-), write, γέγραμ-μαι (§ 16, 3); ῥίπτω (ῥιφ-), throw, ἔρριμ-μαι. But when final μπ of the stem is reduced to μ before μ (§ 16, 3, Note), the original π recurs before other consonants; as κάμπτω (καμπ-), bend, κέκαμ-μαι, κέκαμψαι, κέκαμπ-ται, κέκαμφ-θε; πέμπω (πεμπ-), send, πέπεμ-μαι, πέπεμψαι, πέπεμπ-ται, πέπεμφ-θε: compare with the latter πέπεμ-μαι from πέσσω (πεπ-), cook, inflected πέπεψαι, πέπεπ-ται, πέπεφ-θε, &c.

(b) All ending in a palatal inflect these tenses like πέπλεγ-μαι and ἤλλαγ-μαι; as πράσσω (πραγ-), do, πέπραγ-μαι; ταράσσω (ταραχ-), confuse, τετάραγ-μαι; φυλάσσω (φυλακ-), πεφύλαγ-μαι. But when γ before μ represents γγ, as in ἐλήλεγ-μαι from ἐλέγχω (end of N. 2), the second palatal of the stem recurs before other consonants.

(c) All ending in a lingual mute inflect these tenses like πέπεισ-μαι, &c.; as φράζω (φραδ-), tell, πέφρασ-μαι, πέφρα-σαι, πέφρασ-ται; ἐθίζω (ἐθιδ-), accustom, εἴθισ-μαι, εἴθι-σαι, εἴθισ-ται, εἴθισ-θε, εἰθίσ-θαι; pluf. εἰθίσ-μην, εἴθι-σο, εἴθισ-το; σπένδω (σπενδ-), pour, ἔσπεισ-μαι (§ 16, 6), for ἐσπενδ-μαι, ἐσπενσ-μαι (§ 16, 3), ἔσπει-σαι, ἔσπεισ-ται, ἔσπεισ-θε.

(d) Most ending in ν (those in αν- and υν- of verbs in αινω or υνω) are inflected like πέφασ-μαι, changing ν to σ before μ (§ 16, 6, N. 4), and retaining ν elsewhere; as ὑφαίνω (ὑφαν-), weave, ὕφασ-μαι, ὕφαν-σαι, ὕφαν-ται, ὕφαν-θε, ὑφάν-θαι; σημαίνω (σημαν-), show, σεσήμασ-μαι; μιαίνω (μιαν-), pollute, μεμίασ-μαι. Rarely such a ν becomes μ as in ὀξύν-ω, sharpen, ὤξυμ-μαι (later ὤξυσ-μαι); and even then the ν recurs before other consonants, as ὤξυν-σαι, ὤξυν-ται.

When final ν of a stem is dropped (§ 109, 6), as in κλίνω, bend, κέκλι-μαι, the stem becomes a vowel-stem, and is inflected like λέλυ-μαι.

(e) Those ending in λ or ρ are inflected like ἔσταλ-μαι; as ἀγγέλλω (ἀγγελ-), announce, ἤγγελ-μαι; αἴρω (ἀρ-), raise, ἦρ-μαι; ἐγείρω (ἐγερ-), rouse, ἐγήγερ-μαι; πείρω (περ-), pierce, πέπαρ-μαι (§ 109, 4); no change being made except the dropping of σ in σθ after λ or ρ (§ 16, 4), as in ἤγγελ-θε and ἐγηγέρ-θαι.

Verbs in αω, εω, and οω are contracted in the present and imperfect. These tenses of τιμάω (τιμα-), honor, φιλέω (φιλε-), love, and δηλόω (δηλο-), manifest, are thus inflected: -

ACTIVE.

Present Indicative

Number and person	τιμάω	Contracted	φιλέω	Contracted	δηλόω	Contracted
S. 1	τιμάω	τιμῶ	φιλέω	φιλῶ	δηλόω	δηλῶ
S. 2	τιμάεις	τιμᾷς	φιλέεις	φιλεῖς	δηλόεις	δηλοῖς
S. 3	τιμάει	τιμᾷ	φιλέει	φιλεῖ	δηλόει	δηλοῖ
D. 2	τιμάετον	τιμᾶτον	φιλέετον	φιλεῖτον	δηλόετον	δηλοῦτον
D. 3	τιμάετον	τιμᾶτον	φιλέετον	φιλεῖτον	δηλόετον	δηλοῦτον
P. 1	τιμάομεν	τιμῶμεν	φιλέομεν	φιλοῦμεν	δηλόομεν	δηλοῦμεν
P. 2	τιμάετε	τιμᾶτε	φιλέετε	φιλεῖτε	δηλόετε	δηλοῦτε
P. 3	τιμάουσι	τιμῶσι	φιλέουσι	φιλοῦσι	δηλόουσι	δηλοῦσι

Present Subjunctive

Number and person	τιμάω	Contracted	φιλέω	Contracted	δηλόω	Contracted
S. 1	τιμάω	τιμῶ	φιλέω	φιλῶ	δηλόω	δηλῶ
S. 2	τιμάῃς	τιμᾷς	φιλέῃς	φιλῇς	δηλόῃς	δηλοῖς
S. 3	τιμάῃ	τιμᾷ	φιλέῃ	φιλῇ	δηλόῃ	δηλοῖ
D. 2	τιμάητον	τιμᾶτον	φιλέητον	φιλῆτον	δηλόητον	δηλῶτον
D. 3	τιμάητον	τιμᾶτον	φιλέητον	φιλῆτον	δηλόητον	δηλῶτον
P. 1	τιμάωμεν	τιμῶμεν	φιλέωμεν	φιλῶμεν	δηλόωμεν	δηλῶμεν
P. 2	τιμάητε	τιμᾶτε	φιλέητε	φιλῆτε	δηλόητε	δηλῶτε
P. 3	τιμάωσι	τιμῶσι	φιλέωσι	φιλῶσι	δηλόωσι	δηλῶσι

Present Optative

Number and person	τιμάω	Contracted	φιλέω	Contracted	δηλόω	Contracted
S. 1	τιμάοιμι	τιμῷμι	φιλέοιμι	φιλοῖμι	δηλόοιμι	δηλοῖμι
S. 2	τιμάοις	τιμῷς	φιλέοις	φιλοῖς	δηλόοις	δηλοῖς
S. 3	τιμάοι	τιμῷ	φιλέοι	φιλοῖ	δηλόοι	δηλοῖ
D. 2	τιμάοιτον	τιμῷτον	φιλέοιτον	φιλοῖτον	δηλόοιτον	δηλοῖτον
D. 3	τιμαοίτην	τιμῴτην	φιλεοίτην	φιλοίτην	δηλοοίτην	δηλοίτην
P. 1	τιμάοιμεν	τιμῷμεν	φιλέοιμεν	φιλοῖμεν	δηλόοιμεν	δηλοῖμεν
P. 2	τιμάοιτε	τιμῷτε	φιλέοιτε	φιλοῖτε	δηλόοιτε	δηλοῖτε
P. 3	τιμάοιεν	τιμῷεν	φιλέοιεν	φιλοῖεν	δηλόοιεν	δηλοῖεν

The following alternative forms also occur:

Number and person	τιμάω	Contracted	φιλέω	Contracted	δηλόω	Contracted
S. 1	τιμαοίην	τιμῴην	φιλεοίην	φιλοίην	δηλοοίην	δηλοίην
S. 2	τιμαοίης	τιμῴης	φιλεοίης	φιλοίης	δηλοοίης	δηλοίης
S. 3	τιμαοίη	τιμῴη	φιλεοίη	φιλοίη	δηλοοίη	δηλοίη
D. 2	τιμαοίητον	τιμῴητον	φιλεοίητον	φιλοίητον	δηλοοίητον	δηλοίητον
D. 3	τιμαοιήτην	τιμῳήτην	φιλεοιήτην	φιλοιήτην	δηλοοιήτην	δηλοιήτην
P. 1	τιμαοίημεν	τιμῴημεν	φιλεοίημεν	φιλοίημεν	δηλοοίημεν	δηλοίημεν
P. 2	τιμαοίητε	τιμῴητε	φιλεοίητε	φιλοίητε	δηλοοίητε	δηλοίητε
P. 3	τιμαοίησαν	τιμῴησαν	φιλεοίησαν	φιλοίησαν	δηλοοίησαν	δηλοίησαν

Present Imperative

Number and person	τιμάω	Contracted	φιλέω	Contracted	δηλόω	Contracted
S. 2	τίμαε	τίμα	φίλεε	φίλει	δήλοε	δήλου
S. 3	τιμαέτω	τιμάτω	φιλεέτω	φιλείτω	δηλοέτω	δηλούτω
D. 2	τιμάετον	τιμᾶτον	φιλέετον	φιλεῖτον	δηλόετον	δηλοῦτον
D. 3	τιμαέτων	τιμάτων	φιλεέτων	φιλείτων	δηλοέτων	δηλούτων
P. 2	τιμάετε	τιμᾶτε	φιλέετε	φιλεῖτε	δηλόετε	δηλοῦτε
P. 3	τιμαέτωσαν or τιμαόντων	τιμάτωσαν or τιμώντων	φιλεέτωσαν or φιλεόντων	φιλείτωσαν or φιλούντων	δηλοέτωσαν or δηλοόντων	δηλούτωσαν or δηλούντων

Present Infinitive and Participle

Form	τιμάω	Contracted	φιλέω	Contracted	δηλόω	Contracted
Infinitive	τιμάεν	τιμᾶν	φιλέειν	φιλεῖν	δηλόειν	δηλοῦν
Participle (see § 69)	τιμάων	τιμῶν	φιλέων	φιλῶν	δηλόων	δηλῶν

Imperfect

Number and person	τιμάω	Contracted	φιλέω	Contracted	δηλόω	Contracted
S. 1	ἐτίμαον	ἐτίμων	ἐφίλεον	ἐφίλουν	ἐδήλοον	ἐδήλουν
S. 2	ἐτίμαες	ἐτίμας	ἐφίλεες	ἐφίλεις	ἐδήλοες	ἐδήλους
S. 3	ἐτίμαε	ἐτίμα	ἐφίλεε	ἐφίλει	ἐδήλοε	ἐδήλου
D. 2	ἐτιμάετον	ἐτιμᾶτον	ἐφιλέετον	ἐφιλεῖτον	ἐδηλόετον	ἐδηλοῦτον
D. 3	ἐτιμαέτην	ἐτιμάτην	ἐφιλεέτην	ἐφιλείτην	ἐδηλοέτην	ἐδηλούτην
P. 1	ἐτιμάομεν	ἐτιμῶμεν	ἐφιλέομεν	ἐφιλοῦμεν	ἐδηλόομεν	ἐδηλοῦμεν
P. 2	ἐτιμάετε	ἐτιμᾶτε	ἐφιλέετε	ἐφιλεῖτε	ἐδηλόετε	ἐδηλοῦτε
P. 3	ἐτίμαον	ἐτίμων	ἐφίλεον	ἐφίλουν	ἐδήλοον	ἐδήλουν

PASSIVE AND MIDDLE.

Present Indicative

Number and person	τιμάω	Contracted	φιλέω	Contracted	δηλόω	Contracted
S. 1	τιμάομαι	τιμῶμαι	φιλέομαι	φιλοῦμαι	δηλόομαι	δηλοῦμαι
S. 2	τιμάῃ, τιμάει	τιμᾷ	φιλέῃ, φιλέει	φιλῇ, φιλεῖ	δηλόῃ, δηλόει	δηλοῖ
S. 3	τιμάεται	τιμᾶται	φιλέεται	φιλεῖται	δηλόεται	δηλοῦται
D. 2	τιμάεσθον	τιμᾶσθον	φιλέεσθον	φιλεῖσθον	δηλόεσθον	δηλοῦσθον
D. 3	τιμάεσθον	τιμᾶσθον	φιλέεσθον	φιλεῖσθον	δηλόεσθον	δηλοῦσθον
P. 1	τιμαόμεθα	τιμώμεθα	φιλεόμεθα	φιλούμεθα	δηλοόμεθα	δηλούμεθα
P. 2	τιμάεσθε	τιμᾶσθε	φιλέεσθε	φιλεῖσθε	δηλόεσθε	δηλοῦσθε
P. 3	τιμάονται	τιμῶνται	φιλέονται	φιλοῦνται	δηλόονται	δηλοῦνται

Present Subjunctive

Number and person	τιμάω	Contracted	φιλέω	Contracted	δηλόω	Contracted
S. 1	τιμάωμαι	τιμῶμαι	φιλέωμαι	φιλῶμαι	δηλόωμαι	δηλῶμαι
S. 2	τιμάῃ	τιμᾷ	φιλέῃ	φιλῇ	δηλόῃ	δηλοῖ
S. 3	τιμάηται	τιμᾶται	φιλέηται	φιλῆται	δηλόηται	δηλῶται
D. 2	τιμάησθον	τιμᾶσθον	φιλέησθον	φιλῆσθον	δηλόησθον	δηλῶσθον
D. 3	τιμάησθον	τιμᾶσθον	φιλέησθον	φιλῆσθον	δηλόησθον	δηλῶσθον
P. 1	τιμαώμεθα	τιμώμεθα	φιλεώμεθα	φιλώμεθα	δηλοώμεθα	δηλώμεθα
P. 2	τιμάησθε	τιμᾶσθε	φιλέησθε	φιλῆσθε	δηλόησθε	δηλῶσθε
P. 3	τιμάωνται	τιμῶνται	φιλέωνται	φιλῶνται	δηλόωνται	δηλῶνται

Present Optative

Number and person	τιμάω	Contracted	φιλέω	Contracted	δηλόω	Contracted
S. 1	τιμαοίμην	τιμῴμην	φιλεοίμην	φιλοίμην	δηλοοίμην	δηλοίμην
S. 2	τιμάοιο	τιμῷο	φιλέοιο	φιλοῖο	δηλόοιο	δηλοῖο
S. 3	τιμάοιτο	τιμῷτο	φιλέοιτο	φιλοῖτο	δηλόοιτο	δηλοῖτο
D. 2	τιμάοισθον	τιμῷσθον	φιλέοισθον	φιλοῖσθον	δηλόοισθον	δηλοῖσθον
D. 3	τιμαοίσθην	τιμῴσθην	φιλεοίσθην	φιλοίσθην	δηλοοίσθην	δηλοίσθην
P. 1	τιμαοίμεθα	τιμῴμεθα	φιλεοίμεθα	φιλοίμεθα	δηλοοίμεθα	δηλοίμεθα
P. 2	τιμάοισθε	τιμῷσθε	φιλέοισθε	φιλοῖσθε	δηλόοισθε	δηλοῖσθε
P. 3	τιμάοιντο	τιμῷντο	φιλέοιντο	φιλοῖντο	δηλόοιντο	δηλοῖντο

Present Imperative

Number and person	τιμάω	Contracted	φιλέω	Contracted	δηλόω	Contracted
S. 2	τιμάου	τιμῶ	φιλέου	φιλοῦ	δηλόου	δηλοῦ
S. 3	τιμαέσθω	τιμάσθω	φιλεέσθω	φιλείσθω	δηλοέσθω	δηλούσθω
D. 2	τιμάεσθον	τιμᾶσθον	φιλέεσθον	φιλεῖσθον	δηλόεσθον	δηλοῦσθον
D. 3	τιμαέσθων	τιμάσθων	φιλεέσθων	φιλείσθων	δηλοέσθων	δηλούσθων
P. 2	τιμάεσθε	τιμᾶσθε	φιλέεσθε	φιλεῖσθε	δηλόεσθε	δηλοῦσθε
P. 3	τιμαέσθωσαν or τιμαέσθων	τιμάσθωσαν or τιμάσθων	φιλεέσθωσαν or φιλεέσθων	φιλείσθωσαν or φιλείσθων	δηλοέσθωσαν or δηλοέσθων	δηλούσθωσαν or δηλούσθων

Present Infinitive and Participle

Form	τιμάω	Contracted	φιλέω	Contracted	δηλόω	Contracted
Infinitive	τιμάεσθαι	τιμᾶσθαι	φιλέεσθαι	φιλεῖσθαι	δηλόεσθαι	δηλοῦσθαι
Participle	τιμαόμενος	τιμώμενος	φιλεόμενος	φιλούμενος	δηλοόμενος	δηλούμενος

Imperfect

Number and person	τιμάω	Contracted	φιλέω	Contracted	δηλόω	Contracted
S. 1	ἐτιμαόμην	ἐτιμώμην	ἐφιλεόμην	ἐφιλούμην	ἐδηλοόμην	ἐδηλούμην
S. 2	ἐτιμάου	ἐτιμῶ	ἐφιλέου	ἐφιλοῦ	ἐδηλόου	ἐδηλοῦ
S. 3	ἐτιμάετο	ἐτιμᾶτο	ἐφιλέετο	ἐφιλεῖτο	ἐδηλόετο	ἐδηλοῦτο
D. 2	ἐτιμάεσθον	ἐτιμᾶσθον	ἐφιλέεσθον	ἐφιλεῖσθον	ἐδηλόεσθον	ἐδηλοῦσθον
D. 3	ἐτιμαέσθην	ἐτιμάσθην	ἐφιλεέσθην	ἐφιλείσθην	ἐδηλοέσθην	ἐδηλούσθην
P. 1	ἐτιμαόμεθα	ἐτιμώμεθα	ἐφιλεόμεθα	ἐφιλούμεθα	ἐδηλοόμεθα	ἐδηλούμεθα
P. 2	ἐτιμάεσθε	ἐτιμᾶσθε	ἐφιλέεσθε	ἐφιλεῖσθε	ἐδηλόεσθε	ἐδηλοῦσθε
P. 3	ἐτιμάοντο	ἐτιμῶντο	ἐφιλέοντο	ἐφιλοῦντο	ἐδηλόοντο	ἐδηλοῦντο

Remark. The uncontracted forms of these tenses are never used in Attic Greek. Those of verbs in αω sometimes occur in Homer; those of verbs in εω are common in Homer and Herodotus; but those of verbs in οω are never used. For dialectic forms of these verbs, see § 120.

Note 1. Dissyllabic verbs in εω contract only εε and εει. Thus πλέω, sail, has pres. πλέω, πλεῖς, πλεῖ, πλεῖτον, πλέομεν, πλεῖτε, πλέουσι; imperf. ἔπλεον, ἔπλεις, ἔπλει, &c.; infin. πλεῖν; partic. πλέων. Δέω, bind, is the only exception, and is contracted in most forms; as δοῦσι, δοῦμαι, δοῦνται, ἔδουν, partic. δῶν, δοῦν. Δέω, to want, is contracted like πλέω.

Note 2. A few verbs in αω have η for α in the contracted forms; as διψάω, διψῶ, thirst, διψῇς, διψῇ, διψῆτε; imperf. ἐδίψων, ἐδίψης, ἐδίψη; infin. διψῆν. So ζάω, live, κνάω, scrape, πεινάω, hunger, σμάω, smear, χράω, give oracles, with χράομαι, and ψάω, rub.

Note 3. Ῥιγόω, shiver, has infinitive ῥιγῶν (with ῥιγοῦν), and other similar forms in ω. Ἱδρόω, sweat, has ἱδρῶσι, ἱδρῴη, ἱδρῶντι, &c.

Note 4. The third person singular of the imperfect active does not take ν movable in the contracted form; thus ἐφίλεε or ἐφίλεεν gives ἐφίλει (never ἐφίλειν). Except ἐχρῆν or χρῆν (for ἔχραεν, see Note 2), and a very few poetic forms.

Note 5. The present infinitive active of verbs in αω and οω (in ᾶν and οῦν, not ᾷν and οῖν) is probably contracted from forms in αεν and οεν. The infinitive in εν is Doric (§ 119, 14, c). See § 9, 4, N. 2.

Note 6. The optative active in οιησαν is very rare, and perhaps was never used except (contracted) in verbs in εω. (See § 115, 4.)

In the secondary tenses of the indicative, and in the perfect and future perfect of all the moods and the participle, the stem of the verb receives an augment (i.e. increase) at the beginning.

There are three kinds of augment, syllabic augment, temporal augment, and reduplication.

(a) The syllabic augment prefixes ε to verbs beginning with a consonant; as λύω, ἔλυον.

(b) The temporal augment lengthens the first syllable of verbs beginning with a vowel or a diphthong; as ἄγω, lead, ἦγον; οἰκέω, οἰκῶ, dwell, ᾤκησα.

(c) The reduplication prefixes the initial consonant followed by ε in forming the perfect stem of verbs beginning with a consonant; as λύω, λέ-λυκα; γράφω, write, γέ-γραφα. For Attic reduplication, see § 102.

Remark. There is an important distinction between the augment of the imperfect and aorist, which does not belong to the tense stem and never appears except in the indicative, and the reduplication or other augment of the perfect and future perfect, which belongs to the perfect stem, and is therefore retained in all the moods and the participle.

The imperfect and aorist indicative of verbs beginning with a consonant have the syllabic augment ε. E.g. Λύω, ἔλυον, ἔλυσα, ἐλυόμην, ἐλυσάμην, ἐλύθην; γράφω, write, ἔγραφον, ἔγραψα, ἐγράφην; ῥίπτω, throw, ἔρριπτον, ἐρρίφην (for ρρ see § 15, 2).

For the pluperfect of these verbs, see § 101, 4.

The imperfect and aorist indicative of verbs beginning with a short vowel have the temporal augment, which lengthens the initial vowel; ᾰ and ε become η, and ῐ, ο, ῠ become ῑ, ω, ῡ. E.g. Ἄγω, lead, ἦγον, ἤχθην; ἐλαύνω, drive, ἤλαυνον; ἱκετεύω (ῐ), implore, ἱκέτευον (ῐ), ἱκέτευσα (ῑ); ὀνειδίζω, reproach, ὠνείδιζον; ὑβρίζω (ῠ), insult, ὑβρίσθην (ῡ); ἀκολουθέω, accompany, ἠκολούθησα; ὀρθόω, erect, ὤρθωσα.

For the augment of verbs beginning with a diphthong, see § 103.

Note. 1. If the initial vowel is already long, no change takes place in it, except that ᾱ generally becomes η by augment; as ἀθλέω (ἀθ- contr. from ἀεθ-), struggle, ἤθλησα. Both ᾱ and η are found in ἀναλίσκω and ἀναλόω; see also ἀΐω (poetic), hear.

Note. 2. Βούλομαι, wish, δύναμαι, be able, and μέλλω, intend, often add the temporal augment to the syllabic; as ἐβουλόμην or ἠβουλόμην, ἐβουλήθην or ἠβουλήθην; ἐδυνάμην or ἠδυνάμην, ἐδυνήθην or ἠδυνήθην; ἔμελλον or ἤμελλον.

Note. 3. The second aorist active and middle in all the moods and the participle sometimes has a reduplication in Homer; as πέφραδον from φράζω, tell; πέπιθον from πείθω (πιθ-), persuade; τεταρπόμην (§ 109, 4, N. 1) from τέρπω, delight; κεκλόμην and κεκλόμενος (§ 109, 7, b) from κέλομαι, command; ἤραρον from ἀραρίσκω (ἀρ-), join; ὦρορον from ὄρνυμι (ὀρ-), rouse; πεπαλών (partic.) from πάλλω (παλ-), shake; κεκάμω (subj.) from κάμνω (καμ-), so λελάχω from λαγχάνω; πεφιδέσθαι, inf. from φείδομαι (φιδ-), spare, so λελαθέσθαι, λελαβέσθαι.

In the indicative a syllabic augment may be prefixed to the reduplication; as ἐκεκλόμην, ἔπεφνον (from φεν-), ἐπέφραδον.

Note. 4. Ἄγω, lead, has a second aorist with Attic reduplication (§ 102), ἤγαγον (ἀγ-αγ-), which adds the temporal augment in the indicative, subj. ἀγάγω, opt. ἀγάγοιμι, inf. ἀγαγεῖν, part. ἀγαγών; mid. ἠγαγόμην, ἀγάγωμαι, &c., - all in Attic prose. See also the aorists ἤνεγκα and ἤνεγκον (from stem ἐνεκ-, ἐν-ενεκ-, ἐνεγκ-) of φέρω; ἄλαλκον (for ἀλ-αλεκ-ον) of ἀλέξω, ward off; and ἐνένιπον of ἐνίπτω (ἐνιπ-), chide.

Note. 5. In Homer a liquid (especially λ) may be doubled like ρ (§ 15, 2), after the augment ε; as ἔλλαχον for ἔλαχον. So sometimes σ; as ἐσσείοντο from σείω.

Most verbs beginning with a consonant augment the perfect and future perfect in all their forms by prefixing that consonant followed by ε. This is called reduplication. E.g. Λύω, λέ-λυκα, λέ-λυμαι, λε-λυκέναι, λε-λυκώς, λε-λυμένος; γράφω, γέ-γραφα, γε-γράφθαι. So θύω, sacrifice, τέ-θυκα (§ 17, 2); φαίνω (φαν-), show, πέ-φασμαι, πε-φάνθαι; χαίνω, gape, κέ-χηνα.

Note. Five verbs have εἰ as augment in the perfect instead of the reduplication: λαγχάνω (λαχ-), obtain by lot, εἴληχα, εἴληγμαι; λαμβάνω (λαβ-), take, εἴληφα, εἴλημμαι (poet. λέλημμαι); λέγω, collect, in compos., -είλοχα, -είλεγμαι with -λέλεγμαι (δια-λέγομαι, discuss, has διείλεγμαι); μείρομαι (μερ-), obtain part, εἵμαρται, it is fated; stem (ῥε-), εἴρηκα, have said, εἴρημαι, fut. pf. εἰρήσομαι (see εἶπον). See also ἔθω.

An irregular reduplication appears in Homeric δείδοικα and δείδια, from δείδω, fear.

Verbs beginning with two consonants (except a mute and a liquid), with a double consonant (ζ, ξ, ψ), or with ρ have the simple syllabic augment ε in all forms of the perfect and future perfect. E.g. Στέλλω, send, ἔσταλκα; ζητέω, seek, ἐζήτηκα; ψεύδω, lie, ἔψευσμαι, ἐψευσμένος; ῥίπτω, throw, ἔρριμμαι, ἐρρίφθαι (for ρρ see § 15, 2).

Note. 1. Verbs beginning with γν, and some others beginning with a mute and a liquid, take ε instead of the reduplication; as γνωρίζω, recognize, ἐγνώρικα; γιγνώσκω (γνω-), know, ἔγνωκα; but κλείω, shut, κέκλεικα (regularly).

Note. 2. Μιμνήσκω (μνα-), remind, has μέμνημαι (memini), remember, and κτάομαι, acquire, has both κέκτημαι and ἔκτημαι, possess. See also Homer. pf. pass. of ῥίπτω and ῥυπόω.

Verbs beginning with a short vowel have the temporal augment in all forms of the perfect and future perfect. E.g. Ἄγω, lead, ἦχα, ἦγμαι, ἠγμένος; ἀκολουθέω, follow, ἠκολούθηκα, ἠκολουθηκέναι; ὀρθόω, erect, ὤρθωμαι; ὁρίζω, bound, ὥρικα, ὥρισμαι; ἀτιμόω, dishonor, ἠτίμωκα, ἠτίμωμαι, fut. pf. ἠτιμώσομαι; the fut. pf. is very rare in verbs which have the temporal augment.

When the perfect has the reduplication, the pluperfect generally prefixes to this the syllabic augment ε. But when the perfect has the syllabic augment ε (or ει) or the temporal augment, the pluperfect and the perfect are augmented alike. E.g. Λύω, λέλυκα, ἐλελύκειν, λέλυμαι, ἐλελύμην; στέλλω, ἔσταλκα, ἐστάλκειν, ἔσταλμαι, ἐστάλμην; λαμβάνω, εἴληφα, εἰλήφειν; ἀγγέλλω, announce, ἤγγελκα, ἠγγέλκειν, ἤγγελμαι, ἠγγέλμην.

Note. The reduplicated pluperfect sometimes omits the additional syllabic augment; as πεπόνθεσαν, πεπτώκεσαν.

Verbs beginning with a diphthong take the temporal augment on the first vowel of the diphthong, αι or ᾳ becoming ῃ, οι becoming ῳ. E.g. Αἰτέω, ask, ᾔτησα; οἰκέω, dwell, ᾤκησα, ᾠκημένος; αὐξάνω, increase, ηὔξησα, ηὔξημαι, ηὐξήθην; ᾄδω, sing, ᾖδον.

Note. Ου is never augmented. Ει and ευ are generally without augment; but MSS. and editors differ in regard to many forms, as εἴκασα or ᾔκασα (εἰκάζω, liken), εὗδον or ηὗδον (εὕδω, sleep), εὕρηκα and εὑρέθην or ηὕρηκα and ηὑρέθην (εὑρίσκω, find), εὐξάμην or ηὐξάμην (εὔχομαι, pray). Editions vary also in the augment of αὐαίνω, dry, and of some verbs beginning with οι, as οἰακοστροφέω, steer.

Some verbs beginning with a, e, or o augment the perfect and pluperfect by prefixing their first two letters to the common temporal augment. This is called the Attic reduplication. E.g. Ἀρόω, plough, ἀρ-ήρομαι; ἐμέω, vomit, ἐμήμεκα; ἐλέγχω, prove, ἐλήλεγμαι, ἐληλέγμην; ἐλαύνω (ἐλα-), drive, ἐλήλακα, ἐλήλαμαι; ἀκούω, hear, ἀκήκοα (§ 110, IV. d, N. 1).

Other verbs which have the Attic reduplication are ἀγείρω, ἀλείφω, ἀλέω, ἐγείρω, ἐρείδω, ἔρχομαι, ἐσθίω, ὄλλυμι, ὄμνυμι, ὀρύττω, φέρω. See also, for Ionic or poetic forms, αἱρέω, ἀλάομαι, ἀλυκτέω, ἀραρίσκω, ἐρείπω, ἔχω, ἠμύω, (ὀδυ-) ὀδώδυσμαι, ὄζω, ὁράω (ὄπωπα), ὀρέγω, ὄρνυμι.

The Attic reduplication (so called by the Greek grammarians) is not peculiarly Attic, and is found in Homer.

Note. 1. Ἐγείρω (ἐγερ-), rouse, has 2 perf. ἐγρ-ήγορα (for ἐγ-ηγορ-α, cf. § 109, 3), but ἐγ-ήγερμαι. For the Attic reduplication in ἤγαγον, 2 aor. of ἄγω, in ἤνεγκα and ἤνεγκον of φέρω, and in Homeric ἄλαλκον of ἀλέξω, see § 100, 2, N. 4.

Note. 2. The pluperfect rarely takes an augment in addition to the Attic reduplication. But ἀκούω, hear, ἀκήκοα, generally has ἤκηκόειν in Attic; and ἀπ-ωλώλει (of ἀπ-όλλυμι, ἀπ-όλωλα), ὠμωμόκει (of ὄμνυμι, ὀμώμοκα), and δι-ωρώρυκτο (of δι-ορύσσω, δι-ορώρυγμαι) occur in Attic prose. See Homeric pluperfects of ἐλαύνω and ἐρείδω.

Some verbs beginning with a vowel take the syllabic augment, as if they began with a consonant. When ε follows the augment, εε is contracted into ει. E.g. ὠθέω (ὠθ-), push, ἔωσα, ἔωσμαι, ἐώσθην; ἁλίσκομαι, be captured, ἑάλωκα, 2 aor. ἑάλων (or ἥλων); ἄγνυμι (ἀγ-), break, ἔαξα, 2 pf. ἔαγα; ἔρδω, do, Ionic, 2 pf. ἔοργα; ὠνέομαι, buy, ἐωνούμην, &c.; ἐθίζω, accustom, εἴθισα, εἴθικα (from ἐεθ-); ἐάω, permit, εἴασα, εἴακα.

These verbs are, further, ἑλίσσω, ἕλκω, ἕπω, ἐργάζομαι, ἕρπω or ἑρπύζω, ἑστιάω, ἔχω, ἵημι (ἑ-), with the aorists εἶδον and εἷλον (αἱρέω), the perfects εἴωθα (ϝεθ-, ὠθ- for ϝεωθ-) and ἔοικα (ϝικ-), and plpf. εἱστήκειν (for ἑεστ-) of ἵστημι. See also Ionic and poetic forms under ἁνδάνω, ἅπτω, εἴδομαι, εἴλω, εἶπον, εἴρω, ἔλπω, ἕννυμι, ἵζω, and ἕζομαι.

Note 1. Ὁράω, see, and ἀν-οίγω, open, generally take the temporal augment after the syllabic; as ἑώρων, ἑώρακα (or ἑόρακα), ἑώραμαι; ἀν-έῳγον, ἀν-έῳξα (rarely ἤνοιγον, ἤνοιξα, § 105, N. 3). Homer has ἑήνδανον from ἁνδάνω, please: ἐῳνοχόει imp. of οἰνοχοέω, pour wine; and 2 plpf. ἐώλπει and ἐώργει from ἔλπω and ἔρδω. Ἑορτάζω, keep holiday (Hdt. ὁρτάζω) has Attic imp. ἑώρταζον.

Note 2. This form of augment is explained on the supposition that these verbs originally began with the consonant ϝ or some other consonant, which was afterwards dropped: thus εἶδον, saw, is for ἔϝιδον (cf. Latin vid-i); ἔοργα is for ϝέϝοργα, from stem ϝεργ- (§ 110, IV. d), cf. Eng. work (German Werk); and ἕρπω, creep, is for σ-ερπω (cf. Latin serpo).

In compound verbs, the augment follows the preposition. Prepositions (except περί and πρό) drop a final vowel before the augment ε. E.g. Προσ-γράφω, προσ-έγραφον, προσ-γέγραφα; εἰσ-άγω, εἰσ-ῆγον (§ 26, N. 1); ἐκ-βάλλω, ἐξ-έβαλλον (§ 13, 2); συλ-λέγω, συν-έλεγον; συμ-πλέκω, συν-έπλεκον (§ 16, 5); συγ-χέω, συν-έχεον, συγ-κέχυκα; συσκευάζω, συν-εσκεύαζον (§ 16, 6, N. 3); ἀπο-βάλλω, ἀπ-έβαλλον; — but περι-έβαλλον and προ-έλεγον. See § 131, 7.

Note 1. Πρό may be contracted with the augment; as προὔλεγον and προὔβαινον, for προέλεγον and προέβαινον.

Note 2. Some verbs not themselves compounds, but derived from compounds, are augmented after the preposition; as ὑποπτεύω (from ὕποπτος), suspect, ὑπώπτευον, as if the verb were from ὑπό and ὀπτεύω; ἀπολογέομαι, defend one's self, ἀπ-ελογησάμην; see also ἐκκλησιάζω. Παρανομέω, transgress law, παρηνόμουν, &c. is very irregular. Κατηγορέω (from κατήγορος), accuse, has κατηγόρουν (not ἐκατηγόρουν). See διαιτάω and διακονέω in the Catalogue of Verbs.

Note 3. A few verbs take the augment before the preposition, and others have both augments; as καθέζομαι, sit, ἐκαθέζετο; καθίζω, ἐκάθιζον; καθεύδω, sleep, ἐκάθευδον and καθηῦδον (Ep. καθεῦδον); ἀνέχω, ἠνειχόμην, ἠνεσχόμην (or ἠνσχόμην). See ἀφίημι, ἀμφιέννυμι, ἀμφιγνοέω, ἀμπίσχομαι, ἐνοχλέω, and ἀμφισβητέω, dispute, ἠμφισβήτουν and ἠμφεσβήτουν (as if the last part were -σβητέω).

Indirect compounds of δυσ-, ill, and occasionally those of εὖ, well, are augmented after the adverb, if the following part begins with a vowel. E.g. Δυσαρεστέω, be displeased, δυσηρέστουν; εὐεργετέω, do good, εὐηργέτηκα (or εὐεργ-).

Note. In other cases, compounds of δυσ- are augmented at the beginning, and those of εὖ generally omit the augment.

Other indirect compounds are augmented at the beginning. See, however, ὁδοποιέω.

In the imperfect and aorist, the temporal augment is often omitted by Herodotus; as in ἀμείβετο and ἀμείψατο (for ἠμείβετο and ἠμείψατο); and both temporal and syllabic augment by the Epic and Lyric poets, as in ὁμίλεον, ἔχον, δῶκε (for ὡμίλεον, εἶχον, ἔδωκε).

Note. The reduplication or augment of the perfect stem is very rarely omitted. But Homer has δέχαται for δεδέχαται, from δέχομαι, receive; and Herodotus occasionally omits the temporal augment, as in καταρρώδηκας (for κατ-ηρρ-), and he makes ἐπαλιλλόγητο as plpf. of παλιλλογέω, repeat.

The Attic poets sometimes omit the augment in (lyric) choral passages, seldom in the dialogue of the drama. In Attic prose we have χρῆν for ἐχρῆν (impf. of χρή), must.

§ 107.

That we may know to what present any verbal form is to be referred, we must understand the relations which exist in different classes of verbs between the present stem and the simple stem (§ 92, 2). When these are not identical (as they are in λύω), the present stem is generally an enlarged form of the simple stem; as in κόπτ-ω (κοπ-), strike, μανθάν-ω (μαθ-), learn, δοκέ-ω (δοκ-), believe. In a few very irregular verbs, however, there is no connection to be seen between the present stem and the stem or stems which are in use in other tenses; as in φέρω (φερ-), bear, fut. οἴσω (οἰ-), aor. ἤνεγκα (ἐνεγκ-).

§ 108.

Verbs in ω are divided into eight classes with reference to the formation of the present stem from the simple stem.

I. First Class. (Stem unchanged.) Here the present is formed directly from the single stem of the verb; as in λύ-ω, loose, λέγ-ω, say, πλέκ-ω, weave, ἄγ-ω, lead, γράφ-ω, write.

Note. The pure verbs of this class which irregularly retain a short vowel in certain tenses are given in § 109, 1, N. 2; those which insert σ in certain tenses, in § 109, 2; and the verbs which add ε to the stem in some or all tenses not of the present system (as βούλομαι), in § 109, 8. These and other verbs of this class which are peculiar in their inflection will be found in the Catalogue of Verbs.

II. Second Class. (Lengthened Stems.)

This includes all verbs with mute simple stems which form the present stem by lengthening a short vowel, ᾰ to η, ῐ to ει (sometimes to ῑ), ῠ to ευ (sometimes to ῡ); as τήκ-ω (τᾰκ-), melt, λείπ-ω (λῐπ-), leave, φεύγ-ω (φῠγ-), flee, τρῑ́β-ω (τρῐβ-), rub, ψῡ́χ-ω (ψῠχ-), cool.

Here belong, further, κήδω (κᾰδ-), λήθω (λᾰθ-), σήπω (σᾰπ-), ἀλείφω (ἀλῐφ-), ἐρείπω (ἐρῐπ-), πείθω (πῐθ-), στείβω (στῐβ-), στείχω (στῐχ-), φείδομαι (φῐδ-), θλίβω (θλῐβ-), πνίγω (πνῐγ-), πυνθάνομαι (πῠθ-), τεύχω (τῠχ-), τύφω (τῠφ-), φρύγω (φρῠγ-); with Ionic or poetic ἐρείκω (ἐρῐκ-), ἐρεύγομαι (ἐρῠγ-), κεύθω (κῠθ-), τμήγω (τμᾰγ-), and (θᾰπ- or τᾰφ-) stem of τέθηπα and ἔταφον; see also εἴκω (ἰκ-). Τρώγω (τρᾰγ-) irregularly lengthens ᾰ to ω. See also § 108, V. Note 1 (b).

Six verbs in εω with stems in ῠ belong by formation to this class. These originally lengthened ῠ to ευ, which became εϝ (§ 1, N. 2) before a vowel, and finally dropped ϝ and left ε; as πλῠ-, πλευ-, πλεϝ-ω, πλέ-ω, sail. These verbs are θέω (θῠ-), run, νέω (νῠ-), swim, πλέω (πλῠ-), sail, πνέω (πνῠ-), breathe, ῥέω (ῥῠ-), flow, χέω (χῠ-), pour. The poetic σεύω (σῠ-), urge, has this formation, with ευ retained.

Note. Verbs of the second class have the lengthened stem, as τηκ- in τήκω, νευ- in (νεϝω) νέω, in all tenses except in the second perfect, second aorist, and second passive tense systems; as φεύγω, φεύξομαι, ἔφυγον; τήκω, τήξω, τέτηκα, ἐτάκην; ῥέω (for ῥεϝω), ῥεύσομαι, ἐρρύην. Exceptions are the perfect middle of ἀλείφω, ἐρείκω, ἐρείπω, στείβω, τεύχω, the perfect active of ῥέω and τρίβω, and most tenses of χέω and σεύω. The lengthened stem of the second perfect (as in τέτηκα, λέλοιπα, &c.) is explained on the general principle, § 109, 3.

III. Third Class. (Verbs in πτω, or T Class.) Simple labial (π, β, φ) stems generally add τ, and thus form the present in πτω (§ 16, 1); as κόπτ-ω (κοπ-), cut, βλάπτ-ω (βλαβ-), hurt, ῥίπτ-ω (ῥιφ-), throw.

Here the exact form of the simple stem cannot be determined from the present. Thus, in the examples above given, the stem is to be found in the second aorists ἐκόπην, ἐβλάβην, and ἐρρίφην; and in καλύπτω (καλυβ-), cover, it is seen in καλύβ-η, hut.

The verbs of this class are ἅπτ-ω (ἁφ-), βάπτ-ω (βαφ-), βλάπτ-ω (βλαβ-), θάπτ-ω (ταφ-), θρύπτ-ω (τρυφ-), καλύπτ-ω (καλυβ-), κάμπτ-ω (καμπ-), κλέπτ-ω (κλεπ-), κόπτ-ω (κοπ-), κρύπτ-ω (κρυβ- or κρυφ-), κύπτ-ω (κυφ-), ῥάπτ-ω (ῥαφ-), ῥίπτ-ω (ῥιφ-), σκάπτ-ω (σκαφ-), σκέπτομαι (σκεπ-), σκήπτω (σκηπ-), σκώπτω (σκωπ-), τύπτω (τυπ-), with Homeric and poetic γνάμπτω (γναμπ-), ἐνίπτω (ἐνιπ-), and μάρπτω (μαρπ-). Τίκτω (τεκ-), probably for τεκτ-ω, belongs here.

IV. Fourth Class. (Iota Class.) This includes all verbs in which occur any of the euphonic changes arising from the addition of ι to the simple stem in forming the present stem (§ 16, 7). There are three divisions: —

(Verbs in σσω or ττω and ζω.) (a) Presents in σσω (ττω) generally come from palatal stems, κ, γ, or χ with ι becoming σσ (ττ). These have futures in ξω; as πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), do, fut. πράξω; μαλάσσω (μαλᾰκ-, seen in μαλακός), soften, fut. μαλάξω; ταράσσω (ταρᾰχ-, seen in ταραχή), confuse, fut. ταράξω. See § 16, 7 (a).

See also κηρύσσω (κηρῡκ-), φυλάσσω (φυλᾰκ-), πτήσσω (πτηκ-), φρίσσω (φρῑκ-), ἀλλάσσω (ἀλλᾰγ-), μάσσω (μᾰγ-), τάσσω (τᾰγ-), πλήσσω (πληγ-), ὀρύσσω (ὀρῠχ-), in the Catalogue, and many other verbs in σσω. [1]

[1]: The lists of verbs of the fourth class are not complete, while those of the other classes which are given contain all the verbs in common use.

Note. A few presents in σσω (ττω) come from lingual stems, and have futures in σω; as ἐρέσσω, row (from stem ἐρετ-, seen in ἐρέτης, rower), aor. ἤρεσα (§ 16, 2). So also ἁρμόττω (fut. ἁρμόσω), βλίττω (μελιτ-, § 14, N. 1), λίσσομαι (λιτ-), πάσσω, πλάσσω, πτίσσω, with ἀφάσσω (Hdt.), and poetic ἱμάσσω, κορύσσω (κορυθ-), νίσσομαι. One has a labial stem, πέσσω (πεπ-), cook, fut. πέψω.

(b) Presents in ζω may come from stems in δ and have futures in σω, or from stems in γ (or γγ) and have futures in ξω; as φράζω (φρᾰδ-), say, fut. φράσω, 2 aor. (Epic) πέφραδον; κομίζω (κομῐδ-, seen in κομιδή), carry, fut. κομίσω; ῥέζω (ῥεγ-), do, poetic, fut. ῥέξω; κλάζω (κλαγγ-, compare clango), scream, fut. κλάγξω. See § 16, 7 (b).

See also ἁρπάζω (ἁρπᾰδ-), θαυμάζω (θαυμᾰδ-), ἐρίζω (ἐρῐδ-), ἵζω (ἱδ-), νομίζω (νομῐδ-), ὄζω (ὀδ-), πελάζω (πελᾰδ-), σώζω (σωδ-), χάζω (χᾰδ-); κράζω (κρᾱγ-), σφάζω (σφᾰγ-), μύζω (μυγ-), grumble; σαλπίζω (σαλπιγγ-); with Ionic or poetic βαστάζω (βαστᾰδ-), κρίζω (κρῑγ-), τρίζω (τριγ-), πλάζω (πλαγγ-); &c.

Note 1. Some verbs in ζω have stems both in δ and γ; as παίζω (παιδ-, παιγ-), play, fut. παιξοῦμαι (§ 110, II. N. 2), aor. ἔπαισα. See also poetic forms of ἁρπάζω and νάσσω.

Note 2. Νίζω (νιβ-), wash, has a labial stem.

(Verbs with lengthened Liquid Stems.) (c) Presents in λλω are formed from simple stems in λ with added ι, λι becoming λλ; as στέλλω, send, for στελ-ι-ω; ἀγγέλλω, announce, for ἀγγελ-ι-ω; σφάλλω, trip up, for σφαλ-ι-ω. See § 16, 7 (c). See also βάλλω (βᾰλ-), θάλλω (θᾰλ-), ὀκέλλω (ὀκελ-), πάλλω (πᾰλ-), σκέλλω (σκελ-), τέλλω (τελ-), ἅλλομαι (ἁλ-), &c.

(d) Presents in αινω, εινω, αιρω, and ειρω are formed from simple stems in ᾰν, εν, ᾰρ, and ερ, with added ι, which, after metathesis, is contracted with the preceding vowel; as φαίνω, show, for φαν-ι-ω, fut. φᾰνῶ; κτείνω, kill, for κτεν-ι-ω; αἴρω, raise, for ἀρ-ι-ω; σπείρω, sow, for σπερ-ι-ω. See § 16, 7 (d).

Those in ῑνω, ῡνω, and ῡρω may be formed in the same way from simple stems in ῐν, ῠν, and ῠρ, ῐι becoming ῑ, and ῠι becoming ῡ; as κρίνω, judge, for κρῐν-ι-ω, fut. κρῐνῶ; ἀμύνω, ward off, for ἀμῠν-ι-ω, fut. ἀμῠνῶ; σύρω, draw, for σῠρ-ι-ω.

See also εὐφραίνω (εὐφρᾰν-), κερδαίνω (κερδᾰν-), μιαίνω (μιᾰν-), ξηραίνω (ξηρᾰν-), σημαίνω (σημᾰν-), ὑφαίνω (ὑφᾰν-), τείνω (τεν-), poetic θείνω (θεν-), γείνομαι (γεν-), σαίρω (σᾰρ-), χαίρω (χᾰρ-), ἐγείρω (ἐγερ-), κείρω (κερ-), φθείρω (φθερ-), κλίνω (κλῐν-), πλύνω (πλῠν-), ὀξύνω (ὀξῠν-), αἰσχύνω (αἰσχῠν-), ὀλοφύρομαι (ὀλοφῠρ-), &c.

Note 1. Ὀφείλω (ὀφελ-), be obliged, owe, follows the analogy of stems in εν, to avoid confusion with ὀφέλλω (ὀφελ-), increase; but in Homer it has a regular form ὀφέλλω. Homer has εἴλομαι (ἑλ-), press.

Note 2. Verbs of this division (2) regularly have futures and aorists active and middle of the liquid form (§ 110, II. 2). For exceptions (in poetry), see § 110, II. N. 4.

Note 3. Many verbs with liquid stems do not belong to this class; as δέμω and δέρω in Class 1. For βαίνω, &c., see V. Note 1.

(Lengthened Vowel Stems.) (e) Here belong two verbs in αιω with stems in αυ, καίω, burn, and κλαίω, weep (Attic also κάω and κλάω). These stems καυ- and κλαυ- (seen in καύσω and κλαύσομαι) became καϝι- and κλαϝι-, whence και- and κλαι- (see II. 2).

Note. The Epic forms other present stems in this way; so δαίω (δα-), burn, μαίομαι (μα-), seek, ναίω (να-), inhabit, ὀπυίω (ὀπυ-), marry, and perhaps δαίομαι, divide.

V. Fifth class. (N Class.)

Some simple stems are strengthened in the present by adding ν; as φθάν-ω (φθᾰ-), anticipate; τίν-ω (τι-), pay; φθίν-ω (φθι-), waste; δάκν-ω (δᾰκ-), bite; κάμν-ω (κᾰμ-), be weary; τέμν-ω (τεμ-), cut.

So βαίνω (βᾰ-, βᾱν-, Note 1), πίνω (πι-, see also VIII.), δύνω (with δύω), Hom. θύνω (with θύω), rush; for ἐλαύνω (ἐλᾰ-), see N. 2.

Some consonant stems add αν; ἁμαρτάν-ω (ἁμαρτ-), err; αἰσθάν-ομαι (αἰσθ-), perceive; βλαστάν-ω (βλαστ-), sprout.

If the last vowel of the simple stem is short, ν (μ or γ before a labial or a palatal, § 16, 3) is inserted after the vowel; as λανθάν-ω (λᾰθ-, λανθ-), escape notice; λαμβάν-ω (λᾰβ-, λαμβ-), take; θιγγάνω (θιγ-, θιγγ-), touch.

So αὐξάν-ω (with αὔξ-ω), δαρθάν-ω (δαρθ-), ἀπ-εχθάνομαι (ἐχθ-), ἱζάν-ω (with ἵζ-ω), poetic κιχάν-ω (κῐχ-), οἰδάν-ω (with οἰδ-έω, Class 7), ὀλισθάν-ω (ὀλισθ-), ὀσφραίν-ομαι (ὀσφρ-, N. 1), ὀφλισκάν-ω (ὀφλ-, ὀφλισκ-, VI.), with poetic ἀλιταίν-ομαι (ἀλῐτ-, N. 1), ἀλφάν-ω (ἀλφ-), ἐριδαίνω (ἐρῐδ-). With inserted ν, γ, or μ, ἁνδάν-ω (ἁδ-), λαγχάν-ω (λᾰχ-), μανθάν-ω (μᾰθ-), πυνθάν-ομαι (πῠθ-), τυγχάν-ω (τῠχ-), with poetic χανδάνω (χᾰδ-), ἐρυγγάν-ω (ἐρῠγ-).

A few stems add νε: βυνέ-ω (with βύ-ω), stop up, ἱκνέ-ομαι (with ἵκ-ω), come, κυνέ-ω (κυ-), kiss; also ἀμπ-ισχνέ-ομαι, have on, and ὑπ-ισχνέ-ομαι, promise, from ἴσχ-ω (VIII.).

Some stems add νυ (after a vowel, ννυ): these form the second class (in νῡμι) of verbs in μι, as δείκνυ-μι (δεικ-), show, κεράννυ-μι (κερᾰ-), mix, and are enumerated in § 125, 5. Some of these have also the present in νυω (§ 122, N. 5).

Note 1. (a) Βαίνω (βᾰ-, βᾱν-), go, and ὀσφραίνομαι (ὀσφρ-, ὀσφρᾱν-), smell, not only add ν or αν, but lengthen αν to αιν on the principle of Class 4. They belong here, however, as they do not have the inflection of liquid verbs (IV. 2, Note 2). See also κερδαίνω, ῥαίνω, τετραίνω, with Hom. ἀλιταίνομαι (ἀλιτ-, ἀλιτᾰν-) and ἐριδαίνω.

(b) Some simple stems of this class lengthen a short vowel (on the principle of Class 2) in other tenses than the present; as λαμβάνω (λᾰβ-), fut. λήψομαι (ληβ-): so δάκνω, λαγχάνω, λανθάνω, τυγχάνω. See also ἐρυγγάνω, ἔρχομαι, ζεύγνυμι, and πυνθάνομαι.

Note 2. Ἐλαύνω (ἐλᾰ-), drive, is irregular in the present stem (probably for ἐλα-νυ-ω). Ὄλ-λυ-μι (ὀλ-), destroy, adds λυ instead of νυ (by assimilation) to the stem ὀλ-. Δαμνάω (δᾰμ-), subdue, adds να.

VI. Sixth class. (Verbs in σκω.)

These add σκ or (after a consonant) ισκ to the simple stem to form the stem of the present; as γηρά-σκω (γηρᾰ-), grow old, εὑρ-ίσκω (εὑρ-), find, ἀρέ-σκω (ἀρε-), please, στερ-ίσκω (στερ-), deprive.

These verbs are, further, ἁλ-ίσκομαι, ἀμβλ-ίσκω, ἀμπλακ-ίσκω (poetic), ἀναλ-ίσκω, ἀπαφ-ίσκω (poet.), ἀραρ-ίσκω (poet.), βά-σκω, βι-βρώ-σκω (βρο-), βιώ-σκομαι (βιο-), βλώ-σκω (μολ-, βλο-), γεγων-ίσκω, γι-γνώ-σκω (γνο-), δι-δρά-σκω (δρα-), ἐπαυρ-ίσκω (poet.), ἡβά-σκω, θνή-σκω (θαν-, θνα-), θρώ-σκω (θορ-, θρο-), ἱλά-σκομαι, μεθύ-σκω, μι-μνή-σκω (μνᾰ-), πι-πί-σκω (Ion. and Pind.), πι-πρά-σκω, τι-τρώ-σκω (τρο-), φά-σκω, χά-σκω. See also the verbs in N. 3, and ὀφλισκάνω.

Note 1. Many verbs of this class reduplicate the present stem (§ 109, 7, c) by prefixing its initial consonant with ι, as γι-γνώ-σκω (γνο-). Ἀρ-αρ-ίσκω (ἀρ-) has an Attic reduplication (§ 102, N. 1).

Note 2. Stems in ο lengthen ο to ω before σκω, as in γιγνώσκω; and some in ᾰ lengthen ᾰ to η, as in μιμνήσκω (μνᾰ-) and θνήσκω (θᾰν-, θνᾰ-, § 109, 7, a).

Note 3. Three verbs, ἀλύ-σκω (ἀλῠκ-), avoid, διδά-σκω (διδᾰχ-), teach, and λά-σκω (λᾰκ-), speak, omit κ or χ before σκω instead of inserting ι. So Homeric ἐΐσκω or ἴσκω (ἐϊκ- or ἰκ-).

Note 4. These verbs, from their ending σκω, are often called inceptive verbs, although few of them have any inceptive meaning.

VII. Seventh class. (E Class.)

A few simple stems add ε to form the present stem; as δοκέ-ω (δοκ-), seem, fut. δόξω; ὠθέ-ω (ὠθ-), push, fut. ὤσω (§ 16, 2); γαμέ-ω (γᾰμ-), marry, fut. (γαμέω) γαμῶ.

These verbs are, further, γεγωνέω, γηθέω, κτυπέω, κυρέω, μαρτυρέω (with μαρτύρομαι), ῥιπτέω (with ῥίπτω), φιλέω (v. Epic forms); and poetic δατέομαι, δουπέω, εἰλέω, ἐπαυρέω, κεντέω, πατέομαι, ῥιγέω, στυγέω, τορέω, and χραισμέω. See also πεκτέω (πεκ-, πεκτ-).

Most verbs in εω belong to the first class, as ποιέω (ποιε-).

Note. A few chiefly poetic verbs form present stems by adding α in the same way to the simple stem: see βρυχάομαι, γράω, δηριάω, μηκάομαι, μητιάω, μυκάομαι.

VIII. Eigth class. (Mixed Class.)

This includes the few irregular verbs in which any of the tense stems are so essentially different from others, or which are otherwise so peculiar in formation, that they cannot be brought under any of the preceding classes. They are the following:

αἱρέω (ἑλ-), take, fut. αἱρήσω, 2 aor. εἷλον.

ἀλέξω (ἀλεκ-), ward off, fut. ἀλεξήσω (§ 109, 8), ἀλεξήσομαι, and ἀλέξομαι; 2 aor. ἄλαλκον (Hom.) for ἀλ-αλεκ-ον (§ 100, 2, N. 4).

γίγνομαι (γεν- or γν-, γενε-, γᾰ-), become, for γι-γενομαι, fut. γενήσομαι, 2 aor. ἐγενόμην, 2 pf. γέγονα (§ 109, 3) with γεγάασι, &c. (§ 125, 4).

ἔθω (ϝεθ-, ϝωθ-, ὠθ-), be accustomed, 2 pf. εἴωθα, 2 plpf. εἰώθειν.

εἶδον (ϝιδ-, ἰδ-), saw, vidi, 2 aorist (no present act.); 2 pf. οἶδα, know (§ 127). Mid. εἴδομαι (poetic).

εἶπον (εἰπ-, ἐρ-, ῥε-), spoke, 2 aor. (no pres.); fut. (ἐρέω) ἐρῶ, pf. εἴ-ρη-κα. The stem εἰπ- is for ε-επ (orig. ϝε-ϝεπ-), and ἐρ- (ῥε-) is for ϝερ- (ϝρε-), seen in Lat. ver-bum (§ 109, 7, a). So ἐν-έπω.

ἔρχομαι (ἐλυθ- or ἐλθ-, ἐλευθ-), go, fut. ἐλεύσομαι (poet.), 2 aor. ἦλθον.

ἔρδω (ἐργ-), work, poetic, fut. ἔρξω; by metathesis ἐργ- becomes ῥεγ- in ῥέζω (Class 4). Originally the stem was ϝεργ-, as in ἔργον, work, German Werk.

ἐσθίω (ἐδ-, φᾰγ-), eat, fut. ἔδομαι, 2 aor. ἔφαγον.

ἕπω (Attic only in comp.), be about; mid. ἕπομαι, follow (σεπ- or σπ-, ἑπ-), fut. ἕψομαι, 2 aor. ἑσπόμην.

ἔχω (σεχ- or σχ-, σχε-), have, fut. ἕξω or σχήσω, 2 aor. ἔσχον (for ἐ-σεχ-ον). Also ἴσχω (for σι-σεχ-ω).

ὁράω (ὀπ-), see, fut. ὄψομαι, pf. ἑώρακα. See εἶδον.

πάσχω (πᾰθ-, πενθ-), suffer, fut. πείσομαι, 2 pf. πέπονθα, 2 aor. ἔπαθον.

πίνω (πι-, πο-), drink, fut. πίομαι, pf. πέπωκα, 2 aor. ἔπιον.

πίπτω (πετ-, πτο-), fall, for πι-πετ-ω, fut. πεσοῦμαι, pf. πέ-πτω-κα, 2 aor. ἔπεσον (Dor. ἔπετον).

τρέχω (δρᾰμ-, δραμε-), run, fut. δραμοῦμαι, pf. δεδράμηκα, 2 aor. ἔδραμον.

φέρω (οἰ-, ἐνεκ-, by redupl. and sync. ἐν-ενεκ, ἐνεγκ-), bear, fero; fut. οἴσω, aor. ἤνεγκα (§ 109, 7, b), pf. ἐν-ήνοχ-α (§ 109, 3, N. 2), ἐν-ήνεγ-μαι, aor. p. ἠνέχθην.

For full forms of these verbs, see the Catalogue.

Note. Occasional Homeric or poetic irregular forms appear even in some verbs of the first seven classes. See ἀκαχίζω and χανδάνω in the Catalogue.

Remark. This section includes all those modifications of the stem which follow recognized principles, or which occur in so many verbs that they deserve special notice. For example, the change from τιμᾰ- in τιμάω to τιμη- in τιμήσω, that from στεργ- in στέργω to ἐστοργ- in 2 pf. ἔστοργα, that from στελ- (stem of στέλλω) to στειλ- in ἔστειλα and ἐστᾰλ- in ἔσταλ-κα, and that from βᾰλ- (stem of βάλλω) to βεβλη- (for βεβλᾱ-) in βέβληκα, all follow definite principles; while that from πι- to πο- in πίνω and that from πᾰθ- to πενθ- in πάσχω (§ 108, VIII.) are mere irregularities.

Most stems ending in a short vowel lengthen this vowel in all tenses formed from these stems, except the present and imperfect. ᾰ and ε become η, and ο becomes ω; but when ᾰ follows ε, ι, or ρ, it becomes ᾱ. E.g. Τιμάω (τιμᾰ-), honor, τιμή-σω, ἐτίμη-σα, τετίμη-κα, τετίμη-μαι, ἐτιμή-θην; φιλέω (φιλε-), love, φιλήσω, ἐφίλησα, πεφίληκα, πεφίλημαι, ἐφιλήθην; δηλόω (δηλο-), show, δηλώσω, &c.; so τίω, τίσω (ῑ); δακρύω, δακρύσω (ῡ). But ἐάω, ἐάσω (ᾱ); ἰάομαι, ἰάσομαι (ᾱ); δράω, δράσω (ᾱ), ἔδρᾱσα, δέδρᾱκα.

This applies also to stems which become vowel stems by metathesis (§ 109, 7), as βάλλω (βᾰλ-, βλᾰ-), throw, pf. βέβλη-κα; κάμνω (κᾰμ-, κμᾰ-), labor, κέκμη-κα; or by adding ε (§ 109, 8), as βούλομαι (βουλ-, βουλε-), wish, βουλή-σομαι, βεβούλη-μαι, ἐβουλή-θην.

Note 1. Λύω, loose, generally has ῡ in Attic poetry in the present and imperfect (generally ῠ in Homer); in other tenses it has ῡ only in the future and aorist active and middle and in the future perfect. Ἀκροάομαι, hear, has ἀκροάσομαι, &c.; χράω, give oracles, lengthens ᾰ to η; as χρήσω, &c. So τρήσω and ἔτρησα from stem τρα-; see τετραίνω, bore.

Note 2. Some vowel stems retain the short vowel, contrary to the general rule (§ 109, 1); as γελάω, laugh, γελάσομαι, ἐγέλασα; ἀρκέω, suffice, ἀρκέσω, ἤρκεσα; μάχομαι (μαχε-), fight, μαχέσομαι (Ion.), ἐμαχεσάμην.

(a) This occurs in the following verbs: (pure verbs) ἄγαμαι, αἰδέομαι, ἀκέομαι, ἀλέω, ἀνύω, ἀρκέω, ἀρόω, ἀρύω, γελάω, ἑλκύω (v. ἕλκω), ἐμέω, ἐράω, ζέω, θλάω, κλάω, break, ξέω, πτύω, σπάω, τελέω, τρέω, φλάω, χαλάω; and Epic ἀκηδέω, κοτέω, λοέω, νεικέω, and the stems (ἀᾱ-) and (ἀε-); - (other verbs with vowel stems) ἀρέσκω (ἀρε-), ἄχθομαι (ἀχθε-), ἐλαύνω (ἐλᾰ-), ἱλάσκομαι (ἱλα-), μεθύσκω (μεθῠ-); also all verbs in αννυμι and εννυμι, with stems in ᾰ and ε (given in § 125, 5), with ὄλλυμι (ὀλε-) and ὄμνυμι (ὀμο-).

(b) The final vowel of the stem is variable in quantity in different tenses in the following verbs: (pure verbs) αἰνέω, αἱρέω, δέω, bind, δύω (v. δύνω), ἐρύω (Epic), θύω, sacrifice, καλέω, λύω, μύω, ποθέω, πονέω; - (other verbs) βαίνω (βᾰ-), εὑρίσκω (εὑρ-, εὑρε-), μάχομαι (μαχε-), πίνω (πι-, πο-), φθάνω (φθᾰ-), φθίνω (φθι-).

Many vowel stems have σ added, before all endings not beginning with σ, in the perfect middle and first passive tense systems. E.g. Τελέω, finish, τετέλε-σ-μαι, ἐτετελέσμην, ἐτελέσθην (§ 97, 4); γελάω, laugh, ἐγελά-σ-θην, γελασθῆναι; χράω, give oracles, χρήσω, κέχρη-σ-μαι, ἐχρήσθην.

This occurs in all the verbs included in 1, N. 2 (a), except ἀρόω, so far as they form these tenses, and in the following: ἀκούω, δράω, θραύω, κελεύω, κλείω (κλῄω), κνάω, κναίω, κρούω, κυλίω, λεύω, νέω, heap, ξύω, παίω, παλαίω, παύω, πρίω, σείω, τίνω, ὕω, χόω, χράω, χρίω, and poetic ῥαίω. Some, however, have forms both with and without σ. See the Catalogue.

In the second perfect the simple stem generally changes ε to ο, and lengthens other short vowels, ᾰ to η (after ρ to ᾱ), ο to ω, ῐ to οι, and ῠ to ευ. E.g. Στέργ-ω, love, ἔστοργα; γίγνομαι (γεν-), become, γέγονα, ἐγεγόνειν; τίκτω (τεκ-), bring forth, τέτοκα; φαίνω (φᾰν-), πέφηνα; κράζω (κρᾱγ-), cry, κέκρᾱγα; τήκω (τᾰκ-), melt, τέτηκα, ἐτετήκειν; λείπω (λῐπ-), λέλοιπα, ἐλελοίπειν; φεύγω (φῠγ-), flee, πέφευγα, ἐπεφεύγειν. So ἐγείρω (ἐγερ-), rouse, ἐγρήγορα (§ 102, N. 1).

Note 1. Πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), do, has πέπρᾱγα (§ 110, IV. (a), N. 2). Ἔθω (ἐθ-), am accustomed, has irregularly εἴωθα (ὠθ- for ϝωθ-, § 104); and ῥήγνυμι (ῥᾰγ-) has ἔρρωγα (ῥωγ-), cf. τρώγω (τρᾱγ-), § 108, II.

Note 2. This change of ε to ο occurs even in some first perfects which aspirate the final consonant of the stem (§ 110, IV. b): these are κέκλοφα, from κλέπτω (κλᾰπ-), steal; εἴλοχα, from λέγ-ω, collect; πέπομφα from πέμπ-ω, send; τέτροφα (sometimes τέτραφα) from τρέπ-ω, turn; τέτροφα (perhaps second perfect), from τρέφ-ω, nourish. So ι becomes οι in δέδοικα (δι-), fear. In τίθημι (θε-), put, ε becomes ει in τέθεικα and τέθειμαι; compare πίνω (πι-), drink, πέπωκα and πέπομαι (πο-).

In simple liquid stems of one syllable, ε is generally changed to ᾰ in the perfect active, perfect middle, and second passive systems. E.g. Στέλλω (στελ-), send, ἔσταλκα, ἔσταλμαι, ἐστάλην, στᾰλήσομαι; κείρω (κερ-), shear, κέκαρμαι, ἐκάρην (Ion.); σπείρω (σπερ-), sow, ἔσπαρμαι, ἐσπάρην. So in δέρω, κτείνω, μείρομαι, τέλλω, and φθείρω.

Note 1. The same change of ε to ᾰ (after ρ) occurs in στρέφω, turn, ἔστραμμαι, ἐστράφην, στραφήσομαι (but 1 aor. ἐστρέφθην, rare); τρέπω, turn, τέτραφα (generally τέτροφα), τέτραμμαι, ἐτράπην (but ἐτρέφθην, Ion. ἐτράφθην); τρέφω, nourish, τέτροφα (late τέτραφα), τέθραμμαι, ἐτράφην (but ἐθρέφθην); also in the second aorist passive of κλέπτω, steal, πλέκω, weave, and τέρπω, delight, ἐκλάπην, ἐπλάκην, and (Epic) ἐτάρπην (1 aor. ἐκλέφθην, ἐπλέχθην, ἐτέρφθην, rarely Epic ἐτάρφθην). It occurs, further, in the second aorist (active or middle) of κτείνω, kill, τέμνω, cut, τρέπω, and τέρπω; viz., in ἔκτανον (poet.), ἔταμον, ἐταμόμην, ἔτραπον, ἐτραπόμην, τεταρπόμην (Hom.); also in several Homeric and poetic forms (see δέρκομαι, πέρθω, and πτήσσω).

Note 2. The first passive system rarely appears in verbs with monosyllabic liquid stems. Τείνω (τεν-), stretch, in which τεν- drops ν in this system (§ 109, 6), changes ε to ᾰ in ἐτάθην and ἐκ-ταθήσομαι.

Liquid stems lengthen their last vowel in the aorist active and middle; as στέλλω (στελ-), ἔστειλα. See § 110, III. 2, and the examples.

Four verbs in νω drop ν of the stem in the perfect and first passive systems, and thus have vowel stems in these forms: - κρίνω (κρῐν-), separate, κέκρικα, κέκριμαι, ἐκρίθην; κλίνω (κλῐν-), incline, κέκλικα, κέκλιμαι, ἐκλίθην; πλύνω (πλῠν-), wash, πέπλυμαι, ἐπλύθην; τείνω (τεν-), stretch, τέτᾰκα (§ 109, 4), τέταμαι, ἐτάθην, ἐκ-ταθήσομαι. So κτείνω in some poetic forms: see also κερδαίνω.

Note. When final ν of a stem is not thus dropped, it becomes γ before κα (§ 16, 5), and generally becomes σ before μαι (§ 16, 6, N. 4); as φαίνω (φᾰν-), πέφαγκα, πέφασμαι, ἐφάνθην.

(a) The stem sometimes suffers metathesis (§ 14, 1): (1) in the present, as θνήσκω (θᾰν-, θνᾰ-), die (§ 108, VI. N. 2); (2) in other tenses, as βάλλω (βᾰλ-, βλᾰ-), throw, βέβληκα, βέβλημαι, ἐβλήθην; δέρκομαι (δερκ-), see (poetic), 2 aor. ἔδρακον (δρᾰκ-, § 109, 4, N. 1).

(b) Sometimes syncope (§ 14, 2): (1) in the present, as γίγνομαι (γεν-), become, for γι-γεν-ομαι; (2) in the second aorist, as ἐπτόμην for ἐ-πετ-ομην; (3) in the perfect, as πετάννυμι (πετᾰ-), expand, πέπταμαι for πε-πετα-μαι.

(c) Sometimes reduplication (besides the regular reduplication of the perfect stem): (1) in the present, especially in verbs of the sixth class and in verbs in μι (§ 121, 3), as γι-γνώσκω, know, γί-γνομαι, ἵ-στημι; (2) in the second aorist, as πείθω (πιθ-), persuade, πέ-πιθον (Ep.). Attic redupl. in ἄγω, lead, ἤγαγον (ἀγ-αγ-); see ἀραρίσκω. § 110, V. N. 2; § 100, Notes 3 and 4.

Ε is sometimes added to the present stem, sometimes to the simple stem, making a new stem in ε. From this some verbs form special tenses; and others form all their tenses except the present, imperfect, second perfect, and second aorists (§ 90, N. 1). E.g. Βούλομαι (βουλ-), wish, βουλήσομαι (βουλε-, § 109, 1), &c.; αἰσθάνομαι (αἰσθ-), perceive, αἰσθήσομαι (αἰσθε-), ᾔσθημαι; μένω (μεν-), remain, μεμένηκα (μενε-); μάχομαι (μαχ-), fight, fut. (μαχέ-ομαι) μαχοῦμαι, ἐμαχεσάμην, μεμάχημαι; χαίρω (χᾰρ-), rejoice, χαιρήσω (χαιρε-), κεχάρηκα (χαρε-).

(a) The following have the stem in ε, in all tenses except those mentioned; (1) formed from the present stem: ἀλέξω, ἄλθομαι (Ion.), ἄχθομαι, βούλομαι, βόσκω, δέω, want, ἐθέλω and θέλω, ἔρομαι and εἴρομαι (Ion.), ἔρρω, εὕδω, ἕψω, κέλομαι (poet.), μάχομαι, μέδομαι (poet.), μέλλω, μέλω, μύζω, suck, οἴομαι, οἴχομαι, ὀφείλω, πέτομαι; (2) formed from the simple stem: αἰσθάνομαι (αἰσθ-), ἁμαρτάνω (ἁμαρτ-), ἁνδάνω (ἁδ-), ἀπ-εχθάνομαι (ἐχθ-), αὐξάνω (αὐξ-), βλαστάνω (βλαστ-), εὑρίσκω (εὑρ-), κιχάνω (κιχ-), λάσκω (λακ-), μανθάνω (μαθ-), ὀλισθάνω (ὀλισθ-), ὄλλυμι (ὀλ-), ὀφλισκάνω (ὀφλ-); see poetic ἀμπλακίσκω and ἀπαφίσκω, and the stem (δα-).

(b) The following have the stem in ε in special tenses; (1) formed from the present stem: διδάσκω, καθίζω, κλαίω, μένω, νέμω, παίω, πέτομαι, τύπτω; (2) formed from the simple stem: δαρθάνω (δαρθ-), κήδω (κᾱδ-), ὀσφραίνομαι (ὀσφρ-), πείθω (πιθ-), ῥέω (ῥυ-), στείβω (στιβ-), τυγχάνω (τυχ-), χάζω (χαδ-); see also γίγνομαι, ἔχω, τρέχω. Χαίρω (χᾰρ-) forms both χαιρε- and χαρε-.

Note. In ὄμνυμι, swear, the stem ὀμ- is enlarged to ὀμο- in some tenses, as in ὤμο-σα; in ἁλίσκομαι, be captured, ἁλ- is enlarged to ἁλο-, as in ἁλώσομαι. So τρύχω, exhaust, τρυχώσω. So probably οἴχομαι, be gone, has stem οἰχο- for οἰχε- in the perfect οἴχω-κα (cf. Ion. οἴχη-μαι).

Remark. This section explains the formation of the seven tense stems enumerated in § 92, 4. They are generally formed from the simple stem of the verb (when this is distinct from the present stem). But verbs of the second class commonly have the lengthened stem (§ 108, II. Note) in all tenses except in the second perfect, second aorist, and second passive tense systems. The verbs enumerated in § 109, 8 form some tenses from stems lengthened by adding ε. The stem may be modified in different tenses as has been explained in § 109.

§ 110.

I. (Present Stem.)

The present stem is the stem of the present and imperfect in all the voices. The principles on which it is derived from the simple stem, when they are not identical, are explained in § 108.

II. (Future Stem.)

Vowel and mute stems add σ to form the stem of the future active and middle. These vowel stems lengthen a short vowel (§ 109, 1); π, β, φ with σ become ψ; κ, γ, χ with σ become ξ; τ, δ, θ before σ are dropped (§ 16, 2). E.g.

Τιμάω, honor, τιμήσω; δράω, do, δράσω; κόπτω (κοπ-), cut, κόψω; βλάπτω (βλᾰβ-), hurt, βλάψω, βλάψομαι; γράφω, write, γράψω, γράψομαι; πλέκω, twist, πλέξω; πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), do, πράξω, πράξομαι; ταράσσω (ταρᾰχ-), confuse, ταράξω, ταράξομαι; φράζω (φραδ-), tell, φράσω (for φραδ-σω); πείθω, persuade, πείσω (for πειθ-σω). So σπένδω, pour, σπείσω (for σπενδ-σω, § 16, 2 and 6, N. 1); τρέφω, nourish, θρέψω, θρέψομαι (§ 17, 2, Note).

Liquid stems add ε (in place of σ) to form the future stem; this ε is contracted with ω and ομαι to ῶ and οῦμαι. E.g.

Φαίνω (φᾰν-), show, fut. (φανέ-ω) φανῶ, (φανέ-ομαι) φανοῦμαι; στέλλω (στελ-), send, (στελέ-ω) στελῶ, (στελέ-ομαι) στελοῦμαι; νέμω, divide, (νεμέ-ω) νεμῶ; κρίνω (κρῑν-), judge, (κρινέ-ω) κρινῶ.

Note 1. (Attic Future.)

(a) The futures of καλέω, call, and τελέω, finish, καλέσω and τελέσω (§ 109, 1, N. 2), drop σ of the future stem, and contract καλε- and τελε- with ω and ομαι, making καλῶ, καλοῦμαι, τελῶ and (poetic) τελοῦμαι. These futures have the same forms as the presents. So ὄλλυμι (ὀλ-, ὀλε-), destroy, has fut. ὀλέσω (Hom.), ὀλέω (Hdt.), ὀλῶ (Attic).

So μαχέσομαι, Homeric future of μάχομαι (μαχε-), fight, becomes μαχοῦμαι in Attic. Καθέζομαι (ἑδ-), sit, has καθεδοῦμαι.

(b) In like manner, futures in άσω from verbs in αννυμι (stems in ᾰ), some in εσω from verbs in εννυμι (stems in ε), and some in άσω from verbs in άζω (stems in ᾰδ), drop σ and contract αω and εω to ῶ. Thus σκεδάννυμι (σκεδᾰ-), scatter, σκεδάσω, (σκεδάω) σκεδῶ; στορέννυμι (στορε-), spread, στορέσω, (στορέω) στορῶ; βιβάζω (βιβᾰδ-), cause to go, βιβάσω, (βιβάω) βιβῶ. So ἐλαύνω (ἐλᾰ-), drive (§ 108, V. N. 2), ἐλάσω, (ἐλάω) ἐλῶ. For fut. ἐλόω, κρεμόω, &c., in Homer, see § 120, 1, (b).

(c) Futures in ίσω and ίσομαι from verbs in ίζω (ῐδ-) of more than two syllables regularly drop σ and insert ε; then ιεω and ιεομαι are contracted to ιῶ and ιοῦμαι; as κομίζω, carry, κομίσω, (κομιέω) κομιῶ, κομίσομαι, (κομιέομαι) κομιοῦμαι, inflected like φιλῶ, φιλοῦμαι (§ 98). See § 120, 2, (a).

(d) Though these forms of future are called Attic, because the Attic dialect seldom uses any others in these tenses, they are yet found in other dialects and even in Homer, while the Attic occasionally uses the full forms in σω.

Note 2. (Doric Future.) A few verbs sometimes add ε to σ in the stem of the future middle, and contract σέομαι to σοῦμαι. These are πλέω, sail, πλευσοῦμαι (§ 108, II. 2); πνέω, breathe, πνευσοῦμαι; νέω, swim, νευσοῦμαι; κλαίω, weep, κλαυσοῦμαι (§ 108, IV. 3); φεύγω, flee, φευξοῦμαι; πίπτω, fall, πεσοῦμαι. See also παίζω and πυνθάνομαι.

The Doric forms middle futures like these, and also active futures in σέω contracted σῶ (§ 119, 6). These few are used in Attic with the regular futures πλεύσομαι, πνεύσομαι, κλαύσομαι, φεύξομαι (but never πέσομαι).

Note 3. A few irregular futures drop σ of the stem, which thus has the appearance of a present stem. Such are χέω and χέομαι, fut. of χέω, pour; ἔδομαι, from ἐσθίω (ἐδ-), eat; πίομαι, from πίνω (πι-), drink.

Note 4. A few liquid stems add σ like mute stems; κέλλω (κελ-), land, κέλσω; κύρω, meet, κύρσω; θέρομαι, be warmed, θέρσομαι; all poetic: so φθείρω (φθερ-), destroy, Ep. fut. φθέρσω.

III. (First Aorist Stem.)

Vowel and mute stems add σ to form the stem of the first aorist active and middle. The lengthening of a final vowel of the stem and the euphonic changes of mutes before σ are the same as in the future stem. E.g.

Τιμάω, ἐτίμησα, ἐτιμησάμην; δράω, ἔδρᾱσα; κόπτω, ἔκοψα, ἐκοψάμην; βλάπτω, ἔβλαψα; γράφω, ἔγραψα, ἐγραψάμην; πλέκω, ἔπλεξα, ἐπλεξάμην; πράσσω, ἔπραξα, ἐπραξάμην; ταράσσω, ἐτάραξα; φράζω, ἔφρασα (for ἐφραδ-σα); πείθω, ἔπεισα (§ 108, II. Note); σπένδω, ἔσπεισα (for ἐσπενδ-σα); τρέφω, ἔθρεψα, ἐθρεψάμην (§ 17, 2, Note); τήκω, melt, ἔτηξα (§ 108, II. Note); πλέω, sail, ἔπλευσα (§ 108, II. 2).

Note 1. Three verbs in μι, δίδωμι (δο-), give, ἵημι (ἑ-), send, and τίθημι (θε-), put, form the aorist stem by adding κ instead of σ, giving ἔδωκα, ἧκα, ἔθηκα. These forms are seldom used except in the indicative active, and are most common in the singular, where the second aorists ἔδων, ἧν, ἔθην, are not in use. (See § 122, N. 1.) Even ἡκάμην and ἐθηκάμην occur, the latter not in Attic Greek.

Note 2. Χέω, pour, has aorists ἔχεα (Hom. ἔχευα) and ἐχεάμην, corresponding to the futures χέω and χέομαι (II. N. 3). Εἶπον, said, has also first aorist εἶπα; and φέρω, bear, has ἤνεγκ-α (from stem ἐνεγκ-).

For Homeric aorists like ἐβήσετο, ἐδύσετο, ἷξον, &c., see § 119, 8.

Liquid stems form the first aorist stem by lengthening their last vowel, ᾰ to η (after ι or ρ to ᾱ) and ε to ει. E.g.

Φαίνω (φᾰν-), ἔφην-α, ἐφηνάμην (rare); στέλλω (στελ-), ἔστειλ-α, ἐστειλάμην; ἀγγέλλω (ἀγγελ-), announce, ἤγγειλα, ἠγγειλάμην; περαίνω (περᾰν-), finish, ἐπέρᾱνα; μαίνω (μᾰν-), stain, ἐμίᾱνα; νέμω, divide, ἔνειμα, ἐνειμάμην; κρίνω, judge, ἔκρῑνα; ἀμύνω, keep off, ἤμῡνα, ἠμυνάμην; φθείρω (φθερ-), destroy, ἔφθειρα. Compare the futures in II. 2.

Note 1. A few liquid stems lengthen ᾰν to ᾱν irregularly; as κερδαίνω, gain, ἐκέρδᾱνα. A few lengthen ρᾰν to ρην; as τετραίνω, bore, ἐτέτρηνα.

Note 2. Αἴρω (ἀρ-), raise, and ἅλλομαι (ἁλ-), leap, have ἦρα, ἠράμην, ἡλάμην (augmented); but ᾱ in the other moods, as ἆρον, ἄρας, ἀράμενος, ἁλάμενος (all with ᾱ).

IV. (Perfect Stem.)

(a) Perfect Middle Stem.

The stem of the perfect and pluperfect middle and passive consists of the simple stem (in verbs of the second class, of the present stem) with the required reduplication or augment prefixed; as λύ-ω, λέλυμαι, ἐλελύμην; λείπ-ω, λελειπ- (§ 108, II. Note), λέλειμμαι, ἐλελείμμην.

The stem may be modified (§ 109) as follows: –

A short final vowel is regularly lengthened; as φιλέ-ω, πεφίλημαι, ἐπεφιλήμην; δράω, δέδρᾱμαι. (§ 109, 1.)

Some vowel stems add σ; τελέ-ω, τετέλεσ-μαι. (§ 109, 2.)

Most monosyllabic liquid stems and some others change ε to ᾰ; as στέλλω (στελ-), ἔσταλμαι, ἐστάλμην. (§ 109, 4.)

A few stems in ν drop ν, and others change ν to σ. (§ 109, 6.)

Metathesis sometimes occurs; as βάλλω (βᾰλ-), throw, βέβλη-μαι (βλᾱ-). (§ 109, 7.)

For the euphonic changes made in consonant stems on adding the endings, see § 97, N. 2.

(b) Perfect Active Stem.

The stem of the first perfect and pluperfect active is formed by adding κ to the reduplicated or augmented simple or present stem (§ 108, II. Note), except when this ends in a labial or palatal mute. Stems ending in π or β, κ or γ, aspirate these letters, making them φ or χ, while final φ and χ remain unchanged. E.g.

Λύω, λελυκ-, λέλυκα, ἐλελύκειν; νέω (νυ-, νεϝ-), swim, νένευκα; πείθω, persuade, πέπεικα (for πε-πειθ-κα). Κόπτω (κοπ-), cut, κέκοφα; βλάπτω (βλᾰβ-), hurt, βέβλαφα; πτήσσω (πτηκ-), cower, ἔπτηχα; πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), do, πέπρᾱχα, ἐπεπρᾱχειν; γράφω, write, γέγραφα, ἐγεγράφειν; ὀρύσσω (ὀρῠχ-), dig, ὀρώρυχα. So κομίζω (κομιδ-), carry, κεκόμικα (§ 16, 1, N. 2).

This stem may be modified (§ 109) in various ways: –

A short final vowel is regularly lengthened; as φιλέω, πεφίληκα. (§ 109, 1.)

Most monosyllabic liquid stems and some others change ε to ᾰ; as στέλλω (στελ-), ἔσταλκα, ἐστάλκειν. (§ 109, 4.)

A few labial and palatal stems change ε to ο, as in the second perfect. (§ 109, 3, N. 2.)

A few stems in ν drop ν, and become vowel stems. (§ 109, 6.)

Metathesis sometimes occurs; as βάλλω (βᾰλ-, βλᾰ-), βέβληκα. (§ 109, 7, a.)

Note. The only form of first perfect found in Homer is that in κα of verbs having vowel stems. The perfect in κα of liquid and lingual stems, and the aspirated perfects of labial and palatal stems, belong to a later development of the language.

(c) Future Perfect Stem. The stem of the future perfect is formed by adding σ to the stem of the perfect middle, as λελυ-, λελυσ-, λελύσομαι; γραφ-, γεγραφ-, γεγραψ-, γεγράψομαι; λειπ-, λελειπ-, λελειψ-, λελείψομαι; πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), πεπρᾱγ-, πεπρᾱξ-, πεπράξομαι.

Note 1. The future perfect is found in only a small number of verbs. Its stem, when a consonant precedes σ, is subject to all the euphonic changes noticed in the future stem (§ 110, II. 1).

Note 2. Two verbs have a special form in Attic Greek for the future perfect active; θνήσκω, die, has τεθνήξω, shall be dead, formed from τεθνηκ-, the stem of perf. τέθνηκα, am dead; and ἵστημι, set, has ἑστήξω, shall stand, from ἑστηκ-, stem of perf. ἕστηκα, stand. In Homer, we have also κεχαρήσω and κεχαρήσομαι, from χαίρω (χᾰρ-), rejoice; and κεκαδήσω, (irreg.) from χάζω (χᾰδ-), yield.

(d) Second Perfect Stem. The stem of the second perfect and pluperfect is always the simple stem with the reduplication (or augment) prefixed. The stem is generally modified by changing ε to ο, or by lengthening other short vowels. See § 109, 3, with the examples.

For second perfects and pluperfects of the μι-form, see § 124.

Note 1. Vowel stems do not form second perfects; ἀκού-ω, hear, is only an apparent exception, as ἀκήκοα is for ἀκ-ηκοϝ-α with ϝ omitted (§ 102).

Note 2. Few verbs have both a first and a second perfect. In πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), do, we have πέπρᾱχα, have done, and πέπρᾱγα, fare (well or ill); so ἀν-οίγω, open, ἀν-έῳχα (trans.), ἀν-έῳγα (intrans.).

Note 3. The second perfect stem appears especially in the Homeric dialect, which has many second perfects not found in Attic; as προ-βέβουλα from βούλομαι, wish, μέμηλα from μέλω, concern. Homer has many varieties of the 2 perfect participle of the μι-form; in ἀώς, gen. ἀότος (sometimes αὖτος), fem. αὐῖα, as γεγαώς, βεβαώς; in ηώς, gen. ηότος or ηῶτος, fem. ηυῖα, as τεθηώς, τεθνηῶτος or -ότος, τεθνηυῖα. Herodotus has ἐώς, ἐῶσα, ἐός, gen. ἐῶτος, ἐώσης, as ἑστεώς, &c., some forms of which (e.g. ἑστεῶτα, τεθνεῶτι) occur in Homer. The Attic contracts αώς, αῶσα, αός, to ώς, ῶσα, ός (§ 69, N.), gen. ῶτος, ώσης, &c., but leaves τεθνεώς (of θνήσκω) uncontracted.

Note 4. The stem of the feminine of the second perfect participle in Homer often has a short vowel when the other genders have a long one; as ἀρηρώς, ἀραρυῖα; τεθηλώς, τεθαλυῖα.

V. (Second Aorist Stem.)

The stem of the second aorist active and middle is the simple stem of the verb, to which the second aorist stands in the same relation in which the imperfect stands to the present stem; as λείπω (λῐπ-), 2 aor. ἔλιπον, ἐλιπόμην (impf. ἔλειπον, ἐλειπόμην); λαμβάνω (λᾰβ-), take, 2 aor. ἔλαβον, ἐλαβόμην.

Note 1. A few second aorist stems change ε to ᾰ; as τέμνω (τεμ-), cut, ἔταμον, ἐταμόμην. See § 109, 4, N. 1.

Note 2. A few stems are syncopated (§ 109, 7); as πέτομαι (πετ-), fly, 2 aor. m. ἐπτόμην for ἐπετ-ομην; ἐγείρω (ἐγερ-), rouse, ἠγρόμην for ἠγερ-ομην; ἦλθον, went, from stem ἐλυθ-, for ἤλυθον (Hom.); ἕπομαι (σεπ-), follow, ἑσπόμην, for ἐσεπ-ομην; ἔχω (σεχ-), have, ἔσχον for ἐ-σεχ-ον. So the Homeric ἐκεκλόμην, for ἐ-κε-κελ-ομην, or κεκλόμην, from κέλομαι, command; ἤλαλκον, for ἀλ-αλεκ-ον, from ἀλέξω (ἀλεκ-), ward off: for these and other reduplicated second aorists, see § 100, Notes 3 and 4.

Note 3. For second aorists of the μι-form, like ἔβην, see § 125, 3.

VI. (First Passive Stem.)

The stem of the first aorist passive is formed by adding θε to the stem as it appears (omitting the reduplication or augment) in the perfect middle or passive, with all its modifications (IV. a): in the indicative, imperative, and infinitive, θε becomes θη. In the future passive σ is added to θη, making the stem in θησ. E.g.

Λύω, λέλυ-μαι, ἐλύθην (λυθη-), (λυθέ-ω) λυθῶ, λυθείην, λυθῆναι, λυθείς (λυθε-ντ-), λυθήσ-ομαι; πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), πέπρᾱγ-μαι, ἐπράχ-θην (§ 16, 1), πραχθήσ-ομαι; πείθω, persuade, πέπεισ-μαι (§ 16, 3; § 108, II. Note), ἐπείσθην, πεισθήσομαι; φιλέω, πε-φίλη-μαι (§ 109, 1), ἐφιλήθην; τιμάω, τε-τίμη-μαι, ἐτιμήθην, τιμηθήσομαι; τελέω, τετέλε-σ-μαι (§ 109, 2), ἐτελέσ-θην, τελεσθήσομαι; κλίνω, κέκλι-μαι (§ 109, 6), ἐκλί-θην, κλι-θήσομαι; τείνω (τεν-), τέτα-μαι (§ 109, 4 and 6), ἐτάθην, ἐκ-ταθήσομαι.

Note 1. Τρέπω has τέτραμμαι, ἐτρέφθην (Ion. ἐτράφθην); τρέφω has τέθραμμαι, ἐθρέφθην; and στρέφω has ἔστραμμαι, with (rare) ἐστρέφθην (Ion. and Dor. ἐστράφθην). Φαίνω has πέφασμαι (§ 16, 6, N. 4), but ἐφάνθην.

Note 2. Ν is added in Homer to some vowel stems before θ of the aorist passive; as ἱδρύω, erect, ἵδρυμαι, ἱδρύν-θην (Attic ἱδρύθην). So Hom. ἐκλίνθην and ἐκρίνθην (§ 109, 6).

Note 3. For ἐτέθην (for ἐθε-θην), from τίθημι (θε-), and ἐτύθην (for ἐθυ-θην) from θύω, sacrifice, see § 17, 2, Note. We have, however, ἐθρέφθην and τεθράφ-θαι from τρέφω, nourish, perhaps to distinguish these forms from ἐτρέφθην and τετράφθαι from τρέπω, turn.

VII. (Second Passive Stem.)

The stem of the second aorist passive is formed by adding ε to the simple stem: in the indicative, imperative, and infinitive, ε becomes η. In the second future passive σ is added to this η, making the stem in ησ. The only regular modification of the stem is the change of ε to ᾰ explained in § 109, 4. E.g.

Βλάπτω (βλᾰβ-), hurt, ἐβλάβην, βλαβήσομαι; γράφω, write, ἐγράφην, γραφήσομαι; ῥίπτω (ῥῐφ-), throw, ἐρρίφην; φαίνω (φᾰν-), show, ἐφάνην, φανήσομαι; στρέφω, turn, ἐστράφην, στραφήσομαι; τέρπω, amuse, ἐτάρπην (Hom.) with subj., by metathesis, τραπείω. See the examples in § 109, 4, and N. 1.

Note 1. The simple stem of verbs of the second class, which seldom appears in other tenses (§ 108, II. Note), is seen in the second passive system; as σήπω (σᾰπ-), corrupt, ἐσάπην, σαπήσομαι; τήκω (τᾰκ-), melt, ἐτάκην; ῥέω (ῥῠ-), flow, ἐρρύην, ῥυήσομαι; ἐρείπω (ἐρῐπ-), throw down, ἠρίπην (poetic), but 1 aor. ἠρείφθην (ἐρειπ-).

Note 2. Πλήσσω (πληγ-), strike, has 2 aor. pass. ἐπλήγην, but in composition ἐξ-επλάγην and κατ-επλάγην (as if from a stem πλᾰγ-).

Note 3. The only verb which has both the 2 aor. passive and the 2 aor. active is τρέπω, turn, which has all the six aorists.

§ 111.

The following table shows the seven tense stems (so far as they exist) of λύω, λείπω (λῐπ-), πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), φαίνω (φᾰν-), and στέλλω (στελ-).

Tense stem	Formation	λύω	λείπω	πράσσω	φαίνω	στέλλω
I. Present (all voices)		λυ-	λειπ-	πρασσ-	φαιν-	στελλ-
II. Future active and middle		λυσ-	λειψ-	πραξ-	φανε-	στελε-
III. Aorist active and middle		λυσ-		πραξ-	φην-	στειλ-
IV. Perfect	(a) Middle	λελυ-	λελειπ-	πεπρᾱγ-	πεφαν-	ἐσταλ-
IV. Perfect	(b) Active	λελυκ-		πεπρᾱχ-	πεφαγκ-	ἐσταλκ-
IV. Perfect	(c) Future passive	λελυσ-	λελειψ-	πεπρᾱξ-		
IV. Perfect	(d) Second perfect		λελοιπ-	πεπρᾱγ-	πεφην-	
V. Second aorist active and middle			λῐπ-			
VI. First passive	(a) First aorist	λυθε(η)-	λειφθε(η)-	πραχθε(η)-	φανθε(η)-	
VI. First passive	(b) First future	λυθησ-	λειφθησ-	πραχθησ-		
VII. Second passive	(a) Second aorist				φᾰνε(η)-	στᾰλε(η)-
VII. Second passive	(b) Second future				φᾰνησ-	στᾰλησ-

The endings which are peculiar to the different persons of the verb are called personal endings. These have one form for the active voice, and another for the passive and middle; but the aorist passive has the endings of the active voice.

The personal endings, which are most distinctly preserved in verbs in μι and other primitive forms, are as follows: -

Number and person	Active: primary tenses	Active: secondary tenses	Passive and middle: primary tenses	Passive and middle: secondary tenses
Singular 1	μι or -	ν or -	μαι	μην
Singular 2	σι (ς)	ς	σαι	σο
Singular 3	σι (τι) or -	-	ται	το
Dual 2	τον	τον	σθον	σθον
Dual 3	τον	την	σθον	σθην
Plural 1	μεν (μες)	μεν (μες)	μεθα	μεθα
Plural 2	τε	τε	σθε	σθε
Plural 3	νσι (ντι)	ν or σαν	νται	ντο

Note. The active endings μι and σι in the first and third person singular are not used in the indicative except in verbs in μι, verbs in ω having no endings in these persons. The original ending σι of the second person singular is found only in the Epic ἐσ-σί, thou art, in all other verbs being reduced to ς. In the third person singular τι is Doric, as τίθη-τι for τίθησι; and it is preserved in Attic in ἐσ-τί, he is. In the first person plural μες is Doric. In the third person plural νσι always drops ν and lengthens the preceding vowel, as in λύουσι for λυο-νσι (§ 16, 6); the original form ντι is Doric, as φέροντι for φέρουσι (Lat. ferunt). The perfect indicative active of all verbs, and the present indicative active of verbs in μι (§ 121, 2, a), have ᾱσι (for ανσι) in the third person plural. [1]

[1]: Among the original active endings, inherited from the parent language of the Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, German, &c., were μι, σι, τι, in the singular, and ντι in the third person plural. In the past tenses, these were first shortened by dropping ι, and became μ, ς, τ, and ντ, in which form they appear in Latin, as in era-m, era-s, era-t, era-nt. In μι, σι, and τι, and in the original μες in the first person plural (compare Latin mus), we see the roots of the personal pronouns, I, thou, he, and we (compare μέ, σέ, τόν, and the Epic ἄμ-μες), which were originally appended to the verbal root, instead of being prefixed as in English. These forms therefore really include the pronoun, which is commonly said to be omitted. A comparison of the various forms of the present indicative of the primitive verb be (whose original stem is as-, in Greek and Latin es-), as it appears in Sanskrit, the older Greek, Latin, Old Slavic, and Lithuanian (the most primitive modern language, still spoken on the Baltic), will illustrate the Greek verbal endings.

In the perfect and pluperfect passive and middle, and in both aorists passive (except in the subjunctive and optative), the endings are added directly to the tense stem; as

λέλυ-μαι, λέλυ-σαι, λέλυ-ται, λέλυ-νται, ἐ-λελύ-μην; ἐ-λύθη-ν, ἐ-λύθη-ς, ἐ-λύθη, ἐ-λύθη-σαν (§ 111).

So also in verbs in μι, in most of the forms which are peculiar to that conjugation (§ 121, 1); as φα-μέν, φα-τέ, from φημί (φᾰ-), say; ἵστα-μαι, ἵστα-σαι, ἵστα-ται, ἵστα-νται, from ἵστημι, set (§ 123).

In other parts of the verb the tense stem appears in a prolonged form, consisting of the fixed portion and a variable vowel (sometimes a diphthong), to which the endings are affixed. This formation will be seen by a comparison of the present indicative middle of τίθημι (τιθε-) with that of φιλέω (φιλε-) in its uncontracted (Ionic) form: -

τίθημι	φιλέω	τίθημι	φιλέω
τίθε-μαι	φιλέ-ο-μαι	τιθέ-μεθα	φιλε-ό-μεθα
τίθε-σαι	φιλέ-ε-(σ)αι	τίθε-σθε	φιλέ-ε-σθε
τίθε-ται	φιλέ-ε-ται	τίθε-νται	φιλέ-ο-νται
τίθε-σθον	φιλέ-ε-σθον	(For τίθημι see § 123.)	

Compare also the perfect λέ-λυ-μαι, λέ-λυ-ται, λέ-λυ-σθε, λέ-λυ-νται (§ 112, 3), with the present λύ-ο-μαι, λύ-ε-ται, λύ-ε-σθε, λύ-ο-νται.

Number and person	Sanskrit	Greek	Latin	Old Slavic	Lithuanian
Singular 1	as-mi	ἐμ-μί (for ἐσ-μι)	[e]s-um	yes-m’	es-mi
Singular 2	asi	ἐσ-σί	es	yesi	esi
Singular 3	as-ti	ἐσ-τί	es-t	yes-t’	es-ti
Plural 1	s-mas	ἐσ-μέν (Dor. εἰμές)	[e]s-u-mus	yes-mi	es-me
Plural 2	s-tha	ἐσ-τέ	es-tis	yes-te	es-te
Plural 3	as-anti	ἐν-τί (Doric)	[e]s-u-nt	s-u-t’	es-ti

The vowel which thus completes the stem is called a connecting vowel; [1] and it appears (sometimes with ο and ε lengthened to ω and ει) even when the ending is dropped (§ 113, 1), as in λέγω (for λεγο-μι) and λέγει (for λεγε-τι).

[1]: The name "connecting vowel" belongs to the doctrine formerly held, by which this vowel was made a third element in the formation of the verb, distinct from both the stem and the ending. The more correct view considers it a part of the tense stem, which thus consists of the fixed portion (e.g. λεγ-, λυ-, λειπ-, in the present) and a vowel sound which varies according to the following letter (e.g. λεγο- or λεγε-). In the original language it was uniformly a, as it appears in the Sanskrit bhara-mi (below). In an elementary work, it is more convenient to treat this variable formative suffix separately, so that the tense stems are given (as in § 95) in their shorter forms (λυ-, λειπ-, &c.).

The original connecting vowel in the indicative of verbs in ω (except in the aorist active and middle, and the perfect and pluperfect active) was ο before μ or ν, and elsewhere ε. In the singular of the present and future active, when μι and τι were dropped and σι became ς (§ 112, 2, Note), the primitive ο and ε were lengthened into ω and ει. [2]

[2]: The supposed original forms of the present indicative of λέγω and the Latin lego are thus given by G. Curtius (Griechisches Verbum, I. p. 200). The actual forms of the Sanskrit present bharami, I bear (= φέρω, fero), are given on the right, and the Attic forms of λέγω on the left.

Attic Greek	Primitive Greek	Primitive Latin	Sanskrit
λέγω	λεγο-μι	lego-m(i)	bhara-mi
λέγεις	λεγε-σι	lege-s(i)	bhara-si
λέγει	λεγε-τι	lege-t(i)	bhara-ti
λέγο-μεν	λεγο-μες	lego-mas	bhara-mas
λέγε-τε	λεγε-τε	lege-tes	bhara-tha
λέγουσι (for λεγο-νσι, § 16, 6)	λεγο-ντι	lego-nt(i)	bhara-nti

From λεγο-μι comes λέγω, from λεγε-σι comes λέγεις, and from λεγε-τι comes λέγει for λέγετι (§ 7).

The connecting vowel is α in all persons of the first aorist middle; also in the perfect and first aorist active, except in the third person singular where it is ε. In the pluperfect active it is ει; but in the third person plural it is ε (rarely ει).

The personal endings of the indicative, as they appear in verbs in ω united with the connecting vowels, are as follows: -

I. Active

Number and person	Present and future	Perfect	Aorist	Imperfect and 2 aorist	Pluperfect
Singular 1	ω	α	α	ον	ειν
Singular 2	εις	ας	ας	ες	εις
Singular 3	ει	ε	ε	ε	ει
Dual 2	ετον	ατον	ατον	ετον	ειτον
Dual 3	ετον	ατην	ατην	ετην	ειτην
Plural 1	ομεν	αμεν	αμεν	ομεν	ειμεν
Plural 2	ετε	ατε	ατε	ετε	ειτε
Plural 3	ουσι (for ονσι)	ᾱσι (for ανσι)	αν	ον	εσαν or εισαν

II. Passive and middle

Number and person	Present, future, and future perfect	Imperfect passive and middle, and 2 aorist middle	Aorist middle
Singular 1	ομαι	ομην	ᾱμην
Singular 2	ῃ or ει (for εσαι, εαι)	ου (for εσο, εο)	ω (for ασο, αο)
Singular 3	εται	ετο	ᾱτο
Dual 2	εσθον	εσθον	ασθον
Dual 3	εσθον	εσθην	ασθην
Plural 1	ομεθα	ομεθα	αμεθα
Plural 2	εσθε	εσθε	ασθε
Plural 3	ονται	οντο	αντο

By adding these terminations to the unprolonged tense stems as they are given in § 111, all the tenses of the indicative, except those included in § 112, 3, may be formed. The latter may be formed by adding the personal endings given in § 112, 2 directly to the tense stems.

Note 1. The endings σαι and σο in the second person singular of the passive and middle drop σ after a connecting vowel (§ 9, 4, N. 1), and are then contracted with the connecting vowel (§ 9, 4, N. 1). Thus, λύῃ or λύει is for λυεσαι, λύεαι; ἐλύου is for ἐλυεσο, ἐλύεο; ἐλύσω (aorist middle) is for ἐλυσασο, ἐλύσαο. The uncontracted forms (without σ) are common in Ionic Greek (§ 119, 2).

Note 2. The second persons βούλει (of βούλομαι, wish), οἴει (of οἴομαι, think), and ὄψει (of ὄψομαι, fut. of ὁράω, see) have no forms in ῃ.

Note 3. A first person dual in μεθον is found very rarely in poetry; as λελείμμεθον (pf. pass. of λείπω).

Note 4. The Attic writers sometimes have η (contracted from the Ionic εα, § 119, 4) for ειν in the first person singular of the pluperfect active, as ἐμεμαθήκη.

Note 5. In Homer τον and σθον are sometimes used for την and σθην in the dual. This occurs rarely in the Attic poets, who sometimes have την for τον in the second person. The latter is found occasionally even in prose.

The subjunctive has the primary endings with long connecting vowels, ω, η, and ῃ, for ω (or ο), ε, and ει of the indicative, as follows: -

Number and person	Active: singular	Active: dual	Active: plural	Passive and middle: singular	Passive and middle: dual	Passive and middle: plural
1	ω		ωμεν	ωμαι		ωμεθα
2	ῃς	ητον	ητε	ῃ (for ησαι, ηαι)	ησθον	ησθε
3	ῃ	ητον	ωσι (for ωνσι)	ηται	ησθον	ωνται

For the perfect subjunctive passive and middle see § 118, 1.

Note 1. The aorist passive subjunctive (both first and second), which does not omit the connecting vowel (§ 112, 3), has the active terminations (§ 114) contracted with final ε of the stem; as λυθέ-ω, λυθῶ; φανέ-ῃς, φανῇς; σταλέ-ῃ, σταλῇ.

Note 2. The subjunctive of verbs in ημι and ωμι has the above terminations contracted with preceding ε or ο of the stem; as τιθῶ (for τιθε-ω), διδῶμαι (for διδο-ωμαι), θῶμεν and θῶνται (Ion. θέωμεν, θέωνται). See § 122, N. 4; § 126, 7 (a).

The optative has the secondary personal endings (§ 112, 2), preceded by a modal sign ι or ιη (ιη before final ν of the third person plural).

Verbs in ω have a connecting vowel ο (in the first aorist active and middle, α) in the optative. This is contracted with ι (or ιη), making οι or οιη (αι or αιη). The first person singular active has the ending μι for ν (§ 112, 2), except in some contract forms (see 4). Adding the endings we have

Number and person	Active: singular	Active: dual	Active: plural	Passive and middle: singular	Passive and middle: dual	Passive and middle: plural
1	οιμι		οιμεν	οιμην		οιμεθα
2	οις	οιτον	οιτε	οιο (for οισο)	οισθον	οισθε
3	οι	οιτην	οιεν	οιτο	οισθην	οιντο

Number and person	Aorist active: singular	Aorist active: dual	Aorist active: plural	Aorist middle: singular	Aorist middle: dual	Aorist middle: plural
1	αιμι	-	αιμεν	αιμην		αιμεθα
2	αις	αιτον	αιτε	αιο (for αισο)	αισθον	αισθε
3	αι	αιτην	αιεν	αιτο	αισθην	αιντο

For periphrastic forms of the perfect optative see § 118, 1. For the aorist passive see below, 3.

In the present and second aorist middle of verbs in ημι and ωμι, the final vowel of the tense stem (α, ε, or ο) is contracted with ι into αι, ει, or οι, to which the simple endings μην, &c. are added; as ἱστα-ι-μην, ἱσταίμην; θε-ι-μην, θείμην; δο-ι-μην, δοίμην. (See § 122, N. 4.) See also the cases of perfect optative middle in ῃμην in § 118, 1, Note.

The present and second aorist active of the μι-form (§ 121, 1), and both aorists passive in all verbs, have the ending ν in the first person singular and σαν in the third person plural. Here the modal sign is ιη, with which α, ε, or ο of the stem is contracted to αιη, ειη, or οιη; as ἱστα-ιη-ν, ἱσταίην; στα-ιη-μεν, σταίημεν; λυθε-ιη-ν, λυθείην; δο-ιη-ν, δοίην.

In the dual and plural, forms with ι for ιη, and ιεν for ιησαν in the third person plural, are much more common than the longer forms; as σταῖμεν, σταῖεν, for σταίημεν, σταίησαν. (See § 123, 2.)

In the present active of contract verbs, forms in οιην, οιης, οιη (for ο-ιη-ν, &c.) are more common in the singular than the regular forms in οιμι, οις, οι (see 1), but less common in the dual and plural: the third person plural in οιησαν is very rare.

Both the forms in οιην and those in οιμι are contracted with α of the tense stem to ῳην and ῳμι, and with ε or ο to οιην and οιμι; as τιμα-ο-ιη-ν, τιμαοίην, τιμῴην; φιλε-ο-ιη-ν, φιλεοίην, φιλοίην; δηλο-ο-ιη-ν, δηλοοίην, δηλοίην; τιμα-ο-ι-μι, τιμάοιμι, τιμῷμι; φιλε-ο-ι-μι, φιλέοιμι, φιλοῖμι; δηλο-ο-ι-μι, δηλόοιμι, δηλοῖμι. (See § 98.)

Note 1. A few verbs have οιην in the second perfect optative; as ἐκπέφευγα, ἐκπεφευγοίην. The second aorist optative of ἔχω, have, is σχοίην (σχοῖμι in composition).

Note 2. The Attic generally uses the Aeolic terminations ειας, ειε, and ειαν, for αις, αι, αιεν, in the aorist optative active. See λύω and φαίνω in § 96.

The personal endings of the imperative are as follows: -

Person	Active: singular	Active: dual	Active: plural	Passive and middle: singular	Passive and middle: dual	Passive and middle: plural
2	θι or -	τον	τε	σο	σθον	σθε
3	τω	των	τωσαν or ντων	σθω	σθων	σθωσαν or σθων

θι is always dropped after a connecting vowel.

The regular connecting vowel of the imperative is ε; but before ντι it is ο. In the aorist active and middle it is α. But the second person singular in the aorist active ends in ον, and in the aorist middle in αι. The endings united with the connecting vowels are as follows: -

Person	Active: singular	Active: dual	Active: plural	Passive and middle: singular	Passive and middle: dual	Passive and middle: plural
2	ε	ετον	ετε	ου (for εσο, εο)	εσθον	εσθε
3	ετω	ετων	ετωσαν or οντων	εσθω	εσθων	εσθωσαν or εσθων

Person	Aorist active: singular	Aorist active: dual	Aorist active: plural	Aorist middle: singular	Aorist middle: dual	Aorist middle: plural
2	ον	ατον	ατε	αι	ασθον	ασθε
3	ατω	ατων	ατωσαν or αντων	ασθω	ασθων	ασθωσαν or ασθων

The first aorist passive adds the ordinary active terminations (θι, τω, &c.) directly to θη of the tense stem, after which θι becomes τι (§ 17, 3); as λύθη-τι, λυθή-τω, &c.

The second aorist passive adds the same terminations to η of the tense stem (θ being retained); as φάνη-θι, φανή-τω; στάλη-θι, σταλή-τω, &c.

Both aorists have εντων in the third person plural.

Note. For the form of the imperative in verbs in μι, see § 121, 2, (b) and (c).

The terminations of the infinitive of verbs in ω (including connecting vowels) are as follows: -

Tense and voice	Termination
Present and future active	ει-ν
Second aorist active	εει-ν (cont. εῖ-ν)
Perfect active	έ-ναι
Aorist active	αι
Aorist passive (no connecting vowel)	ναι
Perfect passive and middle	σθαι
Aorist middle	α-σθαι
Other tenses, passive and middle	ε-σθαι

All μι-forms add ναι (act.) or σθαι (pass. and mid.) directly to the tense stem.

The stem of the active participle ends in ντ (τ in the perfect), which is joined to the tense stem by ο (α in the aorist); except in the aorist passive (§ 112, 1) and in μι-forms, which add ντ directly to the stem.

The passive and middle participle ends in μενος (stem μενο-), which is preceded by ο (α in the aorist middle); except in the perfect and in μι-forms, which add μενος directly to the tense stem.

Note. Participial stems in ντ add σα to form the stem of the feminine; as λυοντ-σα, λύουσα; ἱσταντ-σα, ἱστᾶσα; λυθεντ-σα, λυθεῖσα. (§ 16, 6, N. 1.) Perfects in ώς, ότος (stem in τ) have an irregular feminine in υῖα. Participles in μενος form the feminine in μένη.

For the declension of participles, see §§ 62, 68, 69.

The stem of the verbal adjectives in τος and τεος is formed by adding το- or τεο- to the stem of the verb, which has the same form here as in the aorist passive (with the necessary change of φ and χ to π and κ, § 16, 1); as λυτός, λυτέος (stems λυ-το-, λυ-τεο-); τριπτός, πειστέος (stems τριβ-το-, πειθ-τεο-); τακτός, τακτέος, from τάσσω (stem τᾰγ-), aor. pass. ἐτάχ-θην.

Note 1. The verbal in τος is sometimes equivalent to a perfect passive participle, as κριτός, decided, τακτός, ordered; and sometimes expresses capability, as λυτός, capable of being loosed, ἀκουστός, audible.

Note 2. The verbal in τεος is equivalent to a future passive participle (the Latin participle in dus); as λυτέος, that must be loosed, solvendus; τιμητέος, to be honored, honorandus.

For the impersonal use of the neuter in τεον in an active sense, see Syntax, § 281, 2.

The perfect subjunctive and optative middle and passive is generally formed by the perfect participle with ὦ and εἴην, the subjunctive and optative of εἰμί, be; as λελυμένος (-η, -ον) ὦ, λελυμένος (-η, -ον) εἴην. See the paradigms.

Note. A few verbs with vowel stems form these tenses directly from the stem: κτά-ομαι, κτῶμαι, acquire, pf. κέκτημαι, possess; subj. κεκτῶμαι (for κε-κτα-ωμαι), κεκτῇ, κεκτῆται; opt. κεκτῴμην (for κε-κτα-οιμην), κεκτῷο, κεκτῷτο, and κεκτήμην (for κεκτη-ι-μην, § 115, 2), κεκτῇο, κεκτῇτο, κεκτήμεθα; - μιμνήσκω (μνα-), remind, pf. μέμνημαι, remember: subj. μεμνῶμαι, μεμνώμεθα (Hdt. μεμνεώμεθα); opt. μεμνῴμην (Hom. μεμνεῴατο), or μεμνῄμην. So poetic κεκλήμην (for κεκλη-ι-μην) of καλέω, and Homeric λελῦτο (for λελυ-ι-το) or λελῦντο of λύω. See also pr. opt. δαινῦτο of δαίνυμι.

The perfect subjunctive and optative active is more frequently expressed by the perfect active participle with ὦ and εἴην than by the special forms given in the paradigms; as λελυκὼς ὦ and λελυκὼς εἴην for λελύκω and λελύκοιμι.

Note. The perfect imperative can be expressed by the perfect participle and ἴσθι, ἔστω, &c.; as εἰρηκὼς ἔστω, let him have spoken (before a given time); εἰρημένον ἔστω (§ 202, 2, N. 1). The forms like λέλυκε, λέλοιπε, &c. were probably used only when the perfect had the meaning of the present; as χάσκω (χαν-), gape, pf. κέχηνα, gape. (See § 95, 1, Note.)

The future perfect active, for which very few verbs have a special form (§ 110, IV. c, N. 2), is generally expressed by the perfect participle with ἔσομαι (future of εἰμί, be); as ἐγνωκότες ἐσόμεθα, we shall have learnt.

Even the perfect and pluperfect indicative are occasionally expressed by the perfect participle and εἰμί; as γεγονώς ἐστι for γέγονε, πεποιηκὼς ἦν for ἐπεποιήκει.

The periphrastic third person plural of the perfect and pluperfect indicative middle and passive, formed by the participle and εἰσί and ἦσαν, is necessary when the stem ends in a consonant (§ 97, 2). The participle may be used in all genders; as οὗτοι λελειμμένοι εἰσί, these (men) have been left; αὗται λελειμμέναι εἰσί; ταῦτα λελειμμένα ἐστί (§ 135, 2).

Note. Here, however, the Ionic endings αται and ατο for νται and ντο (§ 119, 3) are occasionally used even in Attic prose; as τετάχ-αται and ἐτετάχ-ατο (Thucyd.) for τεταγμένοι εἰσί and ἦσαν.

A periphrastic future is sometimes formed by μέλλω, intend, be about (to do), and the present or future (seldom the aorist) infinitive; as μέλλομεν τοῦτο ποιεῖν (or ποιήσειν); we are about to do this. (See § 202, 3, Note.)

The Doric has the personal endings μες for μεν, τᾱν for την, μᾱν for μην, οντι for ουσι, ωντι for ωσι, αντι for ᾱσι. The poets have μεσθα for μεθα.

When σ is dropped in σαι and σο of the second person (§ 113, 2, N. 1), Homer often keeps the uncontracted forms εαι, ηαι, αο, εο. Herodotus always has εαι and εο, but generally ῃ for ηαι. In both Homer and Hdt. εο may become ευ. In Homer σαι and σο sometimes drop σ even in the perf. and pluperf.; as μέμνηαι for μέμνησαι, ἔσσυο for ἔσσυσο; sometimes σ is doubled, as in κέκασσαι (κέκασμαι).

The Ionic has αται and ατο for νται and ντο in the third person plural of the perfect and pluperfect, and ατο for ντο in the optative. Before these endings β, π, φ, and γ are aspirated (φ, χ); as κρύπτω (κρῠβ-), κεκρύφ-αται; λέγω, λελέχ-αται, ἐλελέχ-ατο. Hdt. shortens η to ε before αται and ατο; as οἰκέ-αται (pf. of οἰκέω), Att. ᾤκη-νται; ἐτετιμέ-ατο (plpf. of τιμάω), Att. ἐτετίμη-ντο. Hom. rarely inserts δ before the vowel of a stem and αται or ατο (see ἐλαύνω and μαίνομαι). These forms sometimes occur in Attic (§ 118, 5, Note). Hdt. has αται and ατο also in the present and imperfect of verbs in μι.

Homer and Herodotus have εα, εας, εε(ν), for Attic ειν, εις, ει, in the pluperfect active, as ἐτεθήπεα; whence comes the (especially older) Attic 1st pers. in η, as ἐμεμαθήκη (§ 113, 2, N. 4).

Homer and Herodotus generally have the uncontracted forms of the future (in εω and εομαι) of liquid stems; as μενέω, Attic μενῶ. When they are contracted, they follow the analogy of verbs in εω (§ 120, 2, a).

The Doric has σέω, σέομαι (contracted σῶ, σοῦμαι or σεῦμαι) for σω, σομαι in the future. The Attic has σοῦμαι in the future middle of a few verbs (§ 110, II., N. 2).

In Homer σ is sometimes doubled after a short vowel in the future and aorist, as τελέω, τελέσσω; καλέω, ἐκάλεσσα; κομίζω, fut. κομιῶ (§ 110, II., N. 1, c), Hom. ἐκόμισσα, ἐκομισσάμην.

In Homer aorists with σ sometimes have the inflection of second aorists; as ἷξον, ἷξες, from ἱκνέομαι, come; ἐβήσετο (more common than ἐβήσατο) from βαίνω, go.

In Homer ησαν of the aor. pass. indic. often becomes εν; as ὥρμηθεν for ὡρμήθησαν, from ὁρμάω, urge. So in the 2nd aor. act. of verbs in μι (§ 126, 4).

Homer and Herodotus have iterative endings σκον and σκόμην in the imperfect, and in the second aorist active and middle. Hom. has them also in the first aorist. These are added to the tense stem, with ε (α in first aorist) inserted after a preceding consonant; as ἔχω, imp. ἔχ-εσκον; ἐρύω, 1 aor. ἐρύσ-ασκε; φεύγω (φυγ-), 2 aor. φύγε-σκον. Verbs in εω have ε-εσκον or εσκον in the imperfect; as καλέεσκον, πωλέσκετο; verbs in αω have α-ασκον or ασκον; as γοάασκε, νικάσκομεν. Rarely other verbs have ασκον in the imperfect; as κρύπτασκον from κρύπτω.

These forms are confined to the indicative, and they generally (in Hdt. always) omit the augment. They denote repetition; as πωλέσκετο, he went (regularly).

For μι-forms with these endings see § 126, 5.

Some verbs have poetic stems, made by adding θ preceded by a vowel (generally α or ε) to the present or the second aorist tense stem; as ἀμυναθ-, διωκαθ-, φλεγεθ-, from ἀμύνω, ward off, διώκω, pursue, φλέγω, burn. From these special stems are formed - sometimes presents, as φλεγέθω; sometimes imperfects, as ἐδιώκαθον; sometimes second aorists, as ἔσχεθον (σχ-); and also subjunctives and optatives, as εἰκάθω, εἰκάθοιμι, ἀμυνάθοιτο; imperatives, as ἀμυνάθατε, ἀμυνάθου; infinitives, as ἀμυνάθειν, διωκάθειν, σχεθέειν, σχέθειν or σχεθεῖν; and participles, as εἰκάθων, σχέθων or σχεθών. As few of these stems form a present indicative, many scholars consider ἐδιώκαθον, ἔργαθον, &c., with the subjunctives, &c., second aorists, and accent the infinitives and participles διωκαθεῖν, ἀμυναθεῖν, εἰκαθεῖν, εἰκαθών, &c., although the traditional accent is on the penult. See in the Lexicon ἀλκάθειν, ἀμυνάθω, διωκάθω, εἰκάθειν, ἐργάθειν, ἠερέθομαι, ἠγερέθομαι, μετακιάθω, σχέθω, φθινύθω, φλεγέθω.

(Subjunctive.)

(a) In Homer the subjunctive (especially in the 1st aor. act. and mid.) often has the short connecting vowels ε and ο (Attic η and ω), yet never in the singular of the active voice nor in the third person plural; as ἐρύσσομεν, ἀλγήσετε, μυθήσομαι, εὔξεαι, δηλήσεται, ἀμείψεται, ἐγείρομεν, ἱμείρεται.

(b) In both aor. pass. subjunctives Herodotus generally has the uncontracted forms in εω, εωμεν, εωσι, but contracts εῃ (or εη) to ῃ (or η); as ἀφαιρεθέω (Att. -θῶ), φανέωσι (Att. -ῶσι), but φανῇ.

(c) In the 2nd aor. pass. subj. of some verbs, Homer lengthens εω, εῃς, εῃ, to ειω, ειῃς (or ηῃς), ειῃ (or ηῃ), and has ειομεν, ειετε, for εωμεν, εητε; as δαμείω (from ἐδάμην, 2nd aor. p. of δαμνάω, subdue), δαμείῃς or δαμήῃς, δαμείῃ or δαμήῃ, δαμείετε; τραπείομεν (from ἐτάρπην of τέρπω, amuse). This is more fully developed in the 2nd aor. act. of the μι-form (§ 126, 7, b).

(d) In the subj. active Homer often has ωμι, ῃσθα (or ησθα), ῃσι; as ἐθέλωμι, ἐθέλῃσθα, ἐθέλῃσι.

(Optative.) The Aeolic forms of the aor. opt. act., ειας, ειε, ειαν (given in the paradigms of λύω and φαίνω), are the common forms in all dialects; the Aeolic has also first persons in εια and ειμεν. Homer sometimes has οισθα in the 2nd person for οις; as κλαίοισθα. For ατο (for ντο) see above, 3.

(Infinitive.)

(a) Homer often has ε-μεναι and ε-μεν for ει-ν in the infinitive active; as ἀμυνέμεναι, ἀμυνέμεν (Attic ἀμύνειν); ἐλθέμεναι, ἐλθέμεν (ἐλθεῖν); ἀξέμεναι, ἀξέμεν (ἄξειν). For the perfect (only of the μι-form, § 125, 4) see § 126, 9: the inf. in εναι does not occur in Homer. So Hom. μεναι, Dor. μεν, in the aor. pass.; as ὁμοιωθήμεναι, δαήμεναι (also δαῆναι), Hom.; αἰσχυνθῆμεν, Pind.

(b) Homer often has the uncontracted 2nd aor. inf. act. in εειν; as ἰδέειν.

(c) The Doric has εν (§ 98, N. 5) and the Aeolic ην for ειν in the infin.; Doric also ην for εν or ειν; thus ἀείδεν and γηρύεν (Dor.) for ἀείδειν and γηρύειν; φέρην and ἔχην (Aeol.) for φέρειν and ἔχειν; εἰπῆν (Dor.), εἴπην (Aeol.), for εἰπεῖν.

(Participle.) The Doric and Aeolic have οισα for ουσα, and αις, αισα for ας, ασα, in the participle; as ἔχοισα, θρέψαις, θρέψαισα.

The present and imperfect of verbs in αω, εω, and οω have the following dialectic peculiarities: -

(Verbs in αω.)

(a) In Homer verbs in αω are often contracted as in Attic. In a few cases they remain uncontracted; sometimes without change, as ναιετάουσι, ναιετάων, from ναιετάω, dwell; sometimes with ᾱ, as in πεινάω, hunger, διψάω, thirst; sometimes with εον for αον in the imperfect, as μενοίνεον from μενοινάω, long for.

(b) Commonly, when they are not contracted in Homer, the two vowels (or the vowel and diphthong) which elsewhere are contracted are assimilated, so as to give a double A or a double O sound. The second syllable, if it is short by nature or has a diphthong with a short initial vowel, is generally prolonged; sometimes the former syllable; rarely both. We thus have ᾱᾱ (sometimes ᾰᾱ) for ᾱε or ᾱη (ᾱῃ for ᾱει or ᾱῃ), and οω (sometimes ωο or ωω) for ᾱο or ᾱω (οῳ for ᾱοι):

Assimilated form	Unassimilated form
ὁράᾳς	ὁράεις
ὁρᾷς	ὁράεις or ὁράῃ
ὁράασθε	ὁράεσθε
ὁράασθαι	ὁράεσθαι
μνάασθαι	μνάεσθαι
ὁράαν	ὁράειν (Dor. ὁράεν)
ὁρόω	ὁράω
ὁρόωσι	ὁράουσι (i.e. ὁράονσι)
ὁρόωσα	ὁράουσα (i.e. ὁράοντ-σα, § 117, 2, N.)
ὁρόῳεν	ὁράοιεν
ὁρόωνται	ὁράονται
αἰτιόῳο	αἰτιάοιο

The lengthening of the former vowel occurs only when the word could not otherwise stand in the Homeric verse; as in ἡβώοντες for ἡβάοντες, ἡβώοιμι for ἡβάοιμι, μνάασθαι for μνάεσθαι, μνώοντο for (ἐ)μνάοντο. In this case the second vowel or diphthong is not lengthened (see the examples above); except in a final syllable, as in μενοινάᾳ (for -άει), or when ωσα or ωσι comes from οντσα or ονσι, as in ἡβώωσα, δρώωσι, for ἡβά-οντσα, δρά-ονσι.

This assimilation never occurs unless the second vowel is long either by nature or by position; thus ὁράομεν, ὁράετε, ὁραέτω cannot become ὁρόωμεν, ὁράατε, ὁράατω. It extends also to the so-called Attic futures in άσω, άω, ῶ (§ 110, II. Note 1, b); as ἐλόω, ἐλόωσι, κρεμόω, δαμάᾳ, δαμόωσι, for ἐλάσω (ἐλάω), &c.

(c) The Doric contracts αε and αη to η; this occurs in the dual of a few imperfects in Homer, as προσαυδήτην (from προσαυδάω), φοιτήτην (φοιτάω), συλήτην (συλάω). So Hom. ὅρηαι (or ὁρῆαι) for ὁράεαι (Attic ὁρᾷ) in the pres. ind. middle of ὁράω. See 2 (d).

(d) Herodotus sometimes changes αω, αο, and αου to εω, εο, and εου, especially in ὁράω, εἰρωτάω, and φοιτάω; as ὁρέω, ὁρέοντες, ὁρέουσι, εἰρώτεον, ἐφοίτεον. These forms are generally uncontracted; but εο and εου sometimes become ευ (2, a), as εἰρώτευν.

In other cases Herodotus contracts verbs in αω regularly.

(e) In Homer, ε-μεναι (§ 119, 14, a) in the pres. infin. act. of verbs in αω and εω becomes ημεναι by contracting ε with α or ε of the stem (1, c); as γοήμεναι (γοάω) for γοε-εμεναι, πεινήμεναι (πεινάω). See 2 (d).

(Verbs in εω.)

(a) Verbs in εω generally remain uncontracted in both Homer and Herodotus. But Homer sometimes contracts εε or εει to ει, as τάρβει (τάρβεε); and both Homer and Herodotus sometimes contract εο or εου to ευ (Hdt. especially in ἀγνοέω, διανοέομαι, θηέομαι, νοέω, ποιέω); as ποιεῦσι, ἀγνοεῦντες, διανοεῦντο. So in the Attic futures in ίσω, ίσομαι (§ 110, II. Note 1, c), as κομιεύμεθα (Hdt.). Hdt. has generally δεῖ, must, but impf. ἔδεε.

(b) Homer sometimes drops ε in εαι and εο (for εσαι, εσο, § 113, 2) after υ, thus changing ύεαι and ύεο to ύαι and ύο, as μυθέαι for μυθέεαι (from μυθέομαι), ἀποαιρέο (for ἀποαιρέεο); but he oftener contracts έεαι and έεο to εῖαι and εῖο, as μυθεῖαι, αἰδεῖο (for αἰδέεο). Herodotus sometimes drops the second ε in έεο; as φοβέο (also φοβεῦ), αἰτέο, ἐξηγέο.

(c) In Homer, final ε of the stem is often lengthened into ει; as νεικείω, πνείω, for νεικέω, πνέω. So in ἐτελείετο from τελέω, τελείω. A similar change takes place in εω of the 2nd aor. passive subjunctive (§ 119, 12, c).

(d) Homer has a present infinitive in ημεναι for ε-εμεναι (1, e), as φιλήμεναι (φιλέω) for φιλε-εμεναι, καλήμεναι (καλέω). So φορῆναι (φορέ-ειν) from φορέω. Homer has Doric contraction in the duals ὁμαρτήτην (ὁμαρτέω) and ἀπειλήτην (ἀπειλέω). See 1 (c).

(Verbs in οω.)

(a) Verbs in οω are always contracted inHerodotus, but he sometimes has ευ (for ου) from οο or οου, especially in δικαιόω, think just; as ἐδικαίευν, δικαιεῦντος, δικαιεῦσι.

(b) They are always contracted in Homer, except in the few cases in which forms in οω or ωο occur resembling those made by assimilation in verbs in αω (1, b); as ἀρόωσι (from ἀρόω, plough); δηιόφεν and (impf.) δηιόωντο (from δηιόω); ἱδρώουσα and ἱδρώοντα (from ἱδρόω).

REMARK. The peculiar inflection of verbs in μι affects only the tenses formed from the present and second aorist stems, and in a few verbs those formed from the second perfect stem. Most of the second aorists and perfects here included do not belong to presents in μι, but are irregular forms of verbs in ω; as ἔβην (βαίνω), ἔγνων (γιγνώσκω), ἐπτάμην (πέτομαι), and τέθναμεν, τεθναίην, τεθνάναι (2nd perfect of θνήσκω). See § 125, 3 and 4. Tenses thus inflected are called μι-forms. In other tenses verbs in μι are inflected like verbs in ω (§ 123, 3). No single verb exhibits all the μι-forms.

§ 121.

In the present and imperfect of verbs in μι, and in all other tenses which have the μι-form of inflection, the endings (§ 112, 2) are added directly to the tense stem, except in the subjunctive and optative. The tense stem almost always ends in a vowel, which, if short, is lengthened (Note 1) in the singular of the present and imperfect indicative active, and generally in all forms of the second aorist indicative, imperative, and infinitive active. Thus φη-μί, φη-σί, φᾶ-μέν, φᾶ-τέ, from stem φᾱ-; cf. λύ-ο-μεν, λύ-ε-τε, from stem λυ-. See § 112, 4.

NOTE 1. Here ᾰ and ε are lengthened to η, ο to ω, and ῐ to ῡ. But in the second aorist, ᾰ after ρ becomes ᾱ in ἔδρᾱν, ε becomes ει in the infinitives θεῖναι and εἶναι, and ο becomes ου in δοῦναι. (See § 125, 3, Notes 1 and 2.)

NOTE 2. The only verbs in μι with consonant present stems are the irregular εἰμί, be, and ἧμαι, sit (§ 127). See also οἶδα (§ 127, VII.), and a few poetic second aorists and perfects (§ 125, 3 and 4).

The following peculiarities in the endings are to be noticed in these forms:

(a) The endings μι and σι (§ 112, 2, N.) are retained in the first and third persons singular of the present indicative active; as φη-μί, φη-σί.

(b) θι is retained in the second aorist imperative active (§ 116, 1) after a long vowel, as in στῆθι, βῆθι; but it is changed to ς in θές, δός, ἕς, and σχές. It is rare in the present, as φάθι, ἴθι. The present commonly omits θι, and lengthens the preceding vowel (ᾰ, ε, ο, or ῠ) to η, ει, ου, or ῡ; as ἵστη (for ἱστα-θι), τίθει, δίδου, δείκνῡ (see § 123).

(c) In the second person singular passive and middle, σαι and σο are retained (see, however, § 122, N. 3); except in the second aorist middle and in the subjunctive and optative, which drop σ and are contracted (§ 114, N. 2; § 115, 2, 3). In the present imperative both forms in σο and contracted forms in ω or ου (for ασο, εσο, οσο) occur, ῠσο being always retained.

(d) In the third person plural of the present indicative active, α is prefixed to the ending νσι, making ασι (§ 16, 6), which is contracted with α (but not with ε, ο, or υ) of the stem; as ἱστᾶσι (for ἱστα-ασι), but τιθέ-ᾱσι, διδό-ᾱσι, δεικνύ-ᾱσι. Contracted forms in εῖσι, οῦσι, and ῦσι, from stems in ε, ο, and υ, are regular in Ionic, but rare in Attic. In the third person plural, the imperfect and second aorist active have σαν, and the optative active has ιη-σαν or ιε-ν.

(e) The infinitive active adds ναι to the tense stem; as ἱστά-ναι, τιθέ-ναι, δοῦ-ναι, θεῖ-ναι.

(f) The participle active (with stem in αντ, εντ, οντ, or υντ) forms the nominative in ᾱς, εις, ους, or ῡς.

Some verbs in ημι and ωμι reduplicate the stem in the present and imperfect by prefixing its initial consonant with ι; as δί-δω-μι (δο-), give, τί-θη-μι (θε-), put, for θι-θη-μι (§ 17, 2). From stem στα- we have ἵ-στη-μι, set, for σι-στη-μι; and from ἑ- we have ἵ-η-μι (ἱ-ἡ-μι). See § 125, 2.

§ 122.

There are two classes of verbs which have this inflection:

First, verbs in μι which have the simple stem or the reduplicated simple stem (§ 121, 3) in the present; and all the second aorists and second perfects and pluperfects of the μι-form. This includes all verbs in ημι and ωμι (from stems in α, ε, and ο).

Secondly, verbs in νυμι, which (with one exception) have the μι-form only in the present and imperfect. These add νῡ (after a vowel, ννῡ) to the simple stem to form the present stem; as δεικ-, δεικνῡ-, δείκνυ-μι, δείκνῡ-ς, δείκνῡ-σι, but δείκνυ-μεν, δείκνυ-τε (§ 121, 1).

They thus belong, by the formation of the present stem, to the fifth class of verbs in ω (§ 108, V. 4), and some of them (as δείκνυμι) use the present in νύω (see Note 5).

NOTE 1. Some verbs in ημι and ωμι have forms which follow the inflection of verbs in εω and οω. Especially, in the imperfect of τίθημι and δίδωμι, ἐτίθεις and ἐτίθει (as if from τιθέω), and ἐδίδουν, ἐδίδους, ἐδίδου (as if from διδόω), are much more common than the regular forms in ης, η and ων, ως, ω. So in the second aorist, the forms [ἔθην, ἔθης, ἔθη] and [ἔδων, ἔδως, ἔδω] never occur; and in their place the first aorists in κα, ἔθηκα and ἔδωκα (§ 110, III. 1, N. 1), are used in the singular, while the second aorist forms ἔθετον, &c., ἔδοτον, &c., are generally used in the dual and plural. See also ἵημι (§ 127), where ἧκα is used in the same way. Further, in the optative middle, τιθοίμην, τιθοῖο, τιθοῖτο, &c. (also accented τίθοιο, τίθοιτο, &c.) and (in composition) θοίμην, θοῖο, θοῖτο, &c. (also accented σύν-θοιτο, πρόσ-θοισθε, &c.) occur with the regular τιθείμην, θείμην, &c. See also πρόοιτο, &c., under ἵημι (§ 127).

NOTE 2. A few deponent verbs accent the subjunctive and optative as if there were no contraction. Such are δύναμαι, ἐπίσταμαι, κρέμαμαι, and ἐπριάμην (§ 123); as δύνωμαι, δύναιτο (not δυνῶμαι, δυναῖτο); and sometimes other verbs in μι. The infinitive πρίασθαι is accented like a first aorist.

NOTE 3. Δύναμαι and ἐπίσταμαι generally have ἐδύνω (or ἠδύνω) and ἠπίστω, for ἐδύνασο and ἠπίστασο, in the second person singular of the imperfect.

NOTE 4. For the formation of the subjunctive and optative of verbs in ημι and ωμι, see § 114, N. 2, and § 115, 2 and 3. But the contracted subjunctive from stems in α has ῶ, ῇς, ῇ, &c. (act.), and ῶμαι, ῇ, ῆται, &c. (mid.), as if from stems in ε; which stems are found in Ionic, as in στέω-μεν, στέω-σι (Attic στῶμεν, στῶσι). See § 126, 7 (a).

NOTE 5. Verbs in νυμι form the subjunctive and optative like verbs in ω; as δεικνύ-ω, δεικνύ-οιμι, δεικνύ-ωμαι, δεικνυ-οίμην. In other moods forms of verbs in νύω often occur; as δεικνύουσι, ὀμνύουσι.

NOTE 6. Only one verb in νυμι, σβέννυμι (σβε-), quench, has a second aorist active; and this, ἔσβην, was quenched, with infin. σβῆναι and (Ion.) part. σβείς, is formed from the simple stem in ε (§ 125, 3).

§ 123.

The following is a synopsis of ἵστημι, set, (stem στᾰ-), τίθημι, put (stem θε-), δίδωμι, give (stem δο-), and δείκνυμι, show (stem δεικ-, present stem δεικνυ-), in the present and second aorist systems.

As ἵστημι wants the second aorist middle, ἐπριάμην, I bought (from a stem πρια- which has no present), is added. As δείκνυμι wants the second aorist (§ 122, N. 6), ἔδῡν, I entered (from δύω, formed as if from δυ-μι), is added in the active voice. No second aorist middle in ύμην occurs, except in scattered poetic forms (see λύω, πνέω, σεύω, and χέω). Ἔδῡν has no aorist optative in Attic; but two forms of an old optative δύην (for δυ-ιη-ν) occur in Homer, viz. δύη and ἐκδύμεν.

ACTIVE

System	Verb	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative	Infinitive	Participle
Present	ἵστημι	ἵστημι	ἱστῶ	ἱσταίην	ἵστη	ἱστάναι	ἱστάς
Present	τίθημι	τίθημι	τιθῶ	τιθείην	τίθει	τιθέναι	τιθείς
Present	δίδωμι	δίδωμι	διδῶ	διδοίην	δίδου	διδόναι	διδούς
Present	δείκνυμι	δείκνυμι	δεικνύω	δεικνύοιμι	δείκνυ	δεικνύναι	δεικνύς
Imperfect	ἵστημι	ἵστην					
Imperfect	τίθημι	ἐτίθην					
Imperfect	δίδωμι	ἐδίδουν					
Imperfect	δείκνυμι	ἐδείκνυν					
Second aorist	ἵστημι	ἔστην	στῶ	σταίην	στῆθι	στῆναι	στάς
Second aorist	τίθημι	(ἔθην)	θῶ	θείην	θές	θεῖναι	θείς
Second aorist	δίδωμι	(ἔδων)	δῶ	δοίην	δός	δοῦναι	δούς
Second aorist	δύω	ἔδυν	δύω	-	δῦθι	δῦναι	δύς

PASSIVE AND MIDDLE

System	Verb	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative	Infinitive	Participle
Present	ἵστημι	ἵσταμαι	ἱστῶμαι	ἱσταίμην	ἵστασο	ἵστασθαι	ἱστάμενος
Present	τίθημι	τίθεμαι	τιθῶμαι	τιθείμην	τίθεσο	τίθεσθαι	τιθέμενος
Present	δίδωμι	δίδομαι	διδῶμαι	διδοίμην	δίδοσο	δίδοσθαι	διδόμενος
Present	δείκνυμι	δείκνυμαι	δεικνύωμαι	δεικνυοίμην	δείκνυσο	δείκνυσθαι	δεικνύμενος
Imperfect	ἵστημι	ἱστάμην					
Imperfect	τίθημι	ἐτιθέμην					
Imperfect	δίδωμι	ἐδιδόμην					
Imperfect	δείκνυμι	ἐδεικνύμην					
Second aorist middle	πρίαμαι	ἐπριάμην	πρίωμαι	πριαίμην	πρίω	πρίασθαι	πριάμενος
Second aorist middle	τίθημι	ἐθέμην	θῶμαι	θείμην	θοῦ	θέσθαι	θέμενος
Second aorist middle	δίδωμι	ἐδόμην	δῶμαι	δοίμην	δοῦ	δόσθαι	δόμενος

The peculiar forms of these verbs, which are included in the synopsis, are thus inflected: –

ACTIVE VOICE

Present Indicative

Number and person	ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι	δείκνυμι
Singular 1	ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι	δείκνυμι
Singular 2	ἵστης	τίθης	δίδως	δείκνυς
Singular 3	ἵστησι	τίθησι	δίδωσι	δείκνυσι
Dual 2	ἵστατον	τίθετον	δίδοτον	δείκνυτον
Dual 3	ἵστατον	τίθετον	δίδοτον	δείκνυτον
Plural 1	ἵσταμεν	τίθεμεν	δίδομεν	δείκνυμεν
Plural 2	ἵστατε	τίθετε	δίδοτε	δείκνυτε
Plural 3	ἱστᾶσι	τιθέασι	διδόασι	δεικνύασι

Imperfect

Number and person	ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι	δείκνυμι
Singular 1	ἵστην	ἐτίθην	(ἐδίδων) ἐδίδουν	ἐδείκνυν
Singular 2	ἵστης	ἐτίθης, ἐτίθεις	(ἐδίδως) ἐδίδους	ἐδείκνυς
Singular 3	ἵστη	ἐτίθη, ἐτίθει	(ἐδίδω) ἐδίδου	ἐδείκνυ
Dual 2	ἵστατον	ἐτίθετον	ἐδίδοτον	ἐδείκνυτον
Dual 3	ἱστάτην	ἐτιθέτην	ἐδιδότην	ἐδεικνύτην
Plural 1	ἵσταμεν	ἐτίθεμεν	ἐδίδομεν	ἐδείκνυμεν
Plural 2	ἵστατε	ἐτίθετε	ἐδίδοτε	ἐδείκνυτε
Plural 3	ἵστασαν	ἐτίθεσαν	ἐδίδοσαν	ἐδείκνυσαν

Present Subjunctive

Number and person	ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι	δείκνυμι
Singular 1	ἱστῶ	τιθῶ	διδῶ	δεικνύω
Singular 2	ἱστῇς	τιθῇς	διδῷς	δεικνύῃς
Singular 3	ἱστῇ	τιθῇ	διδῷ	δεικνύῃ
Dual 2	ἱστῆτον	τιθῆτον	διδῶτον	δεικνύητον
Dual 3	ἱστῆτον	τιθῆτον	διδῶτον	δεικνύητον
Plural 1	ἱστῶμεν	τιθῶμεν	διδῶμεν	δεικνύωμεν
Plural 2	ἱστῆτε	τιθῆτε	διδῶτε	δεικνύητε
Plural 3	ἱστῶσι	τιθῶσι	διδῶσι	δεικνύωσι

Present Optative

Number and person	ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι	δείκνυμι
Singular 1	ἱσταίην	τιθείην	διδοίην	δεικνύοιμι
Singular 2	ἱσταίης	τιθείης	διδοίης	δεικνύοις
Singular 3	ἱσταίη	τιθείη	διδοίη	δεικνύοι
Dual 2	ἱσταίητον	τιθείητον	διδοίητον	δεικνύοιτον
Dual 3	ἱσταίητην	τιθείητην	διδοίητην	δεικνυοίτην
Plural 1	ἱσταίημεν	τιθείημεν	διδοίημεν	δεικνύοιμεν
Plural 2	ἱσταίητε	τιθείητε	διδοίητε	δεικνύοιτε
Plural 3	ἱσταίησαν	τιθείησαν	διδοίησαν	δεικνύοιεν

Or thus contracted: –

Number and person	ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι
Dual 2	ἱσταῖτον	τιθεῖτον	διδοῖτον
Dual 3	ἱσταίτην	τιθείτην	διδοίτην
Plural 1	ἱσταῖμεν	τιθεῖμεν	διδοῖμεν
Plural 2	ἱσταῖτε	τιθεῖτε	διδοῖτε
Plural 3	ἱσταῖεν	τιθεῖεν	διδοῖεν

Present Imperative

Number and person	ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι	δείκνυμι
Singular 2	ἵστη	τίθει	δίδου	δείκνυ
Singular 3	ἱστάτω	τιθέτω	διδότω	δεικνύτω
Dual 2	ἵστατον	τίθετον	δίδοτον	δείκνυτον
Dual 3	ἱστάτων	τιθέτων	διδότων	δεικνύτων
Plural 2	ἵστατε	τίθετε	δίδοτε	δείκνυτε
Plural 3	ἱστάτωσαν or ἱστάντων	τιθέτωσαν or τιθέντων	διδότωσαν or διδόντων	δεικνύτωσαν or δεικνύντων

Present Infinitive

ἱστάναι τιθέναι διδόναι δεικνύναι

Present Participle

| ἱστάς | τιθείς | διδούς | δεικνύς |

Second Aorist Indicative

Number and person	ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι	δύω
Singular 1	ἔστην	(ἔθην)	(ἔδων)	ἔδυν
Singular 2	ἔστης	(ἔθης)	(ἔδως)	ἔδυς
Singular 3	ἔστη	(ἔθη)	(ἔδω)	ἔδυ
Dual 2	ἔστητον	ἔθετον	ἔδοτον	ἔδυτον
Dual 3	ἐστήτην	ἐθέτην	ἐδότην	ἐδύτην
Plural 1	ἔστημεν	ἔθεμεν	ἔδομεν	ἔδυμεν
Plural 2	ἔστητε	ἔθετε	ἔδοτε	ἔδυτε
Plural 3	ἔστησαν	ἔθεσαν	ἔδοσαν	ἔδυσαν

Second Aorist Subjunctive

Number and person	ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι	δύω
Singular 1	στῶ	θῶ	δῶ	δύω
Singular 2	στῇς	θῇς	δῷς	δύῃς
Singular 3	στῇ	θῇ	δῷ	δύῃ
Dual 2	στῆτον	θῆτον	δῶτον	δύητον
Dual 3	στῆτον	θῆτον	δῶτον	δύητον
Plural 1	στῶμεν	θῶμεν	δῶμεν	δύωμεν
Plural 2	στῆτε	θῆτε	δῶτε	δύητε
Plural 3	στῶσι	θῶσι	δῶσι	δύωσι

Second Aorist Optative

Number and person	ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι
Singular 1	σταίην	θείην	δοίην
Singular 2	σταίης	θείης	δοίης
Singular 3	σταίη	θείη	δοίη
Dual 2	σταίητον	θείητον	δοίητον
Dual 3	σταίητην	θείητην	δοίητην
Plural 1	σταίημεν	θείημεν	δοίημεν
Plural 2	σταίητε	θείητε	δοίητε
Plural 3	σταίησαν	θείησαν	δοίησαν

Or thus contracted: -

Number and person	ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι
Dual 2	σταῖτον	θεῖτον	δοῖτον
Dual 3	σταίτην	θείτην	δοίτην
Plural 1	σταῖμεν	θεῖμεν	δοῖμεν
Plural 2	σταῖτε	θεῖτε	δοῖτε
Plural 3	σταῖεν	θεῖεν	δοῖεν

Second Aorist Imperative

Number and person	ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι	δύω
Singular 2	στῆθι	θές	δός	δῦθι
Singular 3	στήτω	θέτω	δότω	δύτω
Dual 2	στῆτον	θέτον	δότον	δῦτον
Dual 3	στήτων	θέτων	δότων	δύτων
Plural 2	στῆτε	θέτε	δότε	δῦτε
Plural 3	στήτωσαν or στάντων	θέτωσαν or θέντων	δότωσαν or δόντων	δύτωσαν or δύντων

Second Aorist Infinitive

ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι	δύω
στῆναι	θεῖναι	δοῦναι	δῦναι

Second Aorist Participle

ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι	δύω
στάς	θείς	δούς	δύς

PASSIVE AND MIDDLE

Present Indicative

Number and person	ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι	δείκνυμι
Singular 1	ἵσταμαι	τίθεμαι	δίδομαι	δείκνυμαι
Singular 2	ἵστασαι	τίθεσαι	δίδοσαι	δείκνυσαι
Singular 3	ἵσταται	τίθεται	δίδοται	δείκνυται
Dual 2	ἵστασθον	τίθεσθον	δίδοσθον	δείκνυσθον
Dual 3	ἵστασθον	τίθεσθον	δίδοσθον	δείκνυσθον
Plural 1	ἱστάμεθα	τιθέμεθα	διδόμεθα	δεικνύμεθα
Plural 2	ἵστασθε	τίθεσθε	δίδοσθε	δείκνυσθε
Plural 3	ἵστανται	τίθενται	δίδονται	δείκνυνται

Imperfect

Number and person	ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι	δείκνυμι
Singular 1	ἱστάμην	ἐτιθέμην	ἐδιδόμην	ἐδεικνύμην
Singular 2	ἵστασο	ἐτίθεσο	ἐδίδοσο	ἐδείκνυσο
Singular 3	ἵστατο	ἐτίθετο	ἐδίδοτο	ἐδείκνυτο
Dual 2	ἵστασθον	ἐτίθεσθον	ἐδίδοσθον	ἐδείκνυσθον
Dual 3	ἱστάσθην	ἐτιθέσθην	ἐδιδόσθην	ἐδεικνύσθην
Plural 1	ἱστάμεθα	ἐτιθέμεθα	ἐδιδόμεθα	ἐδεικνύμεθα
Plural 2	ἵστασθε	ἐτίθεσθε	ἐδίδοσθε	ἐδείκνυσθε
Plural 3	ἵσταντο	ἐτίθεντο	ἐδίδοντο	ἐδείκνυντο

Present Subjunctive

Number and person	ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι	δείκνυμι
Singular 1	ἱστῶμαι	τιθῶμαι	διδῶμαι	δεικνύωμαι
Singular 2	ἱστῇ	τιθῇ	διδῷ	δεικνύῃ
Singular 3	ἱστῆται	τιθῆται	διδῶται	δεικνύηται
Dual 2	ἱστῆσθον	τιθῆσθον	διδῶσθον	δεικνύησθον
Dual 3	ἱστῆσθον	τιθῆσθον	διδῶσθον	δεικνύησθον
Plural 1	ἱστώμεθα	τιθώμεθα	διδώμεθα	δεικνυώμεθα
Plural 2	ἱστῆσθε	τιθῆσθε	διδῶσθε	δεικνύησθε
Plural 3	ἱστῶνται	τιθῶνται	διδῶνται	δεικνύωνται

Present Optative

Number and person	ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι	δείκνυμι
Singular 1	ἱσταίμην	τιθείμην	διδοίμην	δεικνυοίμην
Singular 2	ἱσταῖο	τιθεῖο	διδοῖο	δεικνύοιο
Singular 3	ἱσταῖτο	τιθεῖτο	διδοῖτο	δεικνύοιτο
Dual 2	ἱσταῖσθον	τιθεῖσθον	διδοῖσθον	δεικνύοισθον
Dual 3	ἱσταίσθην	τιθείσθην	διδοίσθην	δεικνυοίσθην
Plural 1	ἱσταίμεθα	τιθείμεθα	διδοίμεθα	δεικνυοίμεθα
Plural 2	ἱσταῖσθε	τιθεῖσθε	διδοῖσθε	δεικνύοισθε
Plural 3	ἱσταῖντο	τιθεῖντο	διδοῖντο	δεικνύοιντο

Present Imperative

Number and person	ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι	δείκνυμι
Singular 2	ἵστασο or ἵστω	τίθεσο or τίθου	δίδοσο or δίδου	δείκνυσο
Singular 3	ἱστάσθω	τιθέσθω	διδόσθω	δεικνύσθω
Dual 2	ἵστασθον	τίθεσθον	δίδοσθον	δείκνυσθον
Dual 3	ἱστάσθων	τιθέσθων	διδόσθων	δεικνύσθων
Plural 2	ἵστασθε	τίθεσθε	δίδοσθε	δείκνυσθε
Plural 3	ἱστάσθωσαν or ἱστάσθων	τιθέσθωσαν or τιθέσθων	διδόσθωσαν or διδόσθων	δεικνύσθωσαν or δεικνύσθων

Present Infinitive

ἵστασθάι τίθεσθαι δίδοσθαι δείκνυσθαι

Present Participle

ἱστάμενος τιθέμενος διδόμενος δεικνύμενος

Second Aorist Middle Indicative

Number and person	πρίαμαι	τίθημι	δίδωμι
Singular 1	ἐπριάμην	ἐθέμην	ἐδόμην
Singular 2	ἐπρίω	ἔθου	ἔδου
Singular 3	ἐπρίατο	ἔθετο	ἔδοτο
Dual 2	ἐπρίασθον	ἔθεσθον	ἔδοσθον
Dual 3	ἐπριάσθην	ἐθέσθην	ἐδόσθην
Plural 1	ἐπριάμεθα	ἐθέμεθα	ἐδόμεθα
Plural 2	ἐπρίασθε	ἔθεσθε	ἔδοσθε
Plural 3	ἐπρίαντο	ἔθεντο	ἔδοντο

Second Aorist Middle Subjunctive

Number and person	πρίαμαι	τίθημι	δίδωμι
Singular 1	πρίωμαι	θῶμαι	δῶμαι
Singular 2	πρίῃ	θῇ	δῷ
Singular 3	πρίηται	θῆται	δῶται
Dual 2	πρίησθον	θῆσθον	δῶσθον
Dual 3	πρίησθον	θῆσθον	δῶσθον
Plural 1	πριώμεθα	θώμεθα	δώμεθα
Plural 2	πρίησθε	θῆσθε	δῶσθε
Plural 3	πρίωνται	θῶνται	δῶνται

Second Aorist Middle Optative

Number and person	πρίαμαι	τίθημι	δίδωμι
Singular 1	πριαίμην	θείμην	δοίμην
Singular 2	πρίαιο	θεῖο	δοῖο
Singular 3	πρίαιτο	θεῖτο	δοῖτο
Dual 2	πρίαισθον	θεῖσθον	δοῖσθον
Dual 3	πριαίσθην	θείσθην	δοίσθην
Plural 1	πριαίμεθα	θείμεθα	δοίμεθα
Plural 2	πρίαισθε	θεῖσθε	δοῖσθε
Plural 3	πρίαιντο	θεῖντο	δοῖντο

Second Aorist Middle Imperative

Number and person	πρίαμαι	τίθημι	δίδωμι
Singular 2	πρίω	θοῦ	δοῦ
Singular 3	πριάσθω	θέσθω	δόσθω
Dual 2	πρίασθον	θέσθον	δόσθον
Dual 3	πριάσθων	θέσθων	δόσθων
Plural 2	πρίασθε	θέσθε	δόσθε
Plural 3	πριάσθωσαν or πριάσθων	θέσθωσαν or θέσθων	δόσθωσαν or δόσθων

Second Aorist Middle Infinitive

πρίαμαι	τίθημι	δίδωμι
πρίασθαι	θέσθαι	δόσθαι

Second Aorist Middle Participle.

πριάμενος θέμενος δόμενος

The following is a full synopsis of the indicative of ἴστημι, τίθημι, δίδωμι, and δείκνυμι, in all the voices:

ACTIVE

Tense	ἵστημι (set)	τίθημι (place)	δίδωμι (give)	δείκνυμι (show)
Present	ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι	δείκνυμι
Imperfect	ἵστην	ἐτίθην	ἐδίδουν	ἐδείκνυν
Future	στήσω	θήσω	δώσω	δείξω
Aorist	1. ἔστησα, set

ἔστην, stood | 1. ἔθηκα

ἔθετον, &c. (in dual and plur.) | 1. ἔδωκα

ἔδοτον, &c. (in dual and plur.) | 1. ἔδειξα | | Perfect | 1. ἕστηκα

ἕστατον, &c., in dual and plur.; stand | 1. τέθεικα | 1. δέδωκα | 1. δέδειχα | | Pluperfect | 1. ἑστήκειν or εἱστήκειν

2. ἕστατον, &c., in dual and plur.; stood | 1. ἐτεθείκειν | 1. ἐδεδώκειν | 1. ἐδεδείχειν |
| Future perfect | ἑστήξω, shall stand (§ 110, IV. c, N. 2) |	|	|	|

MIDDLE

Tense	ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι	δείκνυμι
Present	ἵσταμαι, stand	τίθεμαι (trans.)	δίδομαι	δείκνυμαι (trans.)
Imperfect	ἱστάμην	ἐτιθέμην	ἐδιδόμην	ἐδεικνύμην
Future	στήσομαι	θήσομαι	-δώσομαι	-δείξομαι
First aorist	ἐστησάμην (trans.)	ἐθηκάμην (not Attic)		ἐδειξάμην
Second aorist		ἐθέμην	-ἐδόμην	
Perfect	ἕσταμαι (as pass.)	τέθειμαι	δέδομαι	δέδειγμαι
Pluperfect	(?)	(?)	ἐδεδόμην	ἐδεδείγμην

PASSIVE

Present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect: as in middle.

Tense	ἵστημι	τίθημι	δίδωμι	δείκνυμι
Aorist	ἐστάθην	ἐτέθην	ἐδόθην	ἐδείχθην
Future	σταθήσομαι	τεθήσομαι	δοθήσομαι	δειχθήσομαι
Future perfect	ἑστήξομαι, shall stand			(δεδείξομαι, late)

A few second perfects and pluperfects are inflected like the present and imperfect of verbs in μι. But they are never used in the singular of the indicative, the forms (ἕσταα), (τέθναα), (γέγαα), &c. being imaginary. The participle is formed in ως, ωσα, ος, which is contracted with a preceding α to ώς, ῶσα, ός (irregular for ᾱς).

The principal verbs which have these forms in Attic prose are βαίνω, go, 2 perf. infin. βεβάναι; θνήσκω, die, τεθνάναι; and ἵστημι, set, ἑστάναι, with stems in α. All these have ordinary perfects, βέβηκα, τέθνηκα, ἕστηκα, which are always used in the singular of the indicative. The second perfect and pluperfect of ἵστημι (στα-) are thus inflected: -

SECOND PERFECT

Number and person	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
Singular 1	-	ἑστῶ	ἑσταίην	
Singular 2	-	ἑστῇς	ἑσταίης	ἕσταθι
Singular 3	-	ἑστῇ	ἑσταίη	ἑστάτω
Dual 2	ἕστατον	ἑστῆτον	ἑσταίητον or ἑσταῖτον	ἕστατον
Dual 3	ἕστατον	ἑστῆτον	ἑσταίητην or ἑσταίτην	ἑστάτων
Plural 1	ἕσταμεν	ἑστῶμεν	ἑσταίημεν or ἑσταῖμεν	
Plural 2	ἕστατε	ἑστῆτε	ἑσταίητε or ἑσταῖτε	ἕστατε
Plural 3	ἑστᾶσι	ἑστῶσι	ἑσταίησαν or ἑσταῖεν	ἑστάτωσαν or ἑστάντων

Infinitive: ἑστάναι. Participle: (Hom. ἑσταώς, ἑσταῶσα, ἑσταός), Att. contr. ἑστώς, ἑστῶσα, ἑστός (Ionic also -εώς, -εῶσα, -εός; Ep. -ηώς).

See § 110, IV. (α), N. 8. For the inflection, see § 69, Note.

SECOND PLUPERFECT

Dual. ἕστατον, ἑστάτην.

Plural. ἕσταμεν, ἕστατε, ἔστασαν.

Note. For an enumeration of these forms, see § 125, 4.

The forms which have this inflection are as follows: –

Verbs in μι with the simple stem in the present. These are the irregular εἰμί, be, εἶμι, go, φημί, say, κεῖμαι, lie, and ἧμαι, sit, all of which are inflected in § 127; with ἠμί, say, χρή, ought, and the deponents ἄγαμαι, δύναμαι, ἐπίσταμαι, ἔραμαι, κρέμαμαι.

See these in the Catalogue, and also Ionic or poetic (chiefly Homeric) forms under ἄημι, δέαμαι, δίεμαι, δίζημαι, ἔδω, ἵλημι, κιχάνω, ὄνομαι, ῥύομαι and ἐρύομαι, στεῦμαι, φέρω; also δάμνημι, κίρνημι, κρήμνημι, μάρναμαι, πέρνημι, πίλναμαι, πίτνημι, σκίδνημι and κίδνημι.

Verbs in μι with reduplicated present stems (§ 121, 3). These are ἵστημι, τίθημι, and δίδωμι, inflected in § 123, ἵημι, inflected in § 127, δίδημι, rare for δέω, bind, κίχρημι (χρᾱ-), lend, ὀνίνημι (ὀνᾱ-), benefit, πίμπλημι (πλᾱ-), fill, πίμπρημι (πρᾱ-), burn.

See also ἵπταμαι (late), and Hom. βιβάς, striding, present participle of rare βίβημι.

Note 1. Πίμπλημι and πίμπρημι insert μ before π; but the μ generally disappears after μ (for ν) in ἐμ-πίπλημι and ἐμ-πίπρημι; but not after ν itself, as in ἐν-επίμπλασαν.

Note 2. Ὀνίνημι is probably for ὀν-ονη-μι, by Attic reduplication from stem ὀνᾰ-.

Second Aorists of the μι-Form. The only second aorists formed from verbs in μι are those of ἵημι (§ 127), of ἵστημι, τίθημι, and δίδωμι (§ 123), of σβέννυμι (§ 122, N. 6); with ἐπριάμην (§ 123, 1), the irregular ὠνήμην (rarely ὠνάμην), of ὀνίνημι, and ἐπλήμην (poetic) of πίμπλημι.

See the last two in the Catalogue, and also Homeric aorist middle forms of μίγνυμι, ὄρνυμι, and πήγνυμι.

The second aorists of this form belonging to verbs in ω are the following: -

Βαίνω (βα-), go: ἔβην, βῶ, βαίην, βῆθι, βῆναι, βάς.

Πέτομαι (πτα-, πτε-), fly: act. (poetic) ἔπτην, (πτῶ, late), πταίην, (πτῆθι, πτῆναι, late), πτάς. Mid. ἐπτάμην, πτάσθαι, πτάμενος.

[Τλάω] (τλα-), endure: ἔτλην, τλῶ, τλαίην, τλῆθι, τλῆναι, τλάς.

Φθάνω (φθα-), anticipate: ἔφθην, φθῶ, φθαίην, φθῆναι, φθάς.

Διδράσκω (δρα-), run: ἔδρᾱν, ἔδρᾱς, ἔδρᾱ, &c., δρῶ, δρᾷς, δρᾷ, &c., δραίην, δρᾶναι, δράς. Only in composition. (See Note 1.)

Κτείνω (κτα-, κτεν-), kill: act. (poetic) ἔκτᾱν, ἔκτᾱς, ἔκτᾱ, ἔκτᾰμεν (3 pl. ἔκτᾰν, subj. κτέωμεν, inf. κτάμεναι, κτάμεν, Hom.), κτάς. Mid. (Hom.) ἐκτάμην, was killed, κτάσθαι, κτάμενος.

Ἁλίσκομαι (ἁλ-), be taken: ἑάλων or ἥλων, was taken, ἁλῶ, ἁλοίην, ἁλῶναι, ἁλούς. (See Note 2.)

Βιόω (βιο-), live: ἐβίων, βιῶ, βιῴην (not -οίην), βιῶναι, βιούς (Hom. imper. βιώτω).

Γιγνώσκω (γνο-), know: ἔγνων, γνῶ, γνοίην, γνῶθι, γνῶναι, γνούς.

Δύω (δυ-), enter: ἔδῡν, entered, δύω, (opt. § 123, 1,) δῦθι, δῦναι, δύς (§ 123).

Φύω (φυ-), produce: ἔφῡν, was produced, am, φύω, φῦναι, φύς (like ἔδυν).

Add to these the single forms, γηράναι (γηράς, Hom.) of γηράσκω, grow old; ἀπο-σκλῆναι, of ἀποσκέλλω, dry up; σχές, imperat. of ἔχω, have; πῖθι, imperat. of πίνω, drink.

See also in the Catalogue Homeric μι-forms of the following verbs: ἀπαυράω, ἄω, βάλλω, βιβρώσκω, κλύω, κτίζω, λύω, οὐτάω, πελάζω, πλώω, πνέω, πτήσσω, σεύω, φθίνω, χέω; and of these (with consonant stems), ἅλλομαι, ἀραρίσκω, γέντο (γεν-), δέχομαι, λέγω (λεχ-) ἐλέγμην, πάλλω, πέρθω.

Note 1. Second aorists in ην or αμην from stems in α are inflected like ἔστην or ἐπριάμην; but ἔδρᾱν substitutes ᾱ (after ρ) for η, and ἔκτᾰν is irregular.

Note 2. The second aorists of τίθημι, ἵημι, and δίδωμι do not lengthen ε or ο of the stem (§ 121, 1) in the indicative (dual and plural) or imperative (εἶτον, εἷμεν, &c. being augmented): in the infinitive they have θεῖναι, εἷναι, and δοῦναι (§ 126, 9), and in the imperative θές, ἕς, and δός (§ 121, 2, b). The other stems in ε have ἔσβην (-ης, -η) and σβῆναι (§ 122, N. 6), and ἀποσκλῆναι. The other stems in ο are inflected like ἔγνων, as follows: -

Indic. ἔγνων, ἔγνως, ἔγνω, ἔγνωτον, ἐγνώτην, ἔγνωμεν, ἔγνωτε, ἔγνωσαν. Subj. γνῶ (like δῶ). Opt. γνοίην (like δοίην). Imperat. γνῶθι, γνώτω, γνῶτον, γνώτων, γνῶτε, γνώτωσαν or γνόντων. Inf. γνῶναι. Part. γνούς (like δούς). The optative βιῴην is irregular.

Second Perfects and Pluperfects of the μι-Form. The following verbs have these forms in Attic Greek, even in prose: -

Ἵστημι (στα-); see § 123, 2 (paradigm).

Βαίνω (βα-), go; 2 pf. βεβᾶσι (Hom. βεβάασι), subj. βεβῶσι, inf. βεβάναι (Hom. βεβάμεν), part. βεβώς (Hom. -αώς); 2 plup. (Hom. βεβάσαν).

Γίγνομαι (γεν-, γα-), become, 2 pf. γέγονα, am; (Hom. 2 pf. γεγάασι, inf. γεγάμεν, γεγαώς), Att. γεγώς (poetic).

Θνήσκω (θαν-, θνα-), die; 2 pf. τέθνατον, τέθναμεν, τέθνατε, τεθνᾶσι, opt. τεθναίην, imper. τέθναθι, τεθνάτω, inf. τεθνάναι (Hom. τεθνάμεναι or -νάμεν), part. τεθνεώς (Hom. τεθνηώς), 2 plup. ἐτέθνασαν.

Δείδω (δι-), Epic in pres., fear, Attic 2 pf. δέδια (Hom. δείδια), 2 plup. ἐδεδίειν, both regular in indic., also 2 pf. δέδιμεν, δέδιτε, 2 plup. ἐδέδισαν; subj. δεδίῃ, δεδίωσι, opt. δεδιείη, imper. δέδιθι, inf. δεδιέναι, part. δεδιώς. (Hom. 2 pf. δείδιμεν, imper. δείδιθι, δείδιτε, inf. δειδίμεν, part. δειδιώς, plup. ἐδείδιμεν, ἐδείδισαν.)

[Εἴκω] (ἰκ-, εἰκ-), 2 pf. ἔοικα, seem; also 2 pf. ἔοιγμεν, εἴξᾱσι (for ἐοίκᾱσι), part. εἰκώς (Hom. 2 pf. ἔικτον, 2 plup. ἐΐκτην), used with the regular forms of ἔοικα, ἐῴκειν (see Catalogue).

Οἶδα (ἰδ-), know; see § 127 (paradigm).

See also poetic, chiefly Homeric, forms under the following verbs in the Catalogue: ἀνώγω, βιβρώσκω, ἐγείρω, ἔρχομαι, (καφ-), κράζω, μαίομαι, πάσχω, πείθω, πίπτω, [τλάω], φύω.

Verbs in νυμι, with νυ (after a vowel, ννυ) added to the verb stem in the present. These are all inflected like δείκνυμι (§ 123), and, with the exception of σβέννυμι, quench (§ 122, N. 6), have no μι-forms except in the present and imperfect. The following belong to this class: –

(Stems in α), κερά-ννυμι, κρεμά-ννυμι, πετά-ννυμι, σκεδά-ννυμι; (stems in ε), ἕ-ννυμι, κορέ-ννυμι, σβέ-ννυμι, στορέ-ννυμι; (stems in ω), ζώ-ννυμι, ῥώ-ννυμι, στρώ-ννυμι; (consonant stems), ἄγ-νυμι, ἄρ-νυμαι, δείκ-νυμι (§ 123), εἴργ-νυμι, ζεύγ-νυμι, ἀπο-κτίν-νυμι (v. κτείνω), μίγ-νυμι, οἴγ-νυμι, ὄλ-λυμι (§ 108, V. 4, N. 2), ὄμ-νυμι, ὀμόργ-νυμι, ὄρ-νυμι, πήγ-νυμι (παγ-), πτάρ-νυμαι, ῥήγ-νυμι (ῥαγ-), στόρ-νυμι, φράγ-νυμι. See these in the Catalogue, and also Ionic or poetic (chiefly Homeric) forms under αἴνυμαι, ἄχνυμαι, γάνυμαι, δαίνυμι, καίνυμαι, κίνυμαι, ὀρέγ-νυμι, τάνυμαι (v. τείνω), τίνυμαι (v. τίνω).

Homer and Herodotus have many forms (some doubtful) in which verbs in ημι (with stems in ε) and ωμι have the inflection of verbs in εω and οω; as τιθεῖ, διδοῖς, διδοῖ. So in compounds of ἵημι, as ἀνίεις (or ἀνιεῖς), μεθίει (or -ιεῖ) in pres., and προΐειν, προΐεις, ἀνίει, in impf. Hom. has imperat. καθ-ίστα (Attic -η). Herod. has ἱστᾷ (for ἵστησι), ὑπερ-ετίθεα and προ-ετίθεε in impf., and προσ-θέοιτο (for -θεῖτο), &c. in opt. For ἐδίδουν, &c. and ἐτίθεις, ἐτίθει (also Attic), see § 122, 2, N. 1.

In the Aeolic dialect most verbs in αω, εω, and οω take the form in μι; as φίλημι (with φίλεισθα, φίλει), in Sappho, for φιλέω, &c.; ὄρημι, κάλημι, αἴνημι.

A few verbs in Hom. and Hdt. drop σ in σαι and σο of the second person after a vowel; as imperat. παρίσταο (for -ασο) and impf. ἐμάρναο (Hom.); ἐξεπίστεαι (for -ασαι) with change of α to ε (Hdt.). So θέο, imperat. for θεσο (Att. θοῦ), and ἔνθεο (Hom.).

The Doric has τι, ντι for σι, νσι. Homer sometimes has σθα for σ in 2 pers. sing., as δίδωσθα (δίδοισθα or διδοῖσθα), τίθησθα; ν for σαν (with preceding vowel short) in 3 pers. plur., as ἔσταν (for ἔστησαν), ἵεν (for ἵεσαν), πρότιθεν (for προετίθεσαν); see § 119, 9. He sometimes has θι in the pres. imperat. act., as δίδωθι, ὄρνυθι (§ 121, 2, b).

Herod. sometimes has αται, ατο for νται, ντο in the present and imperfect of verbs in μι, with a preceding α changed to ε; as προτιθέαται (for -ενται), ἐδυνέατο (for -αντο). For the iterative endings σκον, σκόμην, see § 119, 10; these are added directly to the stem of verbs in μι, as ἵστα-σκον, δό-σκον, ζωννύ-σκετο, ἔ-σκον (εἰμί, be).

Some verbs with consonant stems have a 2 aor. mid. of the μι-form in Homer; as ἄλ-το, ἅλ-μενος, from ἅλλομαι, leap; ὦρ-το, with imperat. ὄρσεο, ὄρσευ, ὄρσο, from ὄρνυμι, rouse. So πήγνυμι (ἔπηκτο). See § 125, 3.

(a) Herodotus sometimes leaves εω uncontracted in the subjunctive of verbs in ημι; as θέωμεν (Att. θῶμεν), διαθέωνται (-θῶνται), ἀπ-ιέωσι (Att. ἀφ-ιῶσι, from ἀφ-ίημι). He forms the subj. with εω in the plural also from stems in α; as ἀπο-στέ-ωσι (-στῶσι), ἐπιστέ-ωνται (for ἐπίστα-ονται, Att. ἐπίστωνται). Homer sometimes has these forms with εω; as θέωμεν, στέωμεν.

(b) Generally, when the 2 aor. subj. act. is uncontracted in Homer, the final vowel of the stem is lengthened, ε (or α) to ει or η, ο to ω, while the connecting vowels η and ω are shortened to ε and ο in the dual and plural, except before σι (for νσι). Thus we find in Homer: –

Stems in α	Stems in ε	Stems in ο
βείω (Attic βῶ for βα-ω)

στήῃς

στήῃ, βήῃ, βέῃ, φθήῃ

στήετον

στήομεν, στείομεν, στέωμεν

στήωσι, στείωσι, φθέωσι | θείω, ἐφ-είω

θείῃς, θήῃς

θείῃ, θήῃ, ἀν-ήῃ

θείομεν | γνώω

γνώῃς

γνώῃ, δώῃ, δώῃσιν

γνώομεν, δώομεν

γνώωσι, δώωσι |

See also § 119, 12 (c).

(c) A few cases of the middle inflected as in (b) occur in Homer; as βλή-εται (v. βάλλω), ἅλ-εται (ἅλλομαι), ἀπο-θείομαι, κατα-θείομαι; so κατα-θῆαι (Hesiod) for καταθε-ηαι (Att. καταθῇ).

For Homeric optatives of δαίνυμι, δύω, λύω, and φθίνω, - δαινύτο, δύη, and δῦμεν, λελῦτο or λελῦντο, φθίμην (for φθι-ίμην), - see those verbs in the Catalogue, and § 118, 1, Note.

Homer has μεναι or μεν (the latter only after a short vowel) for ναι in the infinitive. The final vowel of the stem is rarely lengthened in the present; as τιθέ-μεναι, rarely τιθή-μεναι. In the 2 aor. act. the vowel is regularly long (§ 121, 1), as στή-μεναι, γνώ-μεναι; but τίθημι and δίδωμι (§ 125, 3, N. 2) have θέ-μεναι and δό-μεναι. For η-μεναι in the aor. pass. infin. see § 119, 14. In the perfect of the μι-form (§ 125, 4), we have ἑστά-μεναι, ἑστά-μεν, τεθνά-μεναι, τεθνά-μεν.

Homer rarely has ημενος for εμενος in the participle. For perf. part. in ως (εως, ηως), see § 110, IV. (d), N. 3.

The verbs εἰμί, be, εἶμι, go, ἵημι, send, φημί, say, ἧμαι, sit, κεῖμαι, lie, and the second perfect οἶδα, know, are thus inflected.

I. Εἰμί (stem ἐσ-, Latin es-se), be.

PRESENT.

Number	Person	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
Singular	1	εἰμί	ὦ	εἴην	
Singular	2	εἶ	ᾖς	εἴης	ἴσθι
Singular	3	ἐστί	ᾖ	εἴη	ἔστω
Dual	2	ἐστόν	ἦτον	εἴητον, εἶτον	ἔστον
Dual	3	ἐστόν	ἦτον	εἰήτην, εἴτην	ἔστων
Plural	1	ἐσμέν	ὦμεν	εἴημεν, εἶμεν	
Plural	2	ἐστέ	ἦτε	εἴητε, εἶτε	ἔστε
Plural	3	εἰσί	ὦσι	εἴησαν, εἶεν	ἔστωσαν, ἔστων, ὄντων

Infinitive: εἶναι. Participle: ὤν, οὖσα, ὄν; gen. ὄντος, οὔσης, &c.

IMPERFECT AND FUTURE INDICATIVE.

Number	Person	Imperfect	Future indicative
Singular	1	ἦν or ἦ	ἔσομαι
Singular	2	ἦσθα	ἔσῃ, ἔσει
Singular	3	ἦν	ἔσται
Dual	2	ἦστον or ἦτον	ἔσεσθον
Dual	3	ἤστην or ἤτην	ἔσεσθον
Plural	1	ἦμεν	ἐσόμεθα
Plural	2	ἦτε or ἦστε	ἔσεσθε
Plural	3	ἦσαν	ἔσονται

Future optative: ἐσοίμην, ἔσοιο, ἔσοιτο, &c., regular. Future infinitive: ἔσεσθαι. Future participle: ἐσόμενος. Verbal adjective: ἐστέον (συν-εστέον).

An imperfect middle ἤμην, was, rarely occurs.

NOTE 1. In compounds of εἰμί (as in those of εἶμι) the participle keeps the accent of the simple form; as παρών, παροῦσα, παρόν, συνόντες, συνοῦσι, συνόντων. So in the subjunctive, where ὦ is contracted from Ionic ἔω; as παρῶ, παρῇς, &c. So παρέσται (for παρέ-σεται).

NOTE 2. DIALECTS. Pres. Indic. Aeolic ἔμμι, the most primitive form, nearest to ἐσ-μι (see foot-note on p. 143). Ionic εἷς, Hom. ἐσσί (for εἶ); Ionic εἰμέν (for ἐσμέν); Ionic ἔασι, Doric ἐντί (for εἰσί).

Imperf. Hom. ἦα, ἔα, ἔον (in 1 pers. sing.); ἔησθα (2 pers.); ἦεν, ἔην, ἤην (3 pers.); ἔσαν (for ἦσαν). Hdt. ἔα, ἔας, ἔατε. Later ἧς for ἦσθα. Ionic (iterative) ἔσκον.

Future. Hom. ἔσσομαι, &c., with ἐσσεῖται; Dor. ἐσσῇ, ἐσσοῦνται; Hom. ἔσεται.

Subj. Ionic ἔω, &c., ἔωσι; Hom. also εἴω.

Opt. Ionic ἔοις, ἔοι.

Imper. Hom. ἔσ-σο (the regular form, § 116, 1).

Infin. Hom. ἔμμεναι, ἔμεναι, ἔμεν; Dor. ἦμεν or εἶμεν; Lyric ἔμμεν.

Partic. Ionic ἐών, ἐοῦσα, ἐόν.

II. Εἶμι (stem ἰ-, Latin i-re), go.

PRESENT.

Number	Person	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
Singular	1	εἶμι	ἴω	ἰοίην (ἴοιμι)	
Singular	2	εἶ	ἴῃς	ἴοις	ἴθι
Singular	3	εἶσι	ἴῃ	ἴοι	ἴτω
Dual	2	ἴτον	ἴητον	ἴοιτον	ἴτον
Dual	3	ἴτον	ἴητον	ἰοίτην	ἴτων
Plural	1	ἴμεν	ἴωμεν	ἴοιμεν	
Plural	2	ἴτε	ἴητε	ἴοιτε	ἴτε
Plural	3	ἴᾱσι	ἴωσι	ἴοιεν	ἴτωσαν or ἰόντων

Infinitive: ἰέναι. Participle: ἰών, ἰοῦσα, ἰόν; gen. ἰόντος, ἰούσης, &c.

IMPERFECT.

Person	Singular	Dual	Plural
1	ἤειν or ᾖα		ᾖμεν or ἦμεν
2	ἤεις or ᾔεισθα	ἤειτον or ᾖτον	ἤειτε or ἦτε
3	ἤει or ᾔειν	ἠείτην or ᾔτην	ἤεσαν or ᾖσαν

Verbal adjectives: ἰτός, ἰτέον, ἰτητέον.

Future εἴσομαι and aorist εἰσάμην (or ἐεισάμην) are Homeric.

NOTE 1. In compounds the participle has the accent of the simple form; as παριών, παριοῦσα, παριόντος, παριοῦσι. (See I. Note 1.)

NOTE 2. The present εἶμι generally has a future sense, shall go, taking the place of a future of ἔρχομαι, whose future ἐλεύσομαι is not often used in Attic prose.

NOTE 3. DIALECTS. Pres. Ind. Hom. εἶσθα for εἶ.

Imperf. Hom. ἤϊα, ἤϊον (in 1 pers. sing.); ἤϊε, ἦε, ἴε (in 3 pers.); ἴτην (in dual); ἴομεν, ἤϊον, ἤϊσαν (ἦσαν), ἴσαν (in plural). Hdt. ἠΐα, ἤϊε, ἤϊσαν.

Subj. Hom. ἴησθα, ἴῃσι.

Opt. Hom. ἰείη (for ἴοι).

Infin. Hom. ἴ-μεναι, or ἴ-μεν (for ἰ-έναι), rarely ἴμμεναι.

III. Ἵημι (stem ἑ-), send.

(Fut. ἥσω, Aor. ἧκα, Perf. εἷκα, Perf. Pass. and Mid. εἷμαι, Aor. Pass. εἵθην.)

Active

Present

Indic. ἵημι, inflected like τίθημι; but 3 pers. plur. ἱᾶσι.

Subj. ἱῶ, ἱῇς, ἱῇ, &c. Opt. ἱείην, ἱείης, ἱείη, &c. (See N. 1.)

Imper. ἵει, ἱέτω, &c. Infin. ἱέναι. Partic. ἱείς.

Imperfect

ἵην, ἵεις, ἵει; ἵετον, ἱέτην; ἵεμεν, ἵετε, ἵεσαν. Also ἷην (in ἠφίην, § 105, 1, N. 3), and ἵη (Hom.). See ἀφίημι.

Future

ἥσω, ἥσεις, ἥσει, &c., regular.

First Aorist

ἧκα, ἧκας, ἧκε, &c., only in indicative.

Perfect (in compos.)

εἷκα, εἷκας, εἷκε, &c.

Second Aorist (generally in compos.)

Indic. No singular: Dual, εἷτον, εἵτην; Plur. εἷμεν, εἷτε, εἷσαν.

Subj. ὧ, ᾗς, ᾗ; ἧτον, ἧτον; ὧμεν, ἧτε, ὧσι.

Opt. εἴην, εἴης, εἴη; εἴητον, εἰήτην; εἴημεν or εἷμεν, εἴητε or εἷτε, εἴησαν or εἶεν.

Imper. ἕς, ἕτω; ἕτον, ἕτων; ἕτε, ἕτωσαν or ἕντων.

Infin. εἷναι. Partic. εἷς, εἷσα, ἕν.

Passive and Middle

Present

Indic. ἵεμαι. Subj. ἱῶμαι. Opt. ἱείμην. Imper. ἵεσο or ἵου. Infin. ἵεσθαι. Partic. ἱέμενος.

Imperfect.

ἱέμην, inflected regularly like ἐτιθέμην.

Future Middle (in compos.)

ἥσομαι, &c.

First Aorist Middle (in compos.)

ἡκάμην (only in Indic.).

Perfect and Pluperfect (in compos.)

Perf. Ind. εἷμαι. Imperat. εἷσθω. Inf. εἷσθαι. Partic. εἱμένος.

Plup. εἵμην, εἷσο, εἷτο, &c.

Second Aorist Middle (generally in compos.)

Ind. εἵμην, εἷσο, εἷτο; εἷσθον, εἵσθην; εἵμεθα, εἷσθε, εἷντο.

Subj. ὧμαι, ᾗ, ἧται; ἧσθον; ὥμεθα, ἧσθε, ὧνται.

Opt. εἵμην, εἷο, εἷτο; εἷσθον, εἵσθην; εἵμεθα, εἷσθε, εἷντο. (See N. 1.)

Imper. οὗ, ἕσθω; ἕσθον, ἕσθων; ἕσθε, ἕσθωσαν or ἕσθων.

Infin. ἕσθαι. Partic. ἕμενος.

Aorist Passive (in compos.)

Ind. εἵθην (augmented). Subj. ἑθῶ. Part. ἑθείς.

Future Passive (in compos.)

ἑθήσομαι, &c.

Verb. Adj. ἑτός, ἑτέος.

NOTE 1. The optatives ἀφίοιτε and ἀφίοιεν, for ἀφιείητε and ἀφιείησαν, and πρόοιτο, πρόοισθε, and πρόοιντο (also accented προοῖτο, &c.), for προεῖτο, προεῖσθε, and προεῖντο, sometimes occur. For similar forms of τίθημι, see § 122, N. 1.

NOTE 2. DIALECTS. Hom. aor. ἕηκα for ἧκα; ἕμεν for εἷναι; ἕσαν, ἕμην, ἕντο, &c., by omission of augment, for εἷσαν, εἵμην, εἷντο, &c., in indicative. In ἀνίημι, Hom. fut. ἀνέσω.

IV. Φημί (stem φᾱ-), say.

Present

Indic. φημί, φῄς, φησί; φατόν, φατόν; φαμέν, φατέ, φασί.

Subj. φῶ, φῇς, φῇ, &c. Opt. φαίην, φαίης, φαίη, &c.

Imper. φάθι or φαθί, φάτω; φάτον, φάτων, &c.

Infin. φάναι. Partic. (not Attic) φάς, φᾶσα, φάν; gen. φάντος, φάσης, &c. (§ 25, 3, N. 2).

Imperfect

ἔφην, ἔφησθα or ἔφης, ἔφη; ἔφατον, ἐφάτην; ἔφαμεν, ἔφατε, ἔφασαν.

Future	Aorist
φήσω, φήσειν, φήσων	ἔφησα, φήσω, φήσαιμι, φῆσαι, φήσας

Verbal adjectives: φατός, φατέος.

A perfect passive imperative πεφάσθω occurs, with participle πεφασμένος.

NOTE 1. DIALECTS. Pres. Ind. Doric φᾱμί, φᾱτί, φαντί; Hom. φῇσθα for φῄς. Inf. poet. φάμεν. Impf. Hom. φῆν, φῆς or φῆσθα, φῆ (Doric ἔφᾱ and φᾱ), ἔφαν and φάν (for ἔφασαν and φάσαν). Aor. Doric φᾶσε for ἔφησε.

NOTE 2. Homer has some middle forms of φημί; pres. imperat. φάο, φάσθω, φάσθε; infin. φάσθαι; partic. φάμενος; imperfect ἐφάμην or φάμην, ἔφατο or φάτο, ἔφαντο and φάντο. Doric fut. φάσομαι. These all have an active sense.

V. Ἧμαι (stem ἡσ-), sit.

(Chiefly poetic in simple form: in Attic prose κάθ-ημαι is generally used.)

Present (with form of Perfect). Ind. ἧμαι, ἧσαι, ἧται; ἧσθον; ἥμεθα, ἧσθε, ἧνται. Imperat. ἧσο, ἥσθω, &c. Inf. ἧσθαι. Partic. ἥμενος.

Imperfect (with form of Pluperfect). ἥμην, ἧσο, ἧστο; ἧσθον, ἥσθην; ἥμεθα, ἧσθε, ἧντο.

Κάθημαι is thus inflected:

Present. Ind. κάθημαι, κάθησαι, κάθηται (not καθ-ῆσται); κάθησθον; καθήμεθα, κάθησθε, κάθηνται. Subj. καθῶμαι, καθῇ, καθῆται, &c. Opt. καθοίμην, καθοῖο, καθοῖτο, &c. Imperat. κάθησο (in comedy, κάθου), καθήσθω, &c. Inf. καθῆσθαι. Partic. καθήμενος.

Imperfect. ἐκαθήμην, ἐκάθησο, ἐκάθητο, &c., also καθήμην, καθῆσο, καθῆστο and καθῆτο, &c.

NOTE. DIALECTS. Homer has ἕαται and εἵαται (for ἧνται), ἕατο and εἵατο (for ἧντο). Hdt. has κάτησαι, κατῆστο, κατέαται, κατέατο, and ἐκατέατο.

VI. Κεῖμαι (stem κει-, κε-), lie.

Present (with form of Perfect). Indic. κεῖμαι, κεῖσαι, κεῖται; κεῖσθον; κείμεθα, κεῖσθε, κεῖνται. Subj. and Opt. These forms occur: κέηται, διακέησθε, κέοιτο, προσ-κέοιντο. Imper. κεῖσο, κείσθω, &c. Infin. κεῖσθαι. Partic. κείμενος.

Imperf. ἐκείμην, ἔκεισο, ἔκειτο; ἔκεισθον, ἐκείσθην; ἐκείμεθα, ἔκεισθε, ἔκειντο.

Future. κείσομαι, regular.

NOTE. DIALECTS. Homer has κέαται, κείαται, and κέονται, for κεῖνται; κέσκετο for ἔκειτο; κέατο and κείατο for ἔκειντο; subj. κῆται. Hdt. has κέεται, κέεσθαι, and ἐκέετο, for κεῖται, &c.; and always κέαται and ἐκέατο for κεῖνται and ἔκειντο.

VII. Οἶδα (stem ἰδ-), know.

(Οἶδα is a second perfect of the stem ἰδ-: see εἶδον in Catalogue and § 125, 4.)

SECOND PERFECT

Number	Person	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
Singular	1	οἶδα	εἰδῶ	εἰδείην	
Singular	2	οἶσθα	εἰδῇς	εἰδείης	ἴσθι
Singular	3	οἶδε	εἰδῇ	εἰδείη	ἴστω
Dual	2	ἴστον	&c., regular	&c., regular	ἴστον
Dual	3	ἴστον	&c., regular	&c., regular	ἴστων
Plural	1	ἴσμεν	&c., regular	&c., regular	
Plural	2	ἴστε	&c., regular	&c., regular	ἴστε
Plural	3	ἴσασι	&c., regular	&c., regular	ἴστωσαν

Infinitive: εἰδέναι. Participle: εἰδώς, εἰδυῖα, εἰδός; gen. εἰδότος, εἰδυίας (§ 68).

SECOND PLUPERFECT

Person	Singular	Dual	Plural
1	ᾔδειν or ᾔδη		ᾔδειμεν or ᾖσμεν
2	ᾔδεισθα or ᾔδησθα; ᾔδεις or ᾔδης	ᾔδειτον or ᾖστον	ᾔδειτε or ᾖστε
3	ᾔδει(ν) or ᾔδη	ᾐδείτην or ᾔστην	ᾔδεσαν or ᾖσαν

Future: εἴσομαι, &c., regular. Verbal adjective: ἰστέον.

NOTE. The Ionic occasionally has the regular forms οἶδας, οἴδαμεν, οἴδασι; and very often ἴδμεν for ἴσμεν. Ionic fut. εἰδήσω (rare in Attic).

Ionic ᾔδεα, ᾔδεε, ᾔδεατε, Hom. ἠείδης, ἠείδη, ἴσαν, in pluperfect. The Attic poets have ᾔδεμεν and ᾔδετε (like ᾔδεσαν).

Hom. εἴδομεν, &c. for εἰδῶμεν in subj.; ἴδμεναι and ἴδμεν in infin.; ἰδυῖα for εἰδυῖα in the participle.

Aeolic ἴττω for ἴστω in imperative.

Doric ἴσαντι for ἴσασι: see ἴσαμι.

§103

AUGMENT OF DIPHTONGS

AUGMENT OF DIPHTONGS

Verbs beginning with a diphthong take the temporal augment on the first vowel of the diphthong, αι or ᾳ becoming ῃ, οι becoming ῳ. E.g. Αἰτέω, ask, ᾔτησα; οἰκέω, dwell, ᾤκησα, ᾠκημένος; αὐξάνω, increase, ηὔξησα, ηὔξημαι, ηὐξήθην; ᾄδω, sing, ᾖδον.

Note. Ου is never augmented. Ει and ευ are generally without augment; but MSS. and editors differ in regard to many forms, as εἴκασα or ᾔκασα (εἰκάζω, liken), εὗδον or ηὗδον (εὕδω, sleep), εὕρηκα and εὑρέθην or ηὕρηκα and ηὑρέθην (εὑρίσκω, find), εὐξάμην or ηὐξάμην (εὔχομαι, pray). Editions vary also in the augment of αὐαίνω, dry, and of some verbs beginning with οι, as οἰακοστροφέω, steer.

Verbs beginning with a diphthong take the temporal augment on the first vowel of the diphthong, αι or ᾳ becoming ῃ, οι becoming ῳ. E.g. Αἰτέω, ask, ᾔτησα; οἰκέω, dwell, ᾤκησα, ᾠκημένος; αὐξάνω, increase, ηὔξησα, ηὔξημαι, ηὐξήθην; ᾄδω, sing, ᾖδον.

Note. Ου is never augmented. Ει and ευ are generally without augment; but MSS. and editors differ in regard to many forms, as εἴκασα or ᾔκασα (εἰκάζω, liken), εὗδον or ηὗδον (εὕδω, sleep), εὕρηκα and εὑρέθην or ηὕρηκα and ηὑρέθην (εὑρίσκω, find), εὐξάμην or ηὐξάμην (εὔχομαι, pray). Editions vary also in the augment of αὐαίνω, dry, and of some verbs beginning with οι, as οἰακοστροφέω, steer.

§102

ATTIC REDUPLICATION

ATTIC REDUPLICATION

Some verbs beginning with a, e, or o augment the perfect and pluperfect by prefixing their first two letters to the common temporal augment. This is called the Attic reduplication. E.g. Ἀρόω, plough, ἀρ-ήρομαι; ἐμέω, vomit, ἐμήμεκα; ἐλέγχω, prove, ἐλήλεγμαι, ἐληλέγμην; ἐλαύνω (ἐλα-), drive, ἐλήλακα, ἐλήλαμαι; ἀκούω, hear, ἀκήκοα (§ 110, IV. d, N. 1).

Other verbs which have the Attic reduplication are ἀγείρω, ἀλείφω, ἀλέω, ἐγείρω, ἐρείδω, ἔρχομαι, ἐσθίω, ὄλλυμι, ὄμνυμι, ὀρύττω, φέρω. See also, for Ionic or poetic forms, αἱρέω, ἀλάομαι, ἀλυκτέω, ἀραρίσκω, ἐρείπω, ἔχω, ἠμύω, (ὀδυ-) ὀδώδυσμαι, ὄζω, ὁράω (ὄπωπα), ὀρέγω, ὄρνυμι.

The Attic reduplication (so called by the Greek grammarians) is not peculiarly Attic, and is found in Homer.

Note. 1. Ἐγείρω (ἐγερ-), rouse, has 2 perf. ἐγρ-ήγορα (for ἐγ-ηγορ-α, cf. § 109, 3), but ἐγ-ήγερμαι. For the Attic reduplication in ἤγαγον, 2 aor. of ἄγω, in ἤνεγκα and ἤνεγκον of φέρω, and in Homeric ἄλαλκον of ἀλέξω, see § 100, 2, N. 4.

Note. 2. The pluperfect rarely takes an augment in addition to the Attic reduplication. But ἀκούω, hear, ἀκήκοα, generally has ἤκηκόειν in Attic; and ἀπ-ωλώλει (of ἀπ-όλλυμι, ἀπ-όλωλα), ὠμωμόκει (of ὄμνυμι, ὀμώμοκα), and δι-ωρώρυκτο (of δι-ορύσσω, δι-ορώρυγμαι) occur in Attic prose. See Homeric pluperfects of ἐλαύνω and ἐρείδω.

Some verbs beginning with a, e, or o augment the perfect and pluperfect by prefixing their first two letters to the common temporal augment. This is called the Attic reduplication. E.g. Ἀρόω, plough, ἀρ-ήρομαι; ἐμέω, vomit, ἐμήμεκα; ἐλέγχω, prove, ἐλήλεγμαι, ἐληλέγμην; ἐλαύνω (ἐλα-), drive, ἐλήλακα, ἐλήλαμαι; ἀκούω, hear, ἀκήκοα (§ 110, IV. d, N. 1).

Other verbs which have the Attic reduplication are ἀγείρω, ἀλείφω, ἀλέω, ἐγείρω, ἐρείδω, ἔρχομαι, ἐσθίω, ὄλλυμι, ὄμνυμι, ὀρύττω, φέρω. See also, for Ionic or poetic forms, αἱρέω, ἀλάομαι, ἀλυκτέω, ἀραρίσκω, ἐρείπω, ἔχω, ἠμύω, (ὀδυ-) ὀδώδυσμαι, ὄζω, ὁράω (ὄπωπα), ὀρέγω, ὄρνυμι.

The Attic reduplication (so called by the Greek grammarians) is not peculiarly Attic, and is found in Homer.

Note. 1. Ἐγείρω (ἐγερ-), rouse, has 2 perf. ἐγρ-ήγορα (for ἐγ-ηγορ-α, cf. § 109, 3), but ἐγ-ήγερμαι. For the Attic reduplication in ἤγαγον, 2 aor. of ἄγω, in ἤνεγκα and ἤνεγκον of φέρω, and in Homeric ἄλαλκον of ἀλέξω, see § 100, 2, N. 4.

Note. 2. The pluperfect rarely takes an augment in addition to the Attic reduplication. But ἀκούω, hear, ἀκήκοα, generally has ἤκηκόειν in Attic; and ἀπ-ωλώλει (of ἀπ-όλλυμι, ἀπ-όλωλα), ὠμωμόκει (of ὄμνυμι, ὀμώμοκα), and δι-ωρώρυκτο (of δι-ορύσσω, δι-ορώρυγμαι) occur in Attic prose. See Homeric pluperfects of ἐλαύνω and ἐρείδω.

§104

SYLLABIC AUGMENT BEFORE A VOWEL

SYLLABIC AUGMENT BEFORE A VOWEL

Some verbs beginning with a vowel take the syllabic augment, as if they began with a consonant. When ε follows the augment, εε is contracted into ει. E.g. ὠθέω (ὠθ-), push, ἔωσα, ἔωσμαι, ἐώσθην; ἁλίσκομαι, be captured, ἑάλωκα, 2 aor. ἑάλων (or ἥλων); ἄγνυμι (ἀγ-), break, ἔαξα, 2 pf. ἔαγα; ἔρδω, do, Ionic, 2 pf. ἔοργα; ὠνέομαι, buy, ἐωνούμην, &c.; ἐθίζω, accustom, εἴθισα, εἴθικα (from ἐεθ-); ἐάω, permit, εἴασα, εἴακα.

These verbs are, further, ἑλίσσω, ἕλκω, ἕπω, ἐργάζομαι, ἕρπω or ἑρπύζω, ἑστιάω, ἔχω, ἵημι (ἑ-), with the aorists εἶδον and εἷλον (αἱρέω), the perfects εἴωθα (ϝεθ-, ὠθ- for ϝεωθ-) and ἔοικα (ϝικ-), and plpf. εἱστήκειν (for ἑεστ-) of ἵστημι. See also Ionic and poetic forms under ἁνδάνω, ἅπτω, εἴδομαι, εἴλω, εἶπον, εἴρω, ἔλπω, ἕννυμι, ἵζω, and ἕζομαι.

Note 1. Ὁράω, see, and ἀν-οίγω, open, generally take the temporal augment after the syllabic; as ἑώρων, ἑώρακα (or ἑόρακα), ἑώραμαι; ἀν-έῳγον, ἀν-έῳξα (rarely ἤνοιγον, ἤνοιξα, § 105, N. 3). Homer has ἑήνδανον from ἁνδάνω, please: ἐῳνοχόει imp. of οἰνοχοέω, pour wine; and 2 plpf. ἐώλπει and ἐώργει from ἔλπω and ἔρδω. Ἑορτάζω, keep holiday (Hdt. ὁρτάζω) has Attic imp. ἑώρταζον.

Note 2. This form of augment is explained on the supposition that these verbs originally began with the consonant ϝ or some other consonant, which was afterwards dropped: thus εἶδον, saw, is for ἔϝιδον (cf. Latin vid-i); ἔοργα is for ϝέϝοργα, from stem ϝεργ- (§ 110, IV. d), cf. Eng. work (German Werk); and ἕρπω, creep, is for σ-ερπω (cf. Latin serpo).

Some verbs beginning with a vowel take the syllabic augment, as if they began with a consonant. When ε follows the augment, εε is contracted into ει. E.g. ὠθέω (ὠθ-), push, ἔωσα, ἔωσμαι, ἐώσθην; ἁλίσκομαι, be captured, ἑάλωκα, 2 aor. ἑάλων (or ἥλων); ἄγνυμι (ἀγ-), break, ἔαξα, 2 pf. ἔαγα; ἔρδω, do, Ionic, 2 pf. ἔοργα; ὠνέομαι, buy, ἐωνούμην, &c.; ἐθίζω, accustom, εἴθισα, εἴθικα (from ἐεθ-); ἐάω, permit, εἴασα, εἴακα.

These verbs are, further, ἑλίσσω, ἕλκω, ἕπω, ἐργάζομαι, ἕρπω or ἑρπύζω, ἑστιάω, ἔχω, ἵημι (ἑ-), with the aorists εἶδον and εἷλον (αἱρέω), the perfects εἴωθα (ϝεθ-, ὠθ- for ϝεωθ-) and ἔοικα (ϝικ-), and plpf. εἱστήκειν (for ἑεστ-) of ἵστημι. See also Ionic and poetic forms under ἁνδάνω, ἅπτω, εἴδομαι, εἴλω, εἶπον, εἴρω, ἔλπω, ἕννυμι, ἵζω, and ἕζομαι.

Note 1. Ὁράω, see, and ἀν-οίγω, open, generally take the temporal augment after the syllabic; as ἑώρων, ἑώρακα (or ἑόρακα), ἑώραμαι; ἀν-έῳγον, ἀν-έῳξα (rarely ἤνοιγον, ἤνοιξα, § 105, N. 3). Homer has ἑήνδανον from ἁνδάνω, please: ἐῳνοχόει imp. of οἰνοχοέω, pour wine; and 2 plpf. ἐώλπει and ἐώργει from ἔλπω and ἔρδω. Ἑορτάζω, keep holiday (Hdt. ὁρτάζω) has Attic imp. ἑώρταζον.

Note 2. This form of augment is explained on the supposition that these verbs originally began with the consonant ϝ or some other consonant, which was afterwards dropped: thus εἶδον, saw, is for ἔϝιδον (cf. Latin vid-i); ἔοργα is for ϝέϝοργα, from stem ϝεργ- (§ 110, IV. d), cf. Eng. work (German Werk); and ἕρπω, creep, is for σ-ερπω (cf. Latin serpo).

§105

AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS

AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS

In compound verbs, the augment follows the preposition. Prepositions (except περί and πρό) drop a final vowel before the augment ε. E.g. Προσ-γράφω, προσ-έγραφον, προσ-γέγραφα; εἰσ-άγω, εἰσ-ῆγον (§ 26, N. 1); ἐκ-βάλλω, ἐξ-έβαλλον (§ 13, 2); συλ-λέγω, συν-έλεγον; συμ-πλέκω, συν-έπλεκον (§ 16, 5); συγ-χέω, συν-έχεον, συγ-κέχυκα; συσκευάζω, συν-εσκεύαζον (§ 16, 6, N. 3); ἀπο-βάλλω, ἀπ-έβαλλον; — but περι-έβαλλον and προ-έλεγον. See § 131, 7.

Note 1. Πρό may be contracted with the augment; as προὔλεγον and προὔβαινον, for προέλεγον and προέβαινον.

Note 2. Some verbs not themselves compounds, but derived from compounds, are augmented after the preposition; as ὑποπτεύω (from ὕποπτος), suspect, ὑπώπτευον, as if the verb were from ὑπό and ὀπτεύω; ἀπολογέομαι, defend one's self, ἀπ-ελογησάμην; see also ἐκκλησιάζω. Παρανομέω, transgress law, παρηνόμουν, &c. is very irregular. Κατηγορέω (from κατήγορος), accuse, has κατηγόρουν (not ἐκατηγόρουν). See διαιτάω and διακονέω in the Catalogue of Verbs.

Note 3. A few verbs take the augment before the preposition, and others have both augments; as καθέζομαι, sit, ἐκαθέζετο; καθίζω, ἐκάθιζον; καθεύδω, sleep, ἐκάθευδον and καθηῦδον (Ep. καθεῦδον); ἀνέχω, ἠνειχόμην, ἠνεσχόμην (or ἠνσχόμην). See ἀφίημι, ἀμφιέννυμι, ἀμφιγνοέω, ἀμπίσχομαι, ἐνοχλέω, and ἀμφισβητέω, dispute, ἠμφισβήτουν and ἠμφεσβήτουν (as if the last part were -σβητέω).

Indirect compounds of δυσ-, ill, and occasionally those of εὖ, well, are augmented after the adverb, if the following part begins with a vowel. E.g. Δυσαρεστέω, be displeased, δυσηρέστουν; εὐεργετέω, do good, εὐηργέτηκα (or εὐεργ-).

Note. In other cases, compounds of δυσ- are augmented at the beginning, and those of εὖ generally omit the augment.

Other indirect compounds are augmented at the beginning. See, however, ὁδοποιέω.

1. In compound verbs, the augment follows the preposition. Prepositions (except περί and πρό) drop a final vowel before the augment ε. E.g. Προσ-γράφω, προσ-έγραφον, προσ-γέγραφα; εἰσ-άγω, εἰσ-ῆγον (§ 26, N. 1); ἐκ-βάλλω, ἐξ-έβαλλον (§ 13, 2); συλ-λέγω, συν-έλεγον; συμ-πλέκω, συν-έπλεκον (§ 16, 5); συγ-χέω, συν-έχεον, συγ-κέχυκα; συσκευάζω, συν-εσκεύαζον (§ 16, 6, N. 3); ἀπο-βάλλω, ἀπ-έβαλλον; — but περι-έβαλλον and προ-έλεγον. See § 131, 7.

Note 1. Πρό may be contracted with the augment; as προὔλεγον and προὔβαινον, for προέλεγον and προέβαινον.

Note 2. Some verbs not themselves compounds, but derived from compounds, are augmented after the preposition; as ὑποπτεύω (from ὕποπτος), suspect, ὑπώπτευον, as if the verb were from ὑπό and ὀπτεύω; ἀπολογέομαι, defend one's self, ἀπ-ελογησάμην; see also ἐκκλησιάζω. Παρανομέω, transgress law, παρηνόμουν, &c. is very irregular. Κατηγορέω (from κατήγορος), accuse, has κατηγόρουν (not ἐκατηγόρουν). See διαιτάω and διακονέω in the Catalogue of Verbs.

Note 3. A few verbs take the augment before the preposition, and others have both augments; as καθέζομαι, sit, ἐκαθέζετο; καθίζω, ἐκάθιζον; καθεύδω, sleep, ἐκάθευδον and καθηῦδον (Ep. καθεῦδον); ἀνέχω, ἠνειχόμην, ἠνεσχόμην (or ἠνσχόμην). See ἀφίημι, ἀμφιέννυμι, ἀμφιγνοέω, ἀμπίσχομαι, ἐνοχλέω, and ἀμφισβητέω, dispute, ἠμφισβήτουν and ἠμφεσβήτουν (as if the last part were -σβητέω).

2. Indirect compounds of δυσ-, ill, and occasionally those of εὖ, well, are augmented after the adverb, if the following part begins with a vowel. E.g. Δυσαρεστέω, be displeased, δυσηρέστουν; εὐεργετέω, do good, εὐηργέτηκα (or εὐεργ-).

Note. In other cases, compounds of δυσ- are augmented at the beginning, and those of εὖ generally omit the augment.

3. Other indirect compounds are augmented at the beginning. See, however, ὁδοποιέω.

§106

OMISSION OF AUGMENT

OMISSION OF AUGMENT

In the imperfect and aorist, the temporal augment is often omitted by Herodotus; as in ἀμείβετο and ἀμείψατο (for ἠμείβετο and ἠμείψατο); and both temporal and syllabic augment by the Epic and Lyric poets, as in ὁμίλεον, ἔχον, δῶκε (for ὡμίλεον, εἶχον, ἔδωκε).

Note. The reduplication or augment of the perfect stem is very rarely omitted. But Homer has δέχαται for δεδέχαται, from δέχομαι, receive; and Herodotus occasionally omits the temporal augment, as in καταρρώδηκας (for κατ-ηρρ-), and he makes ἐπαλιλλόγητο as plpf. of παλιλλογέω, repeat.

The Attic poets sometimes omit the augment in (lyric) choral passages, seldom in the dialogue of the drama. In Attic prose we have χρῆν for ἐχρῆν (impf. of χρή), must.

1. In the imperfect and aorist, the temporal augment is often omitted by Herodotus; as in ἀμείβετο and ἀμείψατο (for ἠμείβετο and ἠμείψατο); and both temporal and syllabic augment by the Epic and Lyric poets, as in ὁμίλεον, ἔχον, δῶκε (for ὡμίλεον, εἶχον, ἔδωκε).

Note. The reduplication or augment of the perfect stem is very rarely omitted. But Homer has δέχαται for δεδέχαται, from δέχομαι, receive; and Herodotus occasionally omits the temporal augment, as in καταρρώδηκας (for κατ-ηρρ-), and he makes ἐπαλιλλόγητο as plpf. of παλιλλογέω, repeat.

2. The Attic poets sometimes omit the augment in (lyric) choral passages, seldom in the dialogue of the drama. In Attic prose we have χρῆν for ἐχρῆν (impf. of χρή), must.

§107-108

VERBAL STEMS. Formation of the Present Stem from the Simple Stem.

VERBAL STEMS. Formation of the Present Stem from the Simple Stem.

§ 107.

That we may know to what present any verbal form is to be referred, we must understand the relations which exist in different classes of verbs between the present stem and the simple stem (§ 92, 2). When these are not identical (as they are in λύω), the present stem is generally an enlarged form of the simple stem; as in κόπτ-ω (κοπ-), strike, μανθάν-ω (μαθ-), learn, δοκέ-ω (δοκ-), believe. In a few very irregular verbs, however, there is no connection to be seen between the present stem and the stem or stems which are in use in other tenses; as in φέρω (φερ-), bear, fut. οἴσω (οἰ-), aor. ἤνεγκα (ἐνεγκ-).

§ 108.

Verbs in ω are divided into eight classes with reference to the formation of the present stem from the simple stem.

I. First Class. (Stem unchanged.) Here the present is formed directly from the single stem of the verb; as in λύ-ω, loose, λέγ-ω, say, πλέκ-ω, weave, ἄγ-ω, lead, γράφ-ω, write.

Note. The pure verbs of this class which irregularly retain a short vowel in certain tenses are given in § 109, 1, N. 2; those which insert σ in certain tenses, in § 109, 2; and the verbs which add ε to the stem in some or all tenses not of the present system (as βούλομαι), in § 109, 8. These and other verbs of this class which are peculiar in their inflection will be found in the Catalogue of Verbs.

II. Second Class. (Lengthened Stems.)

This includes all verbs with mute simple stems which form the present stem by lengthening a short vowel, ᾰ to η, ῐ to ει (sometimes to ῑ), ῠ to ευ (sometimes to ῡ); as τήκ-ω (τᾰκ-), melt, λείπ-ω (λῐπ-), leave, φεύγ-ω (φῠγ-), flee, τρῑ́β-ω (τρῐβ-), rub, ψῡ́χ-ω (ψῠχ-), cool.

Here belong, further, κήδω (κᾰδ-), λήθω (λᾰθ-), σήπω (σᾰπ-), ἀλείφω (ἀλῐφ-), ἐρείπω (ἐρῐπ-), πείθω (πῐθ-), στείβω (στῐβ-), στείχω (στῐχ-), φείδομαι (φῐδ-), θλίβω (θλῐβ-), πνίγω (πνῐγ-), πυνθάνομαι (πῠθ-), τεύχω (τῠχ-), τύφω (τῠφ-), φρύγω (φρῠγ-); with Ionic or poetic ἐρείκω (ἐρῐκ-), ἐρεύγομαι (ἐρῠγ-), κεύθω (κῠθ-), τμήγω (τμᾰγ-), and (θᾰπ- or τᾰφ-) stem of τέθηπα and ἔταφον; see also εἴκω (ἰκ-). Τρώγω (τρᾰγ-) irregularly lengthens ᾰ to ω. See also § 108, V. Note 1 (b).

Six verbs in εω with stems in ῠ belong by formation to this class. These originally lengthened ῠ to ευ, which became εϝ (§ 1, N. 2) before a vowel, and finally dropped ϝ and left ε; as πλῠ-, πλευ-, πλεϝ-ω, πλέ-ω, sail. These verbs are θέω (θῠ-), run, νέω (νῠ-), swim, πλέω (πλῠ-), sail, πνέω (πνῠ-), breathe, ῥέω (ῥῠ-), flow, χέω (χῠ-), pour. The poetic σεύω (σῠ-), urge, has this formation, with ευ retained.

Note. Verbs of the second class have the lengthened stem, as τηκ- in τήκω, νευ- in (νεϝω) νέω, in all tenses except in the second perfect, second aorist, and second passive tense systems; as φεύγω, φεύξομαι, ἔφυγον; τήκω, τήξω, τέτηκα, ἐτάκην; ῥέω (for ῥεϝω), ῥεύσομαι, ἐρρύην. Exceptions are the perfect middle of ἀλείφω, ἐρείκω, ἐρείπω, στείβω, τεύχω, the perfect active of ῥέω and τρίβω, and most tenses of χέω and σεύω. The lengthened stem of the second perfect (as in τέτηκα, λέλοιπα, &c.) is explained on the general principle, § 109, 3.

III. Third Class. (Verbs in πτω, or T Class.) Simple labial (π, β, φ) stems generally add τ, and thus form the present in πτω (§ 16, 1); as κόπτ-ω (κοπ-), cut, βλάπτ-ω (βλαβ-), hurt, ῥίπτ-ω (ῥιφ-), throw.

Here the exact form of the simple stem cannot be determined from the present. Thus, in the examples above given, the stem is to be found in the second aorists ἐκόπην, ἐβλάβην, and ἐρρίφην; and in καλύπτω (καλυβ-), cover, it is seen in καλύβ-η, hut.

The verbs of this class are ἅπτ-ω (ἁφ-), βάπτ-ω (βαφ-), βλάπτ-ω (βλαβ-), θάπτ-ω (ταφ-), θρύπτ-ω (τρυφ-), καλύπτ-ω (καλυβ-), κάμπτ-ω (καμπ-), κλέπτ-ω (κλεπ-), κόπτ-ω (κοπ-), κρύπτ-ω (κρυβ- or κρυφ-), κύπτ-ω (κυφ-), ῥάπτ-ω (ῥαφ-), ῥίπτ-ω (ῥιφ-), σκάπτ-ω (σκαφ-), σκέπτομαι (σκεπ-), σκήπτω (σκηπ-), σκώπτω (σκωπ-), τύπτω (τυπ-), with Homeric and poetic γνάμπτω (γναμπ-), ἐνίπτω (ἐνιπ-), and μάρπτω (μαρπ-). Τίκτω (τεκ-), probably for τεκτ-ω, belongs here.

IV. Fourth Class. (Iota Class.) This includes all verbs in which occur any of the euphonic changes arising from the addition of ι to the simple stem in forming the present stem (§ 16, 7). There are three divisions: —

(Verbs in σσω or ττω and ζω.) (a) Presents in σσω (ττω) generally come from palatal stems, κ, γ, or χ with ι becoming σσ (ττ). These have futures in ξω; as πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), do, fut. πράξω; μαλάσσω (μαλᾰκ-, seen in μαλακός), soften, fut. μαλάξω; ταράσσω (ταρᾰχ-, seen in ταραχή), confuse, fut. ταράξω. See § 16, 7 (a).

See also κηρύσσω (κηρῡκ-), φυλάσσω (φυλᾰκ-), πτήσσω (πτηκ-), φρίσσω (φρῑκ-), ἀλλάσσω (ἀλλᾰγ-), μάσσω (μᾰγ-), τάσσω (τᾰγ-), πλήσσω (πληγ-), ὀρύσσω (ὀρῠχ-), in the Catalogue, and many other verbs in σσω. [1]

[1]: The lists of verbs of the fourth class are not complete, while those of the other classes which are given contain all the verbs in common use.

Note. A few presents in σσω (ττω) come from lingual stems, and have futures in σω; as ἐρέσσω, row (from stem ἐρετ-, seen in ἐρέτης, rower), aor. ἤρεσα (§ 16, 2). So also ἁρμόττω (fut. ἁρμόσω), βλίττω (μελιτ-, § 14, N. 1), λίσσομαι (λιτ-), πάσσω, πλάσσω, πτίσσω, with ἀφάσσω (Hdt.), and poetic ἱμάσσω, κορύσσω (κορυθ-), νίσσομαι. One has a labial stem, πέσσω (πεπ-), cook, fut. πέψω.

(b) Presents in ζω may come from stems in δ and have futures in σω, or from stems in γ (or γγ) and have futures in ξω; as φράζω (φρᾰδ-), say, fut. φράσω, 2 aor. (Epic) πέφραδον; κομίζω (κομῐδ-, seen in κομιδή), carry, fut. κομίσω; ῥέζω (ῥεγ-), do, poetic, fut. ῥέξω; κλάζω (κλαγγ-, compare clango), scream, fut. κλάγξω. See § 16, 7 (b).

See also ἁρπάζω (ἁρπᾰδ-), θαυμάζω (θαυμᾰδ-), ἐρίζω (ἐρῐδ-), ἵζω (ἱδ-), νομίζω (νομῐδ-), ὄζω (ὀδ-), πελάζω (πελᾰδ-), σώζω (σωδ-), χάζω (χᾰδ-); κράζω (κρᾱγ-), σφάζω (σφᾰγ-), μύζω (μυγ-), grumble; σαλπίζω (σαλπιγγ-); with Ionic or poetic βαστάζω (βαστᾰδ-), κρίζω (κρῑγ-), τρίζω (τριγ-), πλάζω (πλαγγ-); &c.

Note 1. Some verbs in ζω have stems both in δ and γ; as παίζω (παιδ-, παιγ-), play, fut. παιξοῦμαι (§ 110, II. N. 2), aor. ἔπαισα. See also poetic forms of ἁρπάζω and νάσσω.

Note 2. Νίζω (νιβ-), wash, has a labial stem.

(Verbs with lengthened Liquid Stems.) (c) Presents in λλω are formed from simple stems in λ with added ι, λι becoming λλ; as στέλλω, send, for στελ-ι-ω; ἀγγέλλω, announce, for ἀγγελ-ι-ω; σφάλλω, trip up, for σφαλ-ι-ω. See § 16, 7 (c). See also βάλλω (βᾰλ-), θάλλω (θᾰλ-), ὀκέλλω (ὀκελ-), πάλλω (πᾰλ-), σκέλλω (σκελ-), τέλλω (τελ-), ἅλλομαι (ἁλ-), &c.

(d) Presents in αινω, εινω, αιρω, and ειρω are formed from simple stems in ᾰν, εν, ᾰρ, and ερ, with added ι, which, after metathesis, is contracted with the preceding vowel; as φαίνω, show, for φαν-ι-ω, fut. φᾰνῶ; κτείνω, kill, for κτεν-ι-ω; αἴρω, raise, for ἀρ-ι-ω; σπείρω, sow, for σπερ-ι-ω. See § 16, 7 (d).

Those in ῑνω, ῡνω, and ῡρω may be formed in the same way from simple stems in ῐν, ῠν, and ῠρ, ῐι becoming ῑ, and ῠι becoming ῡ; as κρίνω, judge, for κρῐν-ι-ω, fut. κρῐνῶ; ἀμύνω, ward off, for ἀμῠν-ι-ω, fut. ἀμῠνῶ; σύρω, draw, for σῠρ-ι-ω.

See also εὐφραίνω (εὐφρᾰν-), κερδαίνω (κερδᾰν-), μιαίνω (μιᾰν-), ξηραίνω (ξηρᾰν-), σημαίνω (σημᾰν-), ὑφαίνω (ὑφᾰν-), τείνω (τεν-), poetic θείνω (θεν-), γείνομαι (γεν-), σαίρω (σᾰρ-), χαίρω (χᾰρ-), ἐγείρω (ἐγερ-), κείρω (κερ-), φθείρω (φθερ-), κλίνω (κλῐν-), πλύνω (πλῠν-), ὀξύνω (ὀξῠν-), αἰσχύνω (αἰσχῠν-), ὀλοφύρομαι (ὀλοφῠρ-), &c.

Note 1. Ὀφείλω (ὀφελ-), be obliged, owe, follows the analogy of stems in εν, to avoid confusion with ὀφέλλω (ὀφελ-), increase; but in Homer it has a regular form ὀφέλλω. Homer has εἴλομαι (ἑλ-), press.

Note 2. Verbs of this division (2) regularly have futures and aorists active and middle of the liquid form (§ 110, II. 2). For exceptions (in poetry), see § 110, II. N. 4.

Note 3. Many verbs with liquid stems do not belong to this class; as δέμω and δέρω in Class 1. For βαίνω, &c., see V. Note 1.

(Lengthened Vowel Stems.) (e) Here belong two verbs in αιω with stems in αυ, καίω, burn, and κλαίω, weep (Attic also κάω and κλάω). These stems καυ- and κλαυ- (seen in καύσω and κλαύσομαι) became καϝι- and κλαϝι-, whence και- and κλαι- (see II. 2).

Note. The Epic forms other present stems in this way; so δαίω (δα-), burn, μαίομαι (μα-), seek, ναίω (να-), inhabit, ὀπυίω (ὀπυ-), marry, and perhaps δαίομαι, divide.

V. Fifth class. (N Class.)

Some simple stems are strengthened in the present by adding ν; as φθάν-ω (φθᾰ-), anticipate; τίν-ω (τι-), pay; φθίν-ω (φθι-), waste; δάκν-ω (δᾰκ-), bite; κάμν-ω (κᾰμ-), be weary; τέμν-ω (τεμ-), cut.

So βαίνω (βᾰ-, βᾱν-, Note 1), πίνω (πι-, see also VIII.), δύνω (with δύω), Hom. θύνω (with θύω), rush; for ἐλαύνω (ἐλᾰ-), see N. 2.

Some consonant stems add αν; ἁμαρτάν-ω (ἁμαρτ-), err; αἰσθάν-ομαι (αἰσθ-), perceive; βλαστάν-ω (βλαστ-), sprout.

If the last vowel of the simple stem is short, ν (μ or γ before a labial or a palatal, § 16, 3) is inserted after the vowel; as λανθάν-ω (λᾰθ-, λανθ-), escape notice; λαμβάν-ω (λᾰβ-, λαμβ-), take; θιγγάνω (θιγ-, θιγγ-), touch.

So αὐξάν-ω (with αὔξ-ω), δαρθάν-ω (δαρθ-), ἀπ-εχθάνομαι (ἐχθ-), ἱζάν-ω (with ἵζ-ω), poetic κιχάν-ω (κῐχ-), οἰδάν-ω (with οἰδ-έω, Class 7), ὀλισθάν-ω (ὀλισθ-), ὀσφραίν-ομαι (ὀσφρ-, N. 1), ὀφλισκάν-ω (ὀφλ-, ὀφλισκ-, VI.), with poetic ἀλιταίν-ομαι (ἀλῐτ-, N. 1), ἀλφάν-ω (ἀλφ-), ἐριδαίνω (ἐρῐδ-). With inserted ν, γ, or μ, ἁνδάν-ω (ἁδ-), λαγχάν-ω (λᾰχ-), μανθάν-ω (μᾰθ-), πυνθάν-ομαι (πῠθ-), τυγχάν-ω (τῠχ-), with poetic χανδάνω (χᾰδ-), ἐρυγγάν-ω (ἐρῠγ-).

A few stems add νε: βυνέ-ω (with βύ-ω), stop up, ἱκνέ-ομαι (with ἵκ-ω), come, κυνέ-ω (κυ-), kiss; also ἀμπ-ισχνέ-ομαι, have on, and ὑπ-ισχνέ-ομαι, promise, from ἴσχ-ω (VIII.).

Some stems add νυ (after a vowel, ννυ): these form the second class (in νῡμι) of verbs in μι, as δείκνυ-μι (δεικ-), show, κεράννυ-μι (κερᾰ-), mix, and are enumerated in § 125, 5. Some of these have also the present in νυω (§ 122, N. 5).

Note 1. (a) Βαίνω (βᾰ-, βᾱν-), go, and ὀσφραίνομαι (ὀσφρ-, ὀσφρᾱν-), smell, not only add ν or αν, but lengthen αν to αιν on the principle of Class 4. They belong here, however, as they do not have the inflection of liquid verbs (IV. 2, Note 2). See also κερδαίνω, ῥαίνω, τετραίνω, with Hom. ἀλιταίνομαι (ἀλιτ-, ἀλιτᾰν-) and ἐριδαίνω.

(b) Some simple stems of this class lengthen a short vowel (on the principle of Class 2) in other tenses than the present; as λαμβάνω (λᾰβ-), fut. λήψομαι (ληβ-): so δάκνω, λαγχάνω, λανθάνω, τυγχάνω. See also ἐρυγγάνω, ἔρχομαι, ζεύγνυμι, and πυνθάνομαι.

Note 2. Ἐλαύνω (ἐλᾰ-), drive, is irregular in the present stem (probably for ἐλα-νυ-ω). Ὄλ-λυ-μι (ὀλ-), destroy, adds λυ instead of νυ (by assimilation) to the stem ὀλ-. Δαμνάω (δᾰμ-), subdue, adds να.

VI. Sixth class. (Verbs in σκω.)

These add σκ or (after a consonant) ισκ to the simple stem to form the stem of the present; as γηρά-σκω (γηρᾰ-), grow old, εὑρ-ίσκω (εὑρ-), find, ἀρέ-σκω (ἀρε-), please, στερ-ίσκω (στερ-), deprive.

These verbs are, further, ἁλ-ίσκομαι, ἀμβλ-ίσκω, ἀμπλακ-ίσκω (poetic), ἀναλ-ίσκω, ἀπαφ-ίσκω (poet.), ἀραρ-ίσκω (poet.), βά-σκω, βι-βρώ-σκω (βρο-), βιώ-σκομαι (βιο-), βλώ-σκω (μολ-, βλο-), γεγων-ίσκω, γι-γνώ-σκω (γνο-), δι-δρά-σκω (δρα-), ἐπαυρ-ίσκω (poet.), ἡβά-σκω, θνή-σκω (θαν-, θνα-), θρώ-σκω (θορ-, θρο-), ἱλά-σκομαι, μεθύ-σκω, μι-μνή-σκω (μνᾰ-), πι-πί-σκω (Ion. and Pind.), πι-πρά-σκω, τι-τρώ-σκω (τρο-), φά-σκω, χά-σκω. See also the verbs in N. 3, and ὀφλισκάνω.

Note 1. Many verbs of this class reduplicate the present stem (§ 109, 7, c) by prefixing its initial consonant with ι, as γι-γνώ-σκω (γνο-). Ἀρ-αρ-ίσκω (ἀρ-) has an Attic reduplication (§ 102, N. 1).

Note 2. Stems in ο lengthen ο to ω before σκω, as in γιγνώσκω; and some in ᾰ lengthen ᾰ to η, as in μιμνήσκω (μνᾰ-) and θνήσκω (θᾰν-, θνᾰ-, § 109, 7, a).

Note 3. Three verbs, ἀλύ-σκω (ἀλῠκ-), avoid, διδά-σκω (διδᾰχ-), teach, and λά-σκω (λᾰκ-), speak, omit κ or χ before σκω instead of inserting ι. So Homeric ἐΐσκω or ἴσκω (ἐϊκ- or ἰκ-).

Note 4. These verbs, from their ending σκω, are often called inceptive verbs, although few of them have any inceptive meaning.

VII. Seventh class. (E Class.)

A few simple stems add ε to form the present stem; as δοκέ-ω (δοκ-), seem, fut. δόξω; ὠθέ-ω (ὠθ-), push, fut. ὤσω (§ 16, 2); γαμέ-ω (γᾰμ-), marry, fut. (γαμέω) γαμῶ.

These verbs are, further, γεγωνέω, γηθέω, κτυπέω, κυρέω, μαρτυρέω (with μαρτύρομαι), ῥιπτέω (with ῥίπτω), φιλέω (v. Epic forms); and poetic δατέομαι, δουπέω, εἰλέω, ἐπαυρέω, κεντέω, πατέομαι, ῥιγέω, στυγέω, τορέω, and χραισμέω. See also πεκτέω (πεκ-, πεκτ-).

Most verbs in εω belong to the first class, as ποιέω (ποιε-).

Note. A few chiefly poetic verbs form present stems by adding α in the same way to the simple stem: see βρυχάομαι, γράω, δηριάω, μηκάομαι, μητιάω, μυκάομαι.

VIII. Eigth class. (Mixed Class.)

This includes the few irregular verbs in which any of the tense stems are so essentially different from others, or which are otherwise so peculiar in formation, that they cannot be brought under any of the preceding classes. They are the following:

αἱρέω (ἑλ-), take, fut. αἱρήσω, 2 aor. εἷλον.

ἀλέξω (ἀλεκ-), ward off, fut. ἀλεξήσω (§ 109, 8), ἀλεξήσομαι, and ἀλέξομαι; 2 aor. ἄλαλκον (Hom.) for ἀλ-αλεκ-ον (§ 100, 2, N. 4).

γίγνομαι (γεν- or γν-, γενε-, γᾰ-), become, for γι-γενομαι, fut. γενήσομαι, 2 aor. ἐγενόμην, 2 pf. γέγονα (§ 109, 3) with γεγάασι, &c. (§ 125, 4).

ἔθω (ϝεθ-, ϝωθ-, ὠθ-), be accustomed, 2 pf. εἴωθα, 2 plpf. εἰώθειν.

εἶδον (ϝιδ-, ἰδ-), saw, vidi, 2 aorist (no present act.); 2 pf. οἶδα, know (§ 127). Mid. εἴδομαι (poetic).

εἶπον (εἰπ-, ἐρ-, ῥε-), spoke, 2 aor. (no pres.); fut. (ἐρέω) ἐρῶ, pf. εἴ-ρη-κα. The stem εἰπ- is for ε-επ (orig. ϝε-ϝεπ-), and ἐρ- (ῥε-) is for ϝερ- (ϝρε-), seen in Lat. ver-bum (§ 109, 7, a). So ἐν-έπω.

ἔρχομαι (ἐλυθ- or ἐλθ-, ἐλευθ-), go, fut. ἐλεύσομαι (poet.), 2 aor. ἦλθον.

ἔρδω (ἐργ-), work, poetic, fut. ἔρξω; by metathesis ἐργ- becomes ῥεγ- in ῥέζω (Class 4). Originally the stem was ϝεργ-, as in ἔργον, work, German Werk.

ἐσθίω (ἐδ-, φᾰγ-), eat, fut. ἔδομαι, 2 aor. ἔφαγον.

ἕπω (Attic only in comp.), be about; mid. ἕπομαι, follow (σεπ- or σπ-, ἑπ-), fut. ἕψομαι, 2 aor. ἑσπόμην.

ἔχω (σεχ- or σχ-, σχε-), have, fut. ἕξω or σχήσω, 2 aor. ἔσχον (for ἐ-σεχ-ον). Also ἴσχω (for σι-σεχ-ω).

ὁράω (ὀπ-), see, fut. ὄψομαι, pf. ἑώρακα. See εἶδον.

πάσχω (πᾰθ-, πενθ-), suffer, fut. πείσομαι, 2 pf. πέπονθα, 2 aor. ἔπαθον.

πίνω (πι-, πο-), drink, fut. πίομαι, pf. πέπωκα, 2 aor. ἔπιον.

πίπτω (πετ-, πτο-), fall, for πι-πετ-ω, fut. πεσοῦμαι, pf. πέ-πτω-κα, 2 aor. ἔπεσον (Dor. ἔπετον).

τρέχω (δρᾰμ-, δραμε-), run, fut. δραμοῦμαι, pf. δεδράμηκα, 2 aor. ἔδραμον.

φέρω (οἰ-, ἐνεκ-, by redupl. and sync. ἐν-ενεκ, ἐνεγκ-), bear, fero; fut. οἴσω, aor. ἤνεγκα (§ 109, 7, b), pf. ἐν-ήνοχ-α (§ 109, 3, N. 2), ἐν-ήνεγ-μαι, aor. p. ἠνέχθην.

For full forms of these verbs, see the Catalogue.

Note. Occasional Homeric or poetic irregular forms appear even in some verbs of the first seven classes. See ἀκαχίζω and χανδάνω in the Catalogue.

§ 107.

That we may know to what present any verbal form is to be referred, we must understand the relations which exist in different classes of verbs between the present stem and the simple stem (§ 92, 2). When these are not identical (as they are in λύω), the present stem is generally an enlarged form of the simple stem; as in κόπτ-ω (κοπ-), strike, μανθάν-ω (μαθ-), learn, δοκέ-ω (δοκ-), believe. In a few very irregular verbs, however, there is no connection to be seen between the present stem and the stem or stems which are in use in other tenses; as in φέρω (φερ-), bear, fut. οἴσω (οἰ-), aor. ἤνεγκα (ἐνεγκ-).

§ 108.

Verbs in ω are divided into eight classes with reference to the formation of the present stem from the simple stem.

I. First Class. (Stem unchanged.) Here the present is formed directly from the single stem of the verb; as in λύ-ω, loose, λέγ-ω, say, πλέκ-ω, weave, ἄγ-ω, lead, γράφ-ω, write.

Note. The pure verbs of this class which irregularly retain a short vowel in certain tenses are given in § 109, 1, N. 2; those which insert σ in certain tenses, in § 109, 2; and the verbs which add ε to the stem in some or all tenses not of the present system (as βούλομαι), in § 109, 8. These and other verbs of this class which are peculiar in their inflection will be found in the Catalogue of Verbs.

II. Second Class. (Lengthened Stems.)

1. This includes all verbs with mute simple stems which form the present stem by lengthening a short vowel, ᾰ to η, ῐ to ει (sometimes to ῑ), ῠ to ευ (sometimes to ῡ); as τήκ-ω (τᾰκ-), melt, λείπ-ω (λῐπ-), leave, φεύγ-ω (φῠγ-), flee, τρῑ́β-ω (τρῐβ-), rub, ψῡ́χ-ω (ψῠχ-), cool.

Here belong, further, κήδω (κᾰδ-), λήθω (λᾰθ-), σήπω (σᾰπ-), ἀλείφω (ἀλῐφ-), ἐρείπω (ἐρῐπ-), πείθω (πῐθ-), στείβω (στῐβ-), στείχω (στῐχ-), φείδομαι (φῐδ-), θλίβω (θλῐβ-), πνίγω (πνῐγ-), πυνθάνομαι (πῠθ-), τεύχω (τῠχ-), τύφω (τῠφ-), φρύγω (φρῠγ-); with Ionic or poetic ἐρείκω (ἐρῐκ-), ἐρεύγομαι (ἐρῠγ-), κεύθω (κῠθ-), τμήγω (τμᾰγ-), and (θᾰπ- or τᾰφ-) stem of τέθηπα and ἔταφον; see also εἴκω (ἰκ-). Τρώγω (τρᾰγ-) irregularly lengthens ᾰ to ω. See also § 108, V. Note 1 (b).

2. Six verbs in εω with stems in ῠ belong by formation to this class. These originally lengthened ῠ to ευ, which became εϝ (§ 1, N. 2) before a vowel, and finally dropped ϝ and left ε; as πλῠ-, πλευ-, πλεϝ-ω, πλέ-ω, sail. These verbs are θέω (θῠ-), run, νέω (νῠ-), swim, πλέω (πλῠ-), sail, πνέω (πνῠ-), breathe, ῥέω (ῥῠ-), flow, χέω (χῠ-), pour. The poetic σεύω (σῠ-), urge, has this formation, with ευ retained.

Note. Verbs of the second class have the lengthened stem, as τηκ- in τήκω, νευ- in (νεϝω) νέω, in all tenses except in the second perfect, second aorist, and second passive tense systems; as φεύγω, φεύξομαι, ἔφυγον; τήκω, τήξω, τέτηκα, ἐτάκην; ῥέω (for ῥεϝω), ῥεύσομαι, ἐρρύην. Exceptions are the perfect middle of ἀλείφω, ἐρείκω, ἐρείπω, στείβω, τεύχω, the perfect active of ῥέω and τρίβω, and most tenses of χέω and σεύω. The lengthened stem of the second perfect (as in τέτηκα, λέλοιπα, &c.) is explained on the general principle, § 109, 3.

III. Third Class. (Verbs in πτω, or T Class.) Simple labial (π, β, φ) stems generally add τ, and thus form the present in πτω (§ 16, 1); as κόπτ-ω (κοπ-), cut, βλάπτ-ω (βλαβ-), hurt, ῥίπτ-ω (ῥιφ-), throw.

Here the exact form of the simple stem cannot be determined from the present. Thus, in the examples above given, the stem is to be found in the second aorists ἐκόπην, ἐβλάβην, and ἐρρίφην; and in καλύπτω (καλυβ-), cover, it is seen in καλύβ-η, hut.

The verbs of this class are ἅπτ-ω (ἁφ-), βάπτ-ω (βαφ-), βλάπτ-ω (βλαβ-), θάπτ-ω (ταφ-), θρύπτ-ω (τρυφ-), καλύπτ-ω (καλυβ-), κάμπτ-ω (καμπ-), κλέπτ-ω (κλεπ-), κόπτ-ω (κοπ-), κρύπτ-ω (κρυβ- or κρυφ-), κύπτ-ω (κυφ-), ῥάπτ-ω (ῥαφ-), ῥίπτ-ω (ῥιφ-), σκάπτ-ω (σκαφ-), σκέπτομαι (σκεπ-), σκήπτω (σκηπ-), σκώπτω (σκωπ-), τύπτω (τυπ-), with Homeric and poetic γνάμπτω (γναμπ-), ἐνίπτω (ἐνιπ-), and μάρπτω (μαρπ-). Τίκτω (τεκ-), probably for τεκτ-ω, belongs here.

IV. Fourth Class. (Iota Class.) This includes all verbs in which occur any of the euphonic changes arising from the addition of ι to the simple stem in forming the present stem (§ 16, 7). There are three divisions: —

1. (Verbs in σσω or ττω and ζω.) (a) Presents in σσω (ττω) generally come from palatal stems, κ, γ, or χ with ι becoming σσ (ττ). These have futures in ξω; as πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), do, fut. πράξω; μαλάσσω (μαλᾰκ-, seen in μαλακός), soften, fut. μαλάξω; ταράσσω (ταρᾰχ-, seen in ταραχή), confuse, fut. ταράξω. See § 16, 7 (a).

See also κηρύσσω (κηρῡκ-), φυλάσσω (φυλᾰκ-), πτήσσω (πτηκ-), φρίσσω (φρῑκ-), ἀλλάσσω (ἀλλᾰγ-), μάσσω (μᾰγ-), τάσσω (τᾰγ-), πλήσσω (πληγ-), ὀρύσσω (ὀρῠχ-), in the Catalogue, and many other verbs in σσω. [1]

[1]: The lists of verbs of the fourth class are not complete, while those of the other classes which are given contain all the verbs in common use.

Note. A few presents in σσω (ττω) come from lingual stems, and have futures in σω; as ἐρέσσω, row (from stem ἐρετ-, seen in ἐρέτης, rower), aor. ἤρεσα (§ 16, 2). So also ἁρμόττω (fut. ἁρμόσω), βλίττω (μελιτ-, § 14, N. 1), λίσσομαι (λιτ-), πάσσω, πλάσσω, πτίσσω, with ἀφάσσω (Hdt.), and poetic ἱμάσσω, κορύσσω (κορυθ-), νίσσομαι. One has a labial stem, πέσσω (πεπ-), cook, fut. πέψω.

(b) Presents in ζω may come from stems in δ and have futures in σω, or from stems in γ (or γγ) and have futures in ξω; as φράζω (φρᾰδ-), say, fut. φράσω, 2 aor. (Epic) πέφραδον; κομίζω (κομῐδ-, seen in κομιδή), carry, fut. κομίσω; ῥέζω (ῥεγ-), do, poetic, fut. ῥέξω; κλάζω (κλαγγ-, compare clango), scream, fut. κλάγξω. See § 16, 7 (b).

See also ἁρπάζω (ἁρπᾰδ-), θαυμάζω (θαυμᾰδ-), ἐρίζω (ἐρῐδ-), ἵζω (ἱδ-), νομίζω (νομῐδ-), ὄζω (ὀδ-), πελάζω (πελᾰδ-), σώζω (σωδ-), χάζω (χᾰδ-); κράζω (κρᾱγ-), σφάζω (σφᾰγ-), μύζω (μυγ-), grumble; σαλπίζω (σαλπιγγ-); with Ionic or poetic βαστάζω (βαστᾰδ-), κρίζω (κρῑγ-), τρίζω (τριγ-), πλάζω (πλαγγ-); &c.

Note 1. Some verbs in ζω have stems both in δ and γ; as παίζω (παιδ-, παιγ-), play, fut. παιξοῦμαι (§ 110, II. N. 2), aor. ἔπαισα. See also poetic forms of ἁρπάζω and νάσσω.

Note 2. Νίζω (νιβ-), wash, has a labial stem.

2. (Verbs with lengthened Liquid Stems.) (c) Presents in λλω are formed from simple stems in λ with added ι, λι becoming λλ; as στέλλω, send, for στελ-ι-ω; ἀγγέλλω, announce, for ἀγγελ-ι-ω; σφάλλω, trip up, for σφαλ-ι-ω. See § 16, 7 (c). See also βάλλω (βᾰλ-), θάλλω (θᾰλ-), ὀκέλλω (ὀκελ-), πάλλω (πᾰλ-), σκέλλω (σκελ-), τέλλω (τελ-), ἅλλομαι (ἁλ-), &c.

(d) Presents in αινω, εινω, αιρω, and ειρω are formed from simple stems in ᾰν, εν, ᾰρ, and ερ, with added ι, which, after metathesis, is contracted with the preceding vowel; as φαίνω, show, for φαν-ι-ω, fut. φᾰνῶ; κτείνω, kill, for κτεν-ι-ω; αἴρω, raise, for ἀρ-ι-ω; σπείρω, sow, for σπερ-ι-ω. See § 16, 7 (d).

Those in ῑνω, ῡνω, and ῡρω may be formed in the same way from simple stems in ῐν, ῠν, and ῠρ, ῐι becoming ῑ, and ῠι becoming ῡ; as κρίνω, judge, for κρῐν-ι-ω, fut. κρῐνῶ; ἀμύνω, ward off, for ἀμῠν-ι-ω, fut. ἀμῠνῶ; σύρω, draw, for σῠρ-ι-ω.

See also εὐφραίνω (εὐφρᾰν-), κερδαίνω (κερδᾰν-), μιαίνω (μιᾰν-), ξηραίνω (ξηρᾰν-), σημαίνω (σημᾰν-), ὑφαίνω (ὑφᾰν-), τείνω (τεν-), poetic θείνω (θεν-), γείνομαι (γεν-), σαίρω (σᾰρ-), χαίρω (χᾰρ-), ἐγείρω (ἐγερ-), κείρω (κερ-), φθείρω (φθερ-), κλίνω (κλῐν-), πλύνω (πλῠν-), ὀξύνω (ὀξῠν-), αἰσχύνω (αἰσχῠν-), ὀλοφύρομαι (ὀλοφῠρ-), &c.

Note 1. Ὀφείλω (ὀφελ-), be obliged, owe, follows the analogy of stems in εν, to avoid confusion with ὀφέλλω (ὀφελ-), increase; but in Homer it has a regular form ὀφέλλω. Homer has εἴλομαι (ἑλ-), press.

Note 2. Verbs of this division (2) regularly have futures and aorists active and middle of the liquid form (§ 110, II. 2). For exceptions (in poetry), see § 110, II. N. 4.

Note 3. Many verbs with liquid stems do not belong to this class; as δέμω and δέρω in Class 1. For βαίνω, &c., see V. Note 1.

3. (Lengthened Vowel Stems.) (e) Here belong two verbs in αιω with stems in αυ, καίω, burn, and κλαίω, weep (Attic also κάω and κλάω). These stems καυ- and κλαυ- (seen in καύσω and κλαύσομαι) became καϝι- and κλαϝι-, whence και- and κλαι- (see II. 2).

Note. The Epic forms other present stems in this way; so δαίω (δα-), burn, μαίομαι (μα-), seek, ναίω (να-), inhabit, ὀπυίω (ὀπυ-), marry, and perhaps δαίομαι, divide.

V. Fifth class. (N Class.)

1. Some simple stems are strengthened in the present by adding ν; as φθάν-ω (φθᾰ-), anticipate; τίν-ω (τι-), pay; φθίν-ω (φθι-), waste; δάκν-ω (δᾰκ-), bite; κάμν-ω (κᾰμ-), be weary; τέμν-ω (τεμ-), cut.

So βαίνω (βᾰ-, βᾱν-, Note 1), πίνω (πι-, see also VIII.), δύνω (with δύω), Hom. θύνω (with θύω), rush; for ἐλαύνω (ἐλᾰ-), see N. 2.

2. Some consonant stems add αν; ἁμαρτάν-ω (ἁμαρτ-), err; αἰσθάν-ομαι (αἰσθ-), perceive; βλαστάν-ω (βλαστ-), sprout.

If the last vowel of the simple stem is short, ν (μ or γ before a labial or a palatal, § 16, 3) is inserted after the vowel; as λανθάν-ω (λᾰθ-, λανθ-), escape notice; λαμβάν-ω (λᾰβ-, λαμβ-), take; θιγγάνω (θιγ-, θιγγ-), touch.

So αὐξάν-ω (with αὔξ-ω), δαρθάν-ω (δαρθ-), ἀπ-εχθάνομαι (ἐχθ-), ἱζάν-ω (with ἵζ-ω), poetic κιχάν-ω (κῐχ-), οἰδάν-ω (with οἰδ-έω, Class 7), ὀλισθάν-ω (ὀλισθ-), ὀσφραίν-ομαι (ὀσφρ-, N. 1), ὀφλισκάν-ω (ὀφλ-, ὀφλισκ-, VI.), with poetic ἀλιταίν-ομαι (ἀλῐτ-, N. 1), ἀλφάν-ω (ἀλφ-), ἐριδαίνω (ἐρῐδ-). With inserted ν, γ, or μ, ἁνδάν-ω (ἁδ-), λαγχάν-ω (λᾰχ-), μανθάν-ω (μᾰθ-), πυνθάν-ομαι (πῠθ-), τυγχάν-ω (τῠχ-), with poetic χανδάνω (χᾰδ-), ἐρυγγάν-ω (ἐρῠγ-).

3. A few stems add νε: βυνέ-ω (with βύ-ω), stop up, ἱκνέ-ομαι (with ἵκ-ω), come, κυνέ-ω (κυ-), kiss; also ἀμπ-ισχνέ-ομαι, have on, and ὑπ-ισχνέ-ομαι, promise, from ἴσχ-ω (VIII.).

4. Some stems add νυ (after a vowel, ννυ): these form the second class (in νῡμι) of verbs in μι, as δείκνυ-μι (δεικ-), show, κεράννυ-μι (κερᾰ-), mix, and are enumerated in § 125, 5. Some of these have also the present in νυω (§ 122, N. 5).

Note 1. (a) Βαίνω (βᾰ-, βᾱν-), go, and ὀσφραίνομαι (ὀσφρ-, ὀσφρᾱν-), smell, not only add ν or αν, but lengthen αν to αιν on the principle of Class 4. They belong here, however, as they do not have the inflection of liquid verbs (IV. 2, Note 2). See also κερδαίνω, ῥαίνω, τετραίνω, with Hom. ἀλιταίνομαι (ἀλιτ-, ἀλιτᾰν-) and ἐριδαίνω.

(b) Some simple stems of this class lengthen a short vowel (on the principle of Class 2) in other tenses than the present; as λαμβάνω (λᾰβ-), fut. λήψομαι (ληβ-): so δάκνω, λαγχάνω, λανθάνω, τυγχάνω. See also ἐρυγγάνω, ἔρχομαι, ζεύγνυμι, and πυνθάνομαι.

Note 2. Ἐλαύνω (ἐλᾰ-), drive, is irregular in the present stem (probably for ἐλα-νυ-ω). Ὄλ-λυ-μι (ὀλ-), destroy, adds λυ instead of νυ (by assimilation) to the stem ὀλ-. Δαμνάω (δᾰμ-), subdue, adds να.

VI. Sixth class. (Verbs in σκω.)

These add σκ or (after a consonant) ισκ to the simple stem to form the stem of the present; as γηρά-σκω (γηρᾰ-), grow old, εὑρ-ίσκω (εὑρ-), find, ἀρέ-σκω (ἀρε-), please, στερ-ίσκω (στερ-), deprive.

These verbs are, further, ἁλ-ίσκομαι, ἀμβλ-ίσκω, ἀμπλακ-ίσκω (poetic), ἀναλ-ίσκω, ἀπαφ-ίσκω (poet.), ἀραρ-ίσκω (poet.), βά-σκω, βι-βρώ-σκω (βρο-), βιώ-σκομαι (βιο-), βλώ-σκω (μολ-, βλο-), γεγων-ίσκω, γι-γνώ-σκω (γνο-), δι-δρά-σκω (δρα-), ἐπαυρ-ίσκω (poet.), ἡβά-σκω, θνή-σκω (θαν-, θνα-), θρώ-σκω (θορ-, θρο-), ἱλά-σκομαι, μεθύ-σκω, μι-μνή-σκω (μνᾰ-), πι-πί-σκω (Ion. and Pind.), πι-πρά-σκω, τι-τρώ-σκω (τρο-), φά-σκω, χά-σκω. See also the verbs in N. 3, and ὀφλισκάνω.

Note 1. Many verbs of this class reduplicate the present stem (§ 109, 7, c) by prefixing its initial consonant with ι, as γι-γνώ-σκω (γνο-). Ἀρ-αρ-ίσκω (ἀρ-) has an Attic reduplication (§ 102, N. 1).

Note 2. Stems in ο lengthen ο to ω before σκω, as in γιγνώσκω; and some in ᾰ lengthen ᾰ to η, as in μιμνήσκω (μνᾰ-) and θνήσκω (θᾰν-, θνᾰ-, § 109, 7, a).

Note 3. Three verbs, ἀλύ-σκω (ἀλῠκ-), avoid, διδά-σκω (διδᾰχ-), teach, and λά-σκω (λᾰκ-), speak, omit κ or χ before σκω instead of inserting ι. So Homeric ἐΐσκω or ἴσκω (ἐϊκ- or ἰκ-).

Note 4. These verbs, from their ending σκω, are often called inceptive verbs, although few of them have any inceptive meaning.

VII. Seventh class. (E Class.)

A few simple stems add ε to form the present stem; as δοκέ-ω (δοκ-), seem, fut. δόξω; ὠθέ-ω (ὠθ-), push, fut. ὤσω (§ 16, 2); γαμέ-ω (γᾰμ-), marry, fut. (γαμέω) γαμῶ.

These verbs are, further, γεγωνέω, γηθέω, κτυπέω, κυρέω, μαρτυρέω (with μαρτύρομαι), ῥιπτέω (with ῥίπτω), φιλέω (v. Epic forms); and poetic δατέομαι, δουπέω, εἰλέω, ἐπαυρέω, κεντέω, πατέομαι, ῥιγέω, στυγέω, τορέω, and χραισμέω. See also πεκτέω (πεκ-, πεκτ-).

Most verbs in εω belong to the first class, as ποιέω (ποιε-).

Note. A few chiefly poetic verbs form present stems by adding α in the same way to the simple stem: see βρυχάομαι, γράω, δηριάω, μηκάομαι, μητιάω, μυκάομαι.

VIII. Eigth class. (Mixed Class.)

This includes the few irregular verbs in which any of the tense stems are so essentially different from others, or which are otherwise so peculiar in formation, that they cannot be brought under any of the preceding classes. They are the following:

αἱρέω (ἑλ-), take, fut. αἱρήσω, 2 aor. εἷλον.

ἀλέξω (ἀλεκ-), ward off, fut. ἀλεξήσω (§ 109, 8), ἀλεξήσομαι, and ἀλέξομαι; 2 aor. ἄλαλκον (Hom.) for ἀλ-αλεκ-ον (§ 100, 2, N. 4).

γίγνομαι (γεν- or γν-, γενε-, γᾰ-), become, for γι-γενομαι, fut. γενήσομαι, 2 aor. ἐγενόμην, 2 pf. γέγονα (§ 109, 3) with γεγάασι, &c. (§ 125, 4).

ἔθω (ϝεθ-, ϝωθ-, ὠθ-), be accustomed, 2 pf. εἴωθα, 2 plpf. εἰώθειν.

εἶδον (ϝιδ-, ἰδ-), saw, vidi, 2 aorist (no present act.); 2 pf. οἶδα, know (§ 127). Mid. εἴδομαι (poetic).

εἶπον (εἰπ-, ἐρ-, ῥε-), spoke, 2 aor. (no pres.); fut. (ἐρέω) ἐρῶ, pf. εἴ-ρη-κα. The stem εἰπ- is for ε-επ (orig. ϝε-ϝεπ-), and ἐρ- (ῥε-) is for ϝερ- (ϝρε-), seen in Lat. ver-bum (§ 109, 7, a). So ἐν-έπω.

ἔρχομαι (ἐλυθ- or ἐλθ-, ἐλευθ-), go, fut. ἐλεύσομαι (poet.), 2 aor. ἦλθον.

ἔρδω (ἐργ-), work, poetic, fut. ἔρξω; by metathesis ἐργ- becomes ῥεγ- in ῥέζω (Class 4). Originally the stem was ϝεργ-, as in ἔργον, work, German Werk.

ἐσθίω (ἐδ-, φᾰγ-), eat, fut. ἔδομαι, 2 aor. ἔφαγον.

ἕπω (Attic only in comp.), be about; mid. ἕπομαι, follow (σεπ- or σπ-, ἑπ-), fut. ἕψομαι, 2 aor. ἑσπόμην.

ἔχω (σεχ- or σχ-, σχε-), have, fut. ἕξω or σχήσω, 2 aor. ἔσχον (for ἐ-σεχ-ον). Also ἴσχω (for σι-σεχ-ω).

ὁράω (ὀπ-), see, fut. ὄψομαι, pf. ἑώρακα. See εἶδον.

πάσχω (πᾰθ-, πενθ-), suffer, fut. πείσομαι, 2 pf. πέπονθα, 2 aor. ἔπαθον.

πίνω (πι-, πο-), drink, fut. πίομαι, pf. πέπωκα, 2 aor. ἔπιον.

πίπτω (πετ-, πτο-), fall, for πι-πετ-ω, fut. πεσοῦμαι, pf. πέ-πτω-κα, 2 aor. ἔπεσον (Dor. ἔπετον).

τρέχω (δρᾰμ-, δραμε-), run, fut. δραμοῦμαι, pf. δεδράμηκα, 2 aor. ἔδραμον.

φέρω (οἰ-, ἐνεκ-, by redupl. and sync. ἐν-ενεκ, ἐνεγκ-), bear, fero; fut. οἴσω, aor. ἤνεγκα (§ 109, 7, b), pf. ἐν-ήνοχ-α (§ 109, 3, N. 2), ἐν-ήνεγ-μαι, aor. p. ἠνέχθην.

For full forms of these verbs, see the Catalogue.

Note. Occasional Homeric or poetic irregular forms appear even in some verbs of the first seven classes. See ἀκαχίζω and χανδάνω in the Catalogue.

§109

VERBAL STEMS. Modification of verbal stems.

VERBAL STEMS. Modification of verbal stems.

Remark. This section includes all those modifications of the stem which follow recognized principles, or which occur in so many verbs that they deserve special notice. For example, the change from τιμᾰ- in τιμάω to τιμη- in τιμήσω, that from στεργ- in στέργω to ἐστοργ- in 2 pf. ἔστοργα, that from στελ- (stem of στέλλω) to στειλ- in ἔστειλα and ἐστᾰλ- in ἔσταλ-κα, and that from βᾰλ- (stem of βάλλω) to βεβλη- (for βεβλᾱ-) in βέβληκα, all follow definite principles; while that from πι- to πο- in πίνω and that from πᾰθ- to πενθ- in πάσχω (§ 108, VIII.) are mere irregularities.

Most stems ending in a short vowel lengthen this vowel in all tenses formed from these stems, except the present and imperfect. ᾰ and ε become η, and ο becomes ω; but when ᾰ follows ε, ι, or ρ, it becomes ᾱ. E.g. Τιμάω (τιμᾰ-), honor, τιμή-σω, ἐτίμη-σα, τετίμη-κα, τετίμη-μαι, ἐτιμή-θην; φιλέω (φιλε-), love, φιλήσω, ἐφίλησα, πεφίληκα, πεφίλημαι, ἐφιλήθην; δηλόω (δηλο-), show, δηλώσω, &c.; so τίω, τίσω (ῑ); δακρύω, δακρύσω (ῡ). But ἐάω, ἐάσω (ᾱ); ἰάομαι, ἰάσομαι (ᾱ); δράω, δράσω (ᾱ), ἔδρᾱσα, δέδρᾱκα.

This applies also to stems which become vowel stems by metathesis (§ 109, 7), as βάλλω (βᾰλ-, βλᾰ-), throw, pf. βέβλη-κα; κάμνω (κᾰμ-, κμᾰ-), labor, κέκμη-κα; or by adding ε (§ 109, 8), as βούλομαι (βουλ-, βουλε-), wish, βουλή-σομαι, βεβούλη-μαι, ἐβουλή-θην.

Note 1. Λύω, loose, generally has ῡ in Attic poetry in the present and imperfect (generally ῠ in Homer); in other tenses it has ῡ only in the future and aorist active and middle and in the future perfect. Ἀκροάομαι, hear, has ἀκροάσομαι, &c.; χράω, give oracles, lengthens ᾰ to η; as χρήσω, &c. So τρήσω and ἔτρησα from stem τρα-; see τετραίνω, bore.

Note 2. Some vowel stems retain the short vowel, contrary to the general rule (§ 109, 1); as γελάω, laugh, γελάσομαι, ἐγέλασα; ἀρκέω, suffice, ἀρκέσω, ἤρκεσα; μάχομαι (μαχε-), fight, μαχέσομαι (Ion.), ἐμαχεσάμην.

(a) This occurs in the following verbs: (pure verbs) ἄγαμαι, αἰδέομαι, ἀκέομαι, ἀλέω, ἀνύω, ἀρκέω, ἀρόω, ἀρύω, γελάω, ἑλκύω (v. ἕλκω), ἐμέω, ἐράω, ζέω, θλάω, κλάω, break, ξέω, πτύω, σπάω, τελέω, τρέω, φλάω, χαλάω; and Epic ἀκηδέω, κοτέω, λοέω, νεικέω, and the stems (ἀᾱ-) and (ἀε-); - (other verbs with vowel stems) ἀρέσκω (ἀρε-), ἄχθομαι (ἀχθε-), ἐλαύνω (ἐλᾰ-), ἱλάσκομαι (ἱλα-), μεθύσκω (μεθῠ-); also all verbs in αννυμι and εννυμι, with stems in ᾰ and ε (given in § 125, 5), with ὄλλυμι (ὀλε-) and ὄμνυμι (ὀμο-).

(b) The final vowel of the stem is variable in quantity in different tenses in the following verbs: (pure verbs) αἰνέω, αἱρέω, δέω, bind, δύω (v. δύνω), ἐρύω (Epic), θύω, sacrifice, καλέω, λύω, μύω, ποθέω, πονέω; - (other verbs) βαίνω (βᾰ-), εὑρίσκω (εὑρ-, εὑρε-), μάχομαι (μαχε-), πίνω (πι-, πο-), φθάνω (φθᾰ-), φθίνω (φθι-).

Many vowel stems have σ added, before all endings not beginning with σ, in the perfect middle and first passive tense systems. E.g. Τελέω, finish, τετέλε-σ-μαι, ἐτετελέσμην, ἐτελέσθην (§ 97, 4); γελάω, laugh, ἐγελά-σ-θην, γελασθῆναι; χράω, give oracles, χρήσω, κέχρη-σ-μαι, ἐχρήσθην.

This occurs in all the verbs included in 1, N. 2 (a), except ἀρόω, so far as they form these tenses, and in the following: ἀκούω, δράω, θραύω, κελεύω, κλείω (κλῄω), κνάω, κναίω, κρούω, κυλίω, λεύω, νέω, heap, ξύω, παίω, παλαίω, παύω, πρίω, σείω, τίνω, ὕω, χόω, χράω, χρίω, and poetic ῥαίω. Some, however, have forms both with and without σ. See the Catalogue.

In the second perfect the simple stem generally changes ε to ο, and lengthens other short vowels, ᾰ to η (after ρ to ᾱ), ο to ω, ῐ to οι, and ῠ to ευ. E.g. Στέργ-ω, love, ἔστοργα; γίγνομαι (γεν-), become, γέγονα, ἐγεγόνειν; τίκτω (τεκ-), bring forth, τέτοκα; φαίνω (φᾰν-), πέφηνα; κράζω (κρᾱγ-), cry, κέκρᾱγα; τήκω (τᾰκ-), melt, τέτηκα, ἐτετήκειν; λείπω (λῐπ-), λέλοιπα, ἐλελοίπειν; φεύγω (φῠγ-), flee, πέφευγα, ἐπεφεύγειν. So ἐγείρω (ἐγερ-), rouse, ἐγρήγορα (§ 102, N. 1).

Note 1. Πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), do, has πέπρᾱγα (§ 110, IV. (a), N. 2). Ἔθω (ἐθ-), am accustomed, has irregularly εἴωθα (ὠθ- for ϝωθ-, § 104); and ῥήγνυμι (ῥᾰγ-) has ἔρρωγα (ῥωγ-), cf. τρώγω (τρᾱγ-), § 108, II.

Note 2. This change of ε to ο occurs even in some first perfects which aspirate the final consonant of the stem (§ 110, IV. b): these are κέκλοφα, from κλέπτω (κλᾰπ-), steal; εἴλοχα, from λέγ-ω, collect; πέπομφα from πέμπ-ω, send; τέτροφα (sometimes τέτραφα) from τρέπ-ω, turn; τέτροφα (perhaps second perfect), from τρέφ-ω, nourish. So ι becomes οι in δέδοικα (δι-), fear. In τίθημι (θε-), put, ε becomes ει in τέθεικα and τέθειμαι; compare πίνω (πι-), drink, πέπωκα and πέπομαι (πο-).

In simple liquid stems of one syllable, ε is generally changed to ᾰ in the perfect active, perfect middle, and second passive systems. E.g. Στέλλω (στελ-), send, ἔσταλκα, ἔσταλμαι, ἐστάλην, στᾰλήσομαι; κείρω (κερ-), shear, κέκαρμαι, ἐκάρην (Ion.); σπείρω (σπερ-), sow, ἔσπαρμαι, ἐσπάρην. So in δέρω, κτείνω, μείρομαι, τέλλω, and φθείρω.

Note 1. The same change of ε to ᾰ (after ρ) occurs in στρέφω, turn, ἔστραμμαι, ἐστράφην, στραφήσομαι (but 1 aor. ἐστρέφθην, rare); τρέπω, turn, τέτραφα (generally τέτροφα), τέτραμμαι, ἐτράπην (but ἐτρέφθην, Ion. ἐτράφθην); τρέφω, nourish, τέτροφα (late τέτραφα), τέθραμμαι, ἐτράφην (but ἐθρέφθην); also in the second aorist passive of κλέπτω, steal, πλέκω, weave, and τέρπω, delight, ἐκλάπην, ἐπλάκην, and (Epic) ἐτάρπην (1 aor. ἐκλέφθην, ἐπλέχθην, ἐτέρφθην, rarely Epic ἐτάρφθην). It occurs, further, in the second aorist (active or middle) of κτείνω, kill, τέμνω, cut, τρέπω, and τέρπω; viz., in ἔκτανον (poet.), ἔταμον, ἐταμόμην, ἔτραπον, ἐτραπόμην, τεταρπόμην (Hom.); also in several Homeric and poetic forms (see δέρκομαι, πέρθω, and πτήσσω).

Note 2. The first passive system rarely appears in verbs with monosyllabic liquid stems. Τείνω (τεν-), stretch, in which τεν- drops ν in this system (§ 109, 6), changes ε to ᾰ in ἐτάθην and ἐκ-ταθήσομαι.

Liquid stems lengthen their last vowel in the aorist active and middle; as στέλλω (στελ-), ἔστειλα. See § 110, III. 2, and the examples.

Four verbs in νω drop ν of the stem in the perfect and first passive systems, and thus have vowel stems in these forms: - κρίνω (κρῐν-), separate, κέκρικα, κέκριμαι, ἐκρίθην; κλίνω (κλῐν-), incline, κέκλικα, κέκλιμαι, ἐκλίθην; πλύνω (πλῠν-), wash, πέπλυμαι, ἐπλύθην; τείνω (τεν-), stretch, τέτᾰκα (§ 109, 4), τέταμαι, ἐτάθην, ἐκ-ταθήσομαι. So κτείνω in some poetic forms: see also κερδαίνω.

Note. When final ν of a stem is not thus dropped, it becomes γ before κα (§ 16, 5), and generally becomes σ before μαι (§ 16, 6, N. 4); as φαίνω (φᾰν-), πέφαγκα, πέφασμαι, ἐφάνθην.

(a) The stem sometimes suffers metathesis (§ 14, 1): (1) in the present, as θνήσκω (θᾰν-, θνᾰ-), die (§ 108, VI. N. 2); (2) in other tenses, as βάλλω (βᾰλ-, βλᾰ-), throw, βέβληκα, βέβλημαι, ἐβλήθην; δέρκομαι (δερκ-), see (poetic), 2 aor. ἔδρακον (δρᾰκ-, § 109, 4, N. 1).

(b) Sometimes syncope (§ 14, 2): (1) in the present, as γίγνομαι (γεν-), become, for γι-γεν-ομαι; (2) in the second aorist, as ἐπτόμην for ἐ-πετ-ομην; (3) in the perfect, as πετάννυμι (πετᾰ-), expand, πέπταμαι for πε-πετα-μαι.

(c) Sometimes reduplication (besides the regular reduplication of the perfect stem): (1) in the present, especially in verbs of the sixth class and in verbs in μι (§ 121, 3), as γι-γνώσκω, know, γί-γνομαι, ἵ-στημι; (2) in the second aorist, as πείθω (πιθ-), persuade, πέ-πιθον (Ep.). Attic redupl. in ἄγω, lead, ἤγαγον (ἀγ-αγ-); see ἀραρίσκω. § 110, V. N. 2; § 100, Notes 3 and 4.

Ε is sometimes added to the present stem, sometimes to the simple stem, making a new stem in ε. From this some verbs form special tenses; and others form all their tenses except the present, imperfect, second perfect, and second aorists (§ 90, N. 1). E.g. Βούλομαι (βουλ-), wish, βουλήσομαι (βουλε-, § 109, 1), &c.; αἰσθάνομαι (αἰσθ-), perceive, αἰσθήσομαι (αἰσθε-), ᾔσθημαι; μένω (μεν-), remain, μεμένηκα (μενε-); μάχομαι (μαχ-), fight, fut. (μαχέ-ομαι) μαχοῦμαι, ἐμαχεσάμην, μεμάχημαι; χαίρω (χᾰρ-), rejoice, χαιρήσω (χαιρε-), κεχάρηκα (χαρε-).

(a) The following have the stem in ε, in all tenses except those mentioned; (1) formed from the present stem: ἀλέξω, ἄλθομαι (Ion.), ἄχθομαι, βούλομαι, βόσκω, δέω, want, ἐθέλω and θέλω, ἔρομαι and εἴρομαι (Ion.), ἔρρω, εὕδω, ἕψω, κέλομαι (poet.), μάχομαι, μέδομαι (poet.), μέλλω, μέλω, μύζω, suck, οἴομαι, οἴχομαι, ὀφείλω, πέτομαι; (2) formed from the simple stem: αἰσθάνομαι (αἰσθ-), ἁμαρτάνω (ἁμαρτ-), ἁνδάνω (ἁδ-), ἀπ-εχθάνομαι (ἐχθ-), αὐξάνω (αὐξ-), βλαστάνω (βλαστ-), εὑρίσκω (εὑρ-), κιχάνω (κιχ-), λάσκω (λακ-), μανθάνω (μαθ-), ὀλισθάνω (ὀλισθ-), ὄλλυμι (ὀλ-), ὀφλισκάνω (ὀφλ-); see poetic ἀμπλακίσκω and ἀπαφίσκω, and the stem (δα-).

(b) The following have the stem in ε in special tenses; (1) formed from the present stem: διδάσκω, καθίζω, κλαίω, μένω, νέμω, παίω, πέτομαι, τύπτω; (2) formed from the simple stem: δαρθάνω (δαρθ-), κήδω (κᾱδ-), ὀσφραίνομαι (ὀσφρ-), πείθω (πιθ-), ῥέω (ῥυ-), στείβω (στιβ-), τυγχάνω (τυχ-), χάζω (χαδ-); see also γίγνομαι, ἔχω, τρέχω. Χαίρω (χᾰρ-) forms both χαιρε- and χαρε-.

Note. In ὄμνυμι, swear, the stem ὀμ- is enlarged to ὀμο- in some tenses, as in ὤμο-σα; in ἁλίσκομαι, be captured, ἁλ- is enlarged to ἁλο-, as in ἁλώσομαι. So τρύχω, exhaust, τρυχώσω. So probably οἴχομαι, be gone, has stem οἰχο- for οἰχε- in the perfect οἴχω-κα (cf. Ion. οἴχη-μαι).

Remark. This section includes all those modifications of the stem which follow recognized principles, or which occur in so many verbs that they deserve special notice. For example, the change from τιμᾰ- in τιμάω to τιμη- in τιμήσω, that from στεργ- in στέργω to ἐστοργ- in 2 pf. ἔστοργα, that from στελ- (stem of στέλλω) to στειλ- in ἔστειλα and ἐστᾰλ- in ἔσταλ-κα, and that from βᾰλ- (stem of βάλλω) to βεβλη- (for βεβλᾱ-) in βέβληκα, all follow definite principles; while that from πι- to πο- in πίνω and that from πᾰθ- to πενθ- in πάσχω (§ 108, VIII.) are mere irregularities.

1. Most stems ending in a short vowel lengthen this vowel in all tenses formed from these stems, except the present and imperfect. ᾰ and ε become η, and ο becomes ω; but when ᾰ follows ε, ι, or ρ, it becomes ᾱ. E.g. Τιμάω (τιμᾰ-), honor, τιμή-σω, ἐτίμη-σα, τετίμη-κα, τετίμη-μαι, ἐτιμή-θην; φιλέω (φιλε-), love, φιλήσω, ἐφίλησα, πεφίληκα, πεφίλημαι, ἐφιλήθην; δηλόω (δηλο-), show, δηλώσω, &c.; so τίω, τίσω (ῑ); δακρύω, δακρύσω (ῡ). But ἐάω, ἐάσω (ᾱ); ἰάομαι, ἰάσομαι (ᾱ); δράω, δράσω (ᾱ), ἔδρᾱσα, δέδρᾱκα.

This applies also to stems which become vowel stems by metathesis (§ 109, 7), as βάλλω (βᾰλ-, βλᾰ-), throw, pf. βέβλη-κα; κάμνω (κᾰμ-, κμᾰ-), labor, κέκμη-κα; or by adding ε (§ 109, 8), as βούλομαι (βουλ-, βουλε-), wish, βουλή-σομαι, βεβούλη-μαι, ἐβουλή-θην.

Note 1. Λύω, loose, generally has ῡ in Attic poetry in the present and imperfect (generally ῠ in Homer); in other tenses it has ῡ only in the future and aorist active and middle and in the future perfect. Ἀκροάομαι, hear, has ἀκροάσομαι, &c.; χράω, give oracles, lengthens ᾰ to η; as χρήσω, &c. So τρήσω and ἔτρησα from stem τρα-; see τετραίνω, bore.

Note 2. Some vowel stems retain the short vowel, contrary to the general rule (§ 109, 1); as γελάω, laugh, γελάσομαι, ἐγέλασα; ἀρκέω, suffice, ἀρκέσω, ἤρκεσα; μάχομαι (μαχε-), fight, μαχέσομαι (Ion.), ἐμαχεσάμην.

(a) This occurs in the following verbs: (pure verbs) ἄγαμαι, αἰδέομαι, ἀκέομαι, ἀλέω, ἀνύω, ἀρκέω, ἀρόω, ἀρύω, γελάω, ἑλκύω (v. ἕλκω), ἐμέω, ἐράω, ζέω, θλάω, κλάω, break, ξέω, πτύω, σπάω, τελέω, τρέω, φλάω, χαλάω; and Epic ἀκηδέω, κοτέω, λοέω, νεικέω, and the stems (ἀᾱ-) and (ἀε-); - (other verbs with vowel stems) ἀρέσκω (ἀρε-), ἄχθομαι (ἀχθε-), ἐλαύνω (ἐλᾰ-), ἱλάσκομαι (ἱλα-), μεθύσκω (μεθῠ-); also all verbs in αννυμι and εννυμι, with stems in ᾰ and ε (given in § 125, 5), with ὄλλυμι (ὀλε-) and ὄμνυμι (ὀμο-).

(b) The final vowel of the stem is variable in quantity in different tenses in the following verbs: (pure verbs) αἰνέω, αἱρέω, δέω, bind, δύω (v. δύνω), ἐρύω (Epic), θύω, sacrifice, καλέω, λύω, μύω, ποθέω, πονέω; - (other verbs) βαίνω (βᾰ-), εὑρίσκω (εὑρ-, εὑρε-), μάχομαι (μαχε-), πίνω (πι-, πο-), φθάνω (φθᾰ-), φθίνω (φθι-).

2. Many vowel stems have σ added, before all endings not beginning with σ, in the perfect middle and first passive tense systems. E.g. Τελέω, finish, τετέλε-σ-μαι, ἐτετελέσμην, ἐτελέσθην (§ 97, 4); γελάω, laugh, ἐγελά-σ-θην, γελασθῆναι; χράω, give oracles, χρήσω, κέχρη-σ-μαι, ἐχρήσθην.

This occurs in all the verbs included in 1, N. 2 (a), except ἀρόω, so far as they form these tenses, and in the following: ἀκούω, δράω, θραύω, κελεύω, κλείω (κλῄω), κνάω, κναίω, κρούω, κυλίω, λεύω, νέω, heap, ξύω, παίω, παλαίω, παύω, πρίω, σείω, τίνω, ὕω, χόω, χράω, χρίω, and poetic ῥαίω. Some, however, have forms both with and without σ. See the Catalogue.

3. In the second perfect the simple stem generally changes ε to ο, and lengthens other short vowels, ᾰ to η (after ρ to ᾱ), ο to ω, ῐ to οι, and ῠ to ευ. E.g. Στέργ-ω, love, ἔστοργα; γίγνομαι (γεν-), become, γέγονα, ἐγεγόνειν; τίκτω (τεκ-), bring forth, τέτοκα; φαίνω (φᾰν-), πέφηνα; κράζω (κρᾱγ-), cry, κέκρᾱγα; τήκω (τᾰκ-), melt, τέτηκα, ἐτετήκειν; λείπω (λῐπ-), λέλοιπα, ἐλελοίπειν; φεύγω (φῠγ-), flee, πέφευγα, ἐπεφεύγειν. So ἐγείρω (ἐγερ-), rouse, ἐγρήγορα (§ 102, N. 1).

Note 1. Πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), do, has πέπρᾱγα (§ 110, IV. (a), N. 2). Ἔθω (ἐθ-), am accustomed, has irregularly εἴωθα (ὠθ- for ϝωθ-, § 104); and ῥήγνυμι (ῥᾰγ-) has ἔρρωγα (ῥωγ-), cf. τρώγω (τρᾱγ-), § 108, II.

Note 2. This change of ε to ο occurs even in some first perfects which aspirate the final consonant of the stem (§ 110, IV. b): these are κέκλοφα, from κλέπτω (κλᾰπ-), steal; εἴλοχα, from λέγ-ω, collect; πέπομφα from πέμπ-ω, send; τέτροφα (sometimes τέτραφα) from τρέπ-ω, turn; τέτροφα (perhaps second perfect), from τρέφ-ω, nourish. So ι becomes οι in δέδοικα (δι-), fear. In τίθημι (θε-), put, ε becomes ει in τέθεικα and τέθειμαι; compare πίνω (πι-), drink, πέπωκα and πέπομαι (πο-).

4. In simple liquid stems of one syllable, ε is generally changed to ᾰ in the perfect active, perfect middle, and second passive systems. E.g. Στέλλω (στελ-), send, ἔσταλκα, ἔσταλμαι, ἐστάλην, στᾰλήσομαι; κείρω (κερ-), shear, κέκαρμαι, ἐκάρην (Ion.); σπείρω (σπερ-), sow, ἔσπαρμαι, ἐσπάρην. So in δέρω, κτείνω, μείρομαι, τέλλω, and φθείρω.

Note 1. The same change of ε to ᾰ (after ρ) occurs in στρέφω, turn, ἔστραμμαι, ἐστράφην, στραφήσομαι (but 1 aor. ἐστρέφθην, rare); τρέπω, turn, τέτραφα (generally τέτροφα), τέτραμμαι, ἐτράπην (but ἐτρέφθην, Ion. ἐτράφθην); τρέφω, nourish, τέτροφα (late τέτραφα), τέθραμμαι, ἐτράφην (but ἐθρέφθην); also in the second aorist passive of κλέπτω, steal, πλέκω, weave, and τέρπω, delight, ἐκλάπην, ἐπλάκην, and (Epic) ἐτάρπην (1 aor. ἐκλέφθην, ἐπλέχθην, ἐτέρφθην, rarely Epic ἐτάρφθην). It occurs, further, in the second aorist (active or middle) of κτείνω, kill, τέμνω, cut, τρέπω, and τέρπω; viz., in ἔκτανον (poet.), ἔταμον, ἐταμόμην, ἔτραπον, ἐτραπόμην, τεταρπόμην (Hom.); also in several Homeric and poetic forms (see δέρκομαι, πέρθω, and πτήσσω).

Note 2. The first passive system rarely appears in verbs with monosyllabic liquid stems. Τείνω (τεν-), stretch, in which τεν- drops ν in this system (§ 109, 6), changes ε to ᾰ in ἐτάθην and ἐκ-ταθήσομαι.

5. Liquid stems lengthen their last vowel in the aorist active and middle; as στέλλω (στελ-), ἔστειλα. See § 110, III. 2, and the examples.

6. Four verbs in νω drop ν of the stem in the perfect and first passive systems, and thus have vowel stems in these forms: - κρίνω (κρῐν-), separate, κέκρικα, κέκριμαι, ἐκρίθην; κλίνω (κλῐν-), incline, κέκλικα, κέκλιμαι, ἐκλίθην; πλύνω (πλῠν-), wash, πέπλυμαι, ἐπλύθην; τείνω (τεν-), stretch, τέτᾰκα (§ 109, 4), τέταμαι, ἐτάθην, ἐκ-ταθήσομαι. So κτείνω in some poetic forms: see also κερδαίνω.

Note. When final ν of a stem is not thus dropped, it becomes γ before κα (§ 16, 5), and generally becomes σ before μαι (§ 16, 6, N. 4); as φαίνω (φᾰν-), πέφαγκα, πέφασμαι, ἐφάνθην.

7. (a) The stem sometimes suffers metathesis (§ 14, 1): (1) in the present, as θνήσκω (θᾰν-, θνᾰ-), die (§ 108, VI. N. 2); (2) in other tenses, as βάλλω (βᾰλ-, βλᾰ-), throw, βέβληκα, βέβλημαι, ἐβλήθην; δέρκομαι (δερκ-), see (poetic), 2 aor. ἔδρακον (δρᾰκ-, § 109, 4, N. 1).

(b) Sometimes syncope (§ 14, 2): (1) in the present, as γίγνομαι (γεν-), become, for γι-γεν-ομαι; (2) in the second aorist, as ἐπτόμην for ἐ-πετ-ομην; (3) in the perfect, as πετάννυμι (πετᾰ-), expand, πέπταμαι for πε-πετα-μαι.

(c) Sometimes reduplication (besides the regular reduplication of the perfect stem): (1) in the present, especially in verbs of the sixth class and in verbs in μι (§ 121, 3), as γι-γνώσκω, know, γί-γνομαι, ἵ-στημι; (2) in the second aorist, as πείθω (πιθ-), persuade, πέ-πιθον (Ep.). Attic redupl. in ἄγω, lead, ἤγαγον (ἀγ-αγ-); see ἀραρίσκω. § 110, V. N. 2; § 100, Notes 3 and 4.

8. Ε is sometimes added to the present stem, sometimes to the simple stem, making a new stem in ε. From this some verbs form special tenses; and others form all their tenses except the present, imperfect, second perfect, and second aorists (§ 90, N. 1). E.g. Βούλομαι (βουλ-), wish, βουλήσομαι (βουλε-, § 109, 1), &c.; αἰσθάνομαι (αἰσθ-), perceive, αἰσθήσομαι (αἰσθε-), ᾔσθημαι; μένω (μεν-), remain, μεμένηκα (μενε-); μάχομαι (μαχ-), fight, fut. (μαχέ-ομαι) μαχοῦμαι, ἐμαχεσάμην, μεμάχημαι; χαίρω (χᾰρ-), rejoice, χαιρήσω (χαιρε-), κεχάρηκα (χαρε-).

(a) The following have the stem in ε, in all tenses except those mentioned; (1) formed from the present stem: ἀλέξω, ἄλθομαι (Ion.), ἄχθομαι, βούλομαι, βόσκω, δέω, want, ἐθέλω and θέλω, ἔρομαι and εἴρομαι (Ion.), ἔρρω, εὕδω, ἕψω, κέλομαι (poet.), μάχομαι, μέδομαι (poet.), μέλλω, μέλω, μύζω, suck, οἴομαι, οἴχομαι, ὀφείλω, πέτομαι; (2) formed from the simple stem: αἰσθάνομαι (αἰσθ-), ἁμαρτάνω (ἁμαρτ-), ἁνδάνω (ἁδ-), ἀπ-εχθάνομαι (ἐχθ-), αὐξάνω (αὐξ-), βλαστάνω (βλαστ-), εὑρίσκω (εὑρ-), κιχάνω (κιχ-), λάσκω (λακ-), μανθάνω (μαθ-), ὀλισθάνω (ὀλισθ-), ὄλλυμι (ὀλ-), ὀφλισκάνω (ὀφλ-); see poetic ἀμπλακίσκω and ἀπαφίσκω, and the stem (δα-).

(b) The following have the stem in ε in special tenses; (1) formed from the present stem: διδάσκω, καθίζω, κλαίω, μένω, νέμω, παίω, πέτομαι, τύπτω; (2) formed from the simple stem: δαρθάνω (δαρθ-), κήδω (κᾱδ-), ὀσφραίνομαι (ὀσφρ-), πείθω (πιθ-), ῥέω (ῥυ-), στείβω (στιβ-), τυγχάνω (τυχ-), χάζω (χαδ-); see also γίγνομαι, ἔχω, τρέχω. Χαίρω (χᾰρ-) forms both χαιρε- and χαρε-.

Note. In ὄμνυμι, swear, the stem ὀμ- is enlarged to ὀμο- in some tenses, as in ὤμο-σα; in ἁλίσκομαι, be captured, ἁλ- is enlarged to ἁλο-, as in ἁλώσομαι. So τρύχω, exhaust, τρυχώσω. So probably οἴχομαι, be gone, has stem οἰχο- for οἰχε- in the perfect οἴχω-κα (cf. Ion. οἴχη-μαι).

§110-111

VERBAL STENS. Formation of Tense Stems.

VERBAL STENS. Formation of Tense Stems.

Remark. This section explains the formation of the seven tense stems enumerated in § 92, 4. They are generally formed from the simple stem of the verb (when this is distinct from the present stem). But verbs of the second class commonly have the lengthened stem (§ 108, II. Note) in all tenses except in the second perfect, second aorist, and second passive tense systems. The verbs enumerated in § 109, 8 form some tenses from stems lengthened by adding ε. The stem may be modified in different tenses as has been explained in § 109.

§ 110.

I. (Present Stem.)

The present stem is the stem of the present and imperfect in all the voices. The principles on which it is derived from the simple stem, when they are not identical, are explained in § 108.

II. (Future Stem.)

Vowel and mute stems add σ to form the stem of the future active and middle. These vowel stems lengthen a short vowel (§ 109, 1); π, β, φ with σ become ψ; κ, γ, χ with σ become ξ; τ, δ, θ before σ are dropped (§ 16, 2). E.g.

Τιμάω, honor, τιμήσω; δράω, do, δράσω; κόπτω (κοπ-), cut, κόψω; βλάπτω (βλᾰβ-), hurt, βλάψω, βλάψομαι; γράφω, write, γράψω, γράψομαι; πλέκω, twist, πλέξω; πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), do, πράξω, πράξομαι; ταράσσω (ταρᾰχ-), confuse, ταράξω, ταράξομαι; φράζω (φραδ-), tell, φράσω (for φραδ-σω); πείθω, persuade, πείσω (for πειθ-σω). So σπένδω, pour, σπείσω (for σπενδ-σω, § 16, 2 and 6, N. 1); τρέφω, nourish, θρέψω, θρέψομαι (§ 17, 2, Note).

Liquid stems add ε (in place of σ) to form the future stem; this ε is contracted with ω and ομαι to ῶ and οῦμαι. E.g.

Φαίνω (φᾰν-), show, fut. (φανέ-ω) φανῶ, (φανέ-ομαι) φανοῦμαι; στέλλω (στελ-), send, (στελέ-ω) στελῶ, (στελέ-ομαι) στελοῦμαι; νέμω, divide, (νεμέ-ω) νεμῶ; κρίνω (κρῑν-), judge, (κρινέ-ω) κρινῶ.

Note 1. (Attic Future.)

(a) The futures of καλέω, call, and τελέω, finish, καλέσω and τελέσω (§ 109, 1, N. 2), drop σ of the future stem, and contract καλε- and τελε- with ω and ομαι, making καλῶ, καλοῦμαι, τελῶ and (poetic) τελοῦμαι. These futures have the same forms as the presents. So ὄλλυμι (ὀλ-, ὀλε-), destroy, has fut. ὀλέσω (Hom.), ὀλέω (Hdt.), ὀλῶ (Attic).

So μαχέσομαι, Homeric future of μάχομαι (μαχε-), fight, becomes μαχοῦμαι in Attic. Καθέζομαι (ἑδ-), sit, has καθεδοῦμαι.

(b) In like manner, futures in άσω from verbs in αννυμι (stems in ᾰ), some in εσω from verbs in εννυμι (stems in ε), and some in άσω from verbs in άζω (stems in ᾰδ), drop σ and contract αω and εω to ῶ. Thus σκεδάννυμι (σκεδᾰ-), scatter, σκεδάσω, (σκεδάω) σκεδῶ; στορέννυμι (στορε-), spread, στορέσω, (στορέω) στορῶ; βιβάζω (βιβᾰδ-), cause to go, βιβάσω, (βιβάω) βιβῶ. So ἐλαύνω (ἐλᾰ-), drive (§ 108, V. N. 2), ἐλάσω, (ἐλάω) ἐλῶ. For fut. ἐλόω, κρεμόω, &c., in Homer, see § 120, 1, (b).

(c) Futures in ίσω and ίσομαι from verbs in ίζω (ῐδ-) of more than two syllables regularly drop σ and insert ε; then ιεω and ιεομαι are contracted to ιῶ and ιοῦμαι; as κομίζω, carry, κομίσω, (κομιέω) κομιῶ, κομίσομαι, (κομιέομαι) κομιοῦμαι, inflected like φιλῶ, φιλοῦμαι (§ 98). See § 120, 2, (a).

(d) Though these forms of future are called Attic, because the Attic dialect seldom uses any others in these tenses, they are yet found in other dialects and even in Homer, while the Attic occasionally uses the full forms in σω.

Note 2. (Doric Future.) A few verbs sometimes add ε to σ in the stem of the future middle, and contract σέομαι to σοῦμαι. These are πλέω, sail, πλευσοῦμαι (§ 108, II. 2); πνέω, breathe, πνευσοῦμαι; νέω, swim, νευσοῦμαι; κλαίω, weep, κλαυσοῦμαι (§ 108, IV. 3); φεύγω, flee, φευξοῦμαι; πίπτω, fall, πεσοῦμαι. See also παίζω and πυνθάνομαι.

The Doric forms middle futures like these, and also active futures in σέω contracted σῶ (§ 119, 6). These few are used in Attic with the regular futures πλεύσομαι, πνεύσομαι, κλαύσομαι, φεύξομαι (but never πέσομαι).

Note 3. A few irregular futures drop σ of the stem, which thus has the appearance of a present stem. Such are χέω and χέομαι, fut. of χέω, pour; ἔδομαι, from ἐσθίω (ἐδ-), eat; πίομαι, from πίνω (πι-), drink.

Note 4. A few liquid stems add σ like mute stems; κέλλω (κελ-), land, κέλσω; κύρω, meet, κύρσω; θέρομαι, be warmed, θέρσομαι; all poetic: so φθείρω (φθερ-), destroy, Ep. fut. φθέρσω.

III. (First Aorist Stem.)

Vowel and mute stems add σ to form the stem of the first aorist active and middle. The lengthening of a final vowel of the stem and the euphonic changes of mutes before σ are the same as in the future stem. E.g.

Τιμάω, ἐτίμησα, ἐτιμησάμην; δράω, ἔδρᾱσα; κόπτω, ἔκοψα, ἐκοψάμην; βλάπτω, ἔβλαψα; γράφω, ἔγραψα, ἐγραψάμην; πλέκω, ἔπλεξα, ἐπλεξάμην; πράσσω, ἔπραξα, ἐπραξάμην; ταράσσω, ἐτάραξα; φράζω, ἔφρασα (for ἐφραδ-σα); πείθω, ἔπεισα (§ 108, II. Note); σπένδω, ἔσπεισα (for ἐσπενδ-σα); τρέφω, ἔθρεψα, ἐθρεψάμην (§ 17, 2, Note); τήκω, melt, ἔτηξα (§ 108, II. Note); πλέω, sail, ἔπλευσα (§ 108, II. 2).

Note 1. Three verbs in μι, δίδωμι (δο-), give, ἵημι (ἑ-), send, and τίθημι (θε-), put, form the aorist stem by adding κ instead of σ, giving ἔδωκα, ἧκα, ἔθηκα. These forms are seldom used except in the indicative active, and are most common in the singular, where the second aorists ἔδων, ἧν, ἔθην, are not in use. (See § 122, N. 1.) Even ἡκάμην and ἐθηκάμην occur, the latter not in Attic Greek.

Note 2. Χέω, pour, has aorists ἔχεα (Hom. ἔχευα) and ἐχεάμην, corresponding to the futures χέω and χέομαι (II. N. 3). Εἶπον, said, has also first aorist εἶπα; and φέρω, bear, has ἤνεγκ-α (from stem ἐνεγκ-).

For Homeric aorists like ἐβήσετο, ἐδύσετο, ἷξον, &c., see § 119, 8.

Liquid stems form the first aorist stem by lengthening their last vowel, ᾰ to η (after ι or ρ to ᾱ) and ε to ει. E.g.

Φαίνω (φᾰν-), ἔφην-α, ἐφηνάμην (rare); στέλλω (στελ-), ἔστειλ-α, ἐστειλάμην; ἀγγέλλω (ἀγγελ-), announce, ἤγγειλα, ἠγγειλάμην; περαίνω (περᾰν-), finish, ἐπέρᾱνα; μαίνω (μᾰν-), stain, ἐμίᾱνα; νέμω, divide, ἔνειμα, ἐνειμάμην; κρίνω, judge, ἔκρῑνα; ἀμύνω, keep off, ἤμῡνα, ἠμυνάμην; φθείρω (φθερ-), destroy, ἔφθειρα. Compare the futures in II. 2.

Note 1. A few liquid stems lengthen ᾰν to ᾱν irregularly; as κερδαίνω, gain, ἐκέρδᾱνα. A few lengthen ρᾰν to ρην; as τετραίνω, bore, ἐτέτρηνα.

Note 2. Αἴρω (ἀρ-), raise, and ἅλλομαι (ἁλ-), leap, have ἦρα, ἠράμην, ἡλάμην (augmented); but ᾱ in the other moods, as ἆρον, ἄρας, ἀράμενος, ἁλάμενος (all with ᾱ).

IV. (Perfect Stem.)

(a) Perfect Middle Stem.

The stem of the perfect and pluperfect middle and passive consists of the simple stem (in verbs of the second class, of the present stem) with the required reduplication or augment prefixed; as λύ-ω, λέλυμαι, ἐλελύμην; λείπ-ω, λελειπ- (§ 108, II. Note), λέλειμμαι, ἐλελείμμην.

The stem may be modified (§ 109) as follows: –

A short final vowel is regularly lengthened; as φιλέ-ω, πεφίλημαι, ἐπεφιλήμην; δράω, δέδρᾱμαι. (§ 109, 1.)

Some vowel stems add σ; τελέ-ω, τετέλεσ-μαι. (§ 109, 2.)

Most monosyllabic liquid stems and some others change ε to ᾰ; as στέλλω (στελ-), ἔσταλμαι, ἐστάλμην. (§ 109, 4.)

A few stems in ν drop ν, and others change ν to σ. (§ 109, 6.)

Metathesis sometimes occurs; as βάλλω (βᾰλ-), throw, βέβλη-μαι (βλᾱ-). (§ 109, 7.)

For the euphonic changes made in consonant stems on adding the endings, see § 97, N. 2.

(b) Perfect Active Stem.

The stem of the first perfect and pluperfect active is formed by adding κ to the reduplicated or augmented simple or present stem (§ 108, II. Note), except when this ends in a labial or palatal mute. Stems ending in π or β, κ or γ, aspirate these letters, making them φ or χ, while final φ and χ remain unchanged. E.g.

Λύω, λελυκ-, λέλυκα, ἐλελύκειν; νέω (νυ-, νεϝ-), swim, νένευκα; πείθω, persuade, πέπεικα (for πε-πειθ-κα). Κόπτω (κοπ-), cut, κέκοφα; βλάπτω (βλᾰβ-), hurt, βέβλαφα; πτήσσω (πτηκ-), cower, ἔπτηχα; πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), do, πέπρᾱχα, ἐπεπρᾱχειν; γράφω, write, γέγραφα, ἐγεγράφειν; ὀρύσσω (ὀρῠχ-), dig, ὀρώρυχα. So κομίζω (κομιδ-), carry, κεκόμικα (§ 16, 1, N. 2).

This stem may be modified (§ 109) in various ways: –

A short final vowel is regularly lengthened; as φιλέω, πεφίληκα. (§ 109, 1.)

Most monosyllabic liquid stems and some others change ε to ᾰ; as στέλλω (στελ-), ἔσταλκα, ἐστάλκειν. (§ 109, 4.)

A few labial and palatal stems change ε to ο, as in the second perfect. (§ 109, 3, N. 2.)

A few stems in ν drop ν, and become vowel stems. (§ 109, 6.)

Metathesis sometimes occurs; as βάλλω (βᾰλ-, βλᾰ-), βέβληκα. (§ 109, 7, a.)

Note. The only form of first perfect found in Homer is that in κα of verbs having vowel stems. The perfect in κα of liquid and lingual stems, and the aspirated perfects of labial and palatal stems, belong to a later development of the language.

(c) Future Perfect Stem. The stem of the future perfect is formed by adding σ to the stem of the perfect middle, as λελυ-, λελυσ-, λελύσομαι; γραφ-, γεγραφ-, γεγραψ-, γεγράψομαι; λειπ-, λελειπ-, λελειψ-, λελείψομαι; πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), πεπρᾱγ-, πεπρᾱξ-, πεπράξομαι.

Note 1. The future perfect is found in only a small number of verbs. Its stem, when a consonant precedes σ, is subject to all the euphonic changes noticed in the future stem (§ 110, II. 1).

Note 2. Two verbs have a special form in Attic Greek for the future perfect active; θνήσκω, die, has τεθνήξω, shall be dead, formed from τεθνηκ-, the stem of perf. τέθνηκα, am dead; and ἵστημι, set, has ἑστήξω, shall stand, from ἑστηκ-, stem of perf. ἕστηκα, stand. In Homer, we have also κεχαρήσω and κεχαρήσομαι, from χαίρω (χᾰρ-), rejoice; and κεκαδήσω, (irreg.) from χάζω (χᾰδ-), yield.

(d) Second Perfect Stem. The stem of the second perfect and pluperfect is always the simple stem with the reduplication (or augment) prefixed. The stem is generally modified by changing ε to ο, or by lengthening other short vowels. See § 109, 3, with the examples.

For second perfects and pluperfects of the μι-form, see § 124.

Note 1. Vowel stems do not form second perfects; ἀκού-ω, hear, is only an apparent exception, as ἀκήκοα is for ἀκ-ηκοϝ-α with ϝ omitted (§ 102).

Note 2. Few verbs have both a first and a second perfect. In πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), do, we have πέπρᾱχα, have done, and πέπρᾱγα, fare (well or ill); so ἀν-οίγω, open, ἀν-έῳχα (trans.), ἀν-έῳγα (intrans.).

Note 3. The second perfect stem appears especially in the Homeric dialect, which has many second perfects not found in Attic; as προ-βέβουλα from βούλομαι, wish, μέμηλα from μέλω, concern. Homer has many varieties of the 2 perfect participle of the μι-form; in ἀώς, gen. ἀότος (sometimes αὖτος), fem. αὐῖα, as γεγαώς, βεβαώς; in ηώς, gen. ηότος or ηῶτος, fem. ηυῖα, as τεθηώς, τεθνηῶτος or -ότος, τεθνηυῖα. Herodotus has ἐώς, ἐῶσα, ἐός, gen. ἐῶτος, ἐώσης, as ἑστεώς, &c., some forms of which (e.g. ἑστεῶτα, τεθνεῶτι) occur in Homer. The Attic contracts αώς, αῶσα, αός, to ώς, ῶσα, ός (§ 69, N.), gen. ῶτος, ώσης, &c., but leaves τεθνεώς (of θνήσκω) uncontracted.

Note 4. The stem of the feminine of the second perfect participle in Homer often has a short vowel when the other genders have a long one; as ἀρηρώς, ἀραρυῖα; τεθηλώς, τεθαλυῖα.

V. (Second Aorist Stem.)

The stem of the second aorist active and middle is the simple stem of the verb, to which the second aorist stands in the same relation in which the imperfect stands to the present stem; as λείπω (λῐπ-), 2 aor. ἔλιπον, ἐλιπόμην (impf. ἔλειπον, ἐλειπόμην); λαμβάνω (λᾰβ-), take, 2 aor. ἔλαβον, ἐλαβόμην.

Note 1. A few second aorist stems change ε to ᾰ; as τέμνω (τεμ-), cut, ἔταμον, ἐταμόμην. See § 109, 4, N. 1.

Note 2. A few stems are syncopated (§ 109, 7); as πέτομαι (πετ-), fly, 2 aor. m. ἐπτόμην for ἐπετ-ομην; ἐγείρω (ἐγερ-), rouse, ἠγρόμην for ἠγερ-ομην; ἦλθον, went, from stem ἐλυθ-, for ἤλυθον (Hom.); ἕπομαι (σεπ-), follow, ἑσπόμην, for ἐσεπ-ομην; ἔχω (σεχ-), have, ἔσχον for ἐ-σεχ-ον. So the Homeric ἐκεκλόμην, for ἐ-κε-κελ-ομην, or κεκλόμην, from κέλομαι, command; ἤλαλκον, for ἀλ-αλεκ-ον, from ἀλέξω (ἀλεκ-), ward off: for these and other reduplicated second aorists, see § 100, Notes 3 and 4.

Note 3. For second aorists of the μι-form, like ἔβην, see § 125, 3.

VI. (First Passive Stem.)

The stem of the first aorist passive is formed by adding θε to the stem as it appears (omitting the reduplication or augment) in the perfect middle or passive, with all its modifications (IV. a): in the indicative, imperative, and infinitive, θε becomes θη. In the future passive σ is added to θη, making the stem in θησ. E.g.

Λύω, λέλυ-μαι, ἐλύθην (λυθη-), (λυθέ-ω) λυθῶ, λυθείην, λυθῆναι, λυθείς (λυθε-ντ-), λυθήσ-ομαι; πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), πέπρᾱγ-μαι, ἐπράχ-θην (§ 16, 1), πραχθήσ-ομαι; πείθω, persuade, πέπεισ-μαι (§ 16, 3; § 108, II. Note), ἐπείσθην, πεισθήσομαι; φιλέω, πε-φίλη-μαι (§ 109, 1), ἐφιλήθην; τιμάω, τε-τίμη-μαι, ἐτιμήθην, τιμηθήσομαι; τελέω, τετέλε-σ-μαι (§ 109, 2), ἐτελέσ-θην, τελεσθήσομαι; κλίνω, κέκλι-μαι (§ 109, 6), ἐκλί-θην, κλι-θήσομαι; τείνω (τεν-), τέτα-μαι (§ 109, 4 and 6), ἐτάθην, ἐκ-ταθήσομαι.

Note 1. Τρέπω has τέτραμμαι, ἐτρέφθην (Ion. ἐτράφθην); τρέφω has τέθραμμαι, ἐθρέφθην; and στρέφω has ἔστραμμαι, with (rare) ἐστρέφθην (Ion. and Dor. ἐστράφθην). Φαίνω has πέφασμαι (§ 16, 6, N. 4), but ἐφάνθην.

Note 2. Ν is added in Homer to some vowel stems before θ of the aorist passive; as ἱδρύω, erect, ἵδρυμαι, ἱδρύν-θην (Attic ἱδρύθην). So Hom. ἐκλίνθην and ἐκρίνθην (§ 109, 6).

Note 3. For ἐτέθην (for ἐθε-θην), from τίθημι (θε-), and ἐτύθην (for ἐθυ-θην) from θύω, sacrifice, see § 17, 2, Note. We have, however, ἐθρέφθην and τεθράφ-θαι from τρέφω, nourish, perhaps to distinguish these forms from ἐτρέφθην and τετράφθαι from τρέπω, turn.

VII. (Second Passive Stem.)

The stem of the second aorist passive is formed by adding ε to the simple stem: in the indicative, imperative, and infinitive, ε becomes η. In the second future passive σ is added to this η, making the stem in ησ. The only regular modification of the stem is the change of ε to ᾰ explained in § 109, 4. E.g.

Βλάπτω (βλᾰβ-), hurt, ἐβλάβην, βλαβήσομαι; γράφω, write, ἐγράφην, γραφήσομαι; ῥίπτω (ῥῐφ-), throw, ἐρρίφην; φαίνω (φᾰν-), show, ἐφάνην, φανήσομαι; στρέφω, turn, ἐστράφην, στραφήσομαι; τέρπω, amuse, ἐτάρπην (Hom.) with subj., by metathesis, τραπείω. See the examples in § 109, 4, and N. 1.

Note 1. The simple stem of verbs of the second class, which seldom appears in other tenses (§ 108, II. Note), is seen in the second passive system; as σήπω (σᾰπ-), corrupt, ἐσάπην, σαπήσομαι; τήκω (τᾰκ-), melt, ἐτάκην; ῥέω (ῥῠ-), flow, ἐρρύην, ῥυήσομαι; ἐρείπω (ἐρῐπ-), throw down, ἠρίπην (poetic), but 1 aor. ἠρείφθην (ἐρειπ-).

Note 2. Πλήσσω (πληγ-), strike, has 2 aor. pass. ἐπλήγην, but in composition ἐξ-επλάγην and κατ-επλάγην (as if from a stem πλᾰγ-).

Note 3. The only verb which has both the 2 aor. passive and the 2 aor. active is τρέπω, turn, which has all the six aorists.

§ 111.

The following table shows the seven tense stems (so far as they exist) of λύω, λείπω (λῐπ-), πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), φαίνω (φᾰν-), and στέλλω (στελ-).

Tense stem	Formation	λύω	λείπω	πράσσω	φαίνω	στέλλω
I. Present (all voices)		λυ-	λειπ-	πρασσ-	φαιν-	στελλ-
II. Future active and middle		λυσ-	λειψ-	πραξ-	φανε-	στελε-
III. Aorist active and middle		λυσ-		πραξ-	φην-	στειλ-
IV. Perfect	(a) Middle	λελυ-	λελειπ-	πεπρᾱγ-	πεφαν-	ἐσταλ-
IV. Perfect	(b) Active	λελυκ-		πεπρᾱχ-	πεφαγκ-	ἐσταλκ-
IV. Perfect	(c) Future passive	λελυσ-	λελειψ-	πεπρᾱξ-		
IV. Perfect	(d) Second perfect		λελοιπ-	πεπρᾱγ-	πεφην-	
V. Second aorist active and middle			λῐπ-			
VI. First passive	(a) First aorist	λυθε(η)-	λειφθε(η)-	πραχθε(η)-	φανθε(η)-	
VI. First passive	(b) First future	λυθησ-	λειφθησ-	πραχθησ-		
VII. Second passive	(a) Second aorist				φᾰνε(η)-	στᾰλε(η)-
VII. Second passive	(b) Second future				φᾰνησ-	στᾰλησ-

Remark. This section explains the formation of the seven tense stems enumerated in § 92, 4. They are generally formed from the simple stem of the verb (when this is distinct from the present stem). But verbs of the second class commonly have the lengthened stem (§ 108, II. Note) in all tenses except in the second perfect, second aorist, and second passive tense systems. The verbs enumerated in § 109, 8 form some tenses from stems lengthened by adding ε. The stem may be modified in different tenses as has been explained in § 109.

§ 110.

I. (Present Stem.)

The present stem is the stem of the present and imperfect in all the voices. The principles on which it is derived from the simple stem, when they are not identical, are explained in § 108.

II. (Future Stem.)

1. Vowel and mute stems add σ to form the stem of the future active and middle. These vowel stems lengthen a short vowel (§ 109, 1); π, β, φ with σ become ψ; κ, γ, χ with σ become ξ; τ, δ, θ before σ are dropped (§ 16, 2). E.g.

Τιμάω, honor, τιμήσω; δράω, do, δράσω; κόπτω (κοπ-), cut, κόψω; βλάπτω (βλᾰβ-), hurt, βλάψω, βλάψομαι; γράφω, write, γράψω, γράψομαι; πλέκω, twist, πλέξω; πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), do, πράξω, πράξομαι; ταράσσω (ταρᾰχ-), confuse, ταράξω, ταράξομαι; φράζω (φραδ-), tell, φράσω (for φραδ-σω); πείθω, persuade, πείσω (for πειθ-σω). So σπένδω, pour, σπείσω (for σπενδ-σω, § 16, 2 and 6, N. 1); τρέφω, nourish, θρέψω, θρέψομαι (§ 17, 2, Note).

2. Liquid stems add ε (in place of σ) to form the future stem; this ε is contracted with ω and ομαι to ῶ and οῦμαι. E.g.

Φαίνω (φᾰν-), show, fut. (φανέ-ω) φανῶ, (φανέ-ομαι) φανοῦμαι; στέλλω (στελ-), send, (στελέ-ω) στελῶ, (στελέ-ομαι) στελοῦμαι; νέμω, divide, (νεμέ-ω) νεμῶ; κρίνω (κρῑν-), judge, (κρινέ-ω) κρινῶ.

Note 1. (Attic Future.)

(a) The futures of καλέω, call, and τελέω, finish, καλέσω and τελέσω (§ 109, 1, N. 2), drop σ of the future stem, and contract καλε- and τελε- with ω and ομαι, making καλῶ, καλοῦμαι, τελῶ and (poetic) τελοῦμαι. These futures have the same forms as the presents. So ὄλλυμι (ὀλ-, ὀλε-), destroy, has fut. ὀλέσω (Hom.), ὀλέω (Hdt.), ὀλῶ (Attic).

So μαχέσομαι, Homeric future of μάχομαι (μαχε-), fight, becomes μαχοῦμαι in Attic. Καθέζομαι (ἑδ-), sit, has καθεδοῦμαι.

(b) In like manner, futures in άσω from verbs in αννυμι (stems in ᾰ), some in εσω from verbs in εννυμι (stems in ε), and some in άσω from verbs in άζω (stems in ᾰδ), drop σ and contract αω and εω to ῶ. Thus σκεδάννυμι (σκεδᾰ-), scatter, σκεδάσω, (σκεδάω) σκεδῶ; στορέννυμι (στορε-), spread, στορέσω, (στορέω) στορῶ; βιβάζω (βιβᾰδ-), cause to go, βιβάσω, (βιβάω) βιβῶ. So ἐλαύνω (ἐλᾰ-), drive (§ 108, V. N. 2), ἐλάσω, (ἐλάω) ἐλῶ. For fut. ἐλόω, κρεμόω, &c., in Homer, see § 120, 1, (b).

(c) Futures in ίσω and ίσομαι from verbs in ίζω (ῐδ-) of more than two syllables regularly drop σ and insert ε; then ιεω and ιεομαι are contracted to ιῶ and ιοῦμαι; as κομίζω, carry, κομίσω, (κομιέω) κομιῶ, κομίσομαι, (κομιέομαι) κομιοῦμαι, inflected like φιλῶ, φιλοῦμαι (§ 98). See § 120, 2, (a).

(d) Though these forms of future are called Attic, because the Attic dialect seldom uses any others in these tenses, they are yet found in other dialects and even in Homer, while the Attic occasionally uses the full forms in σω.

Note 2. (Doric Future.) A few verbs sometimes add ε to σ in the stem of the future middle, and contract σέομαι to σοῦμαι. These are πλέω, sail, πλευσοῦμαι (§ 108, II. 2); πνέω, breathe, πνευσοῦμαι; νέω, swim, νευσοῦμαι; κλαίω, weep, κλαυσοῦμαι (§ 108, IV. 3); φεύγω, flee, φευξοῦμαι; πίπτω, fall, πεσοῦμαι. See also παίζω and πυνθάνομαι.

The Doric forms middle futures like these, and also active futures in σέω contracted σῶ (§ 119, 6). These few are used in Attic with the regular futures πλεύσομαι, πνεύσομαι, κλαύσομαι, φεύξομαι (but never πέσομαι).

Note 3. A few irregular futures drop σ of the stem, which thus has the appearance of a present stem. Such are χέω and χέομαι, fut. of χέω, pour; ἔδομαι, from ἐσθίω (ἐδ-), eat; πίομαι, from πίνω (πι-), drink.

Note 4. A few liquid stems add σ like mute stems; κέλλω (κελ-), land, κέλσω; κύρω, meet, κύρσω; θέρομαι, be warmed, θέρσομαι; all poetic: so φθείρω (φθερ-), destroy, Ep. fut. φθέρσω.

III. (First Aorist Stem.)

1. Vowel and mute stems add σ to form the stem of the first aorist active and middle. The lengthening of a final vowel of the stem and the euphonic changes of mutes before σ are the same as in the future stem. E.g.

Τιμάω, ἐτίμησα, ἐτιμησάμην; δράω, ἔδρᾱσα; κόπτω, ἔκοψα, ἐκοψάμην; βλάπτω, ἔβλαψα; γράφω, ἔγραψα, ἐγραψάμην; πλέκω, ἔπλεξα, ἐπλεξάμην; πράσσω, ἔπραξα, ἐπραξάμην; ταράσσω, ἐτάραξα; φράζω, ἔφρασα (for ἐφραδ-σα); πείθω, ἔπεισα (§ 108, II. Note); σπένδω, ἔσπεισα (for ἐσπενδ-σα); τρέφω, ἔθρεψα, ἐθρεψάμην (§ 17, 2, Note); τήκω, melt, ἔτηξα (§ 108, II. Note); πλέω, sail, ἔπλευσα (§ 108, II. 2).

Note 1. Three verbs in μι, δίδωμι (δο-), give, ἵημι (ἑ-), send, and τίθημι (θε-), put, form the aorist stem by adding κ instead of σ, giving ἔδωκα, ἧκα, ἔθηκα. These forms are seldom used except in the indicative active, and are most common in the singular, where the second aorists ἔδων, ἧν, ἔθην, are not in use. (See § 122, N. 1.) Even ἡκάμην and ἐθηκάμην occur, the latter not in Attic Greek.

Note 2. Χέω, pour, has aorists ἔχεα (Hom. ἔχευα) and ἐχεάμην, corresponding to the futures χέω and χέομαι (II. N. 3). Εἶπον, said, has also first aorist εἶπα; and φέρω, bear, has ἤνεγκ-α (from stem ἐνεγκ-).

For Homeric aorists like ἐβήσετο, ἐδύσετο, ἷξον, &c., see § 119, 8.

2. Liquid stems form the first aorist stem by lengthening their last vowel, ᾰ to η (after ι or ρ to ᾱ) and ε to ει. E.g.

Φαίνω (φᾰν-), ἔφην-α, ἐφηνάμην (rare); στέλλω (στελ-), ἔστειλ-α, ἐστειλάμην; ἀγγέλλω (ἀγγελ-), announce, ἤγγειλα, ἠγγειλάμην; περαίνω (περᾰν-), finish, ἐπέρᾱνα; μαίνω (μᾰν-), stain, ἐμίᾱνα; νέμω, divide, ἔνειμα, ἐνειμάμην; κρίνω, judge, ἔκρῑνα; ἀμύνω, keep off, ἤμῡνα, ἠμυνάμην; φθείρω (φθερ-), destroy, ἔφθειρα. Compare the futures in II. 2.

Note 1. A few liquid stems lengthen ᾰν to ᾱν irregularly; as κερδαίνω, gain, ἐκέρδᾱνα. A few lengthen ρᾰν to ρην; as τετραίνω, bore, ἐτέτρηνα.

Note 2. Αἴρω (ἀρ-), raise, and ἅλλομαι (ἁλ-), leap, have ἦρα, ἠράμην, ἡλάμην (augmented); but ᾱ in the other moods, as ἆρον, ἄρας, ἀράμενος, ἁλάμενος (all with ᾱ).

IV. (Perfect Stem.)

(a) Perfect Middle Stem.

The stem of the perfect and pluperfect middle and passive consists of the simple stem (in verbs of the second class, of the present stem) with the required reduplication or augment prefixed; as λύ-ω, λέλυμαι, ἐλελύμην; λείπ-ω, λελειπ- (§ 108, II. Note), λέλειμμαι, ἐλελείμμην.

The stem may be modified (§ 109) as follows: –

1. A short final vowel is regularly lengthened; as φιλέ-ω, πεφίλημαι, ἐπεφιλήμην; δράω, δέδρᾱμαι. (§ 109, 1.)
2. Some vowel stems add σ; τελέ-ω, τετέλεσ-μαι. (§ 109, 2.)
3. Most monosyllabic liquid stems and some others change ε to ᾰ; as στέλλω (στελ-), ἔσταλμαι, ἐστάλμην. (§ 109, 4.)
4. A few stems in ν drop ν, and others change ν to σ. (§ 109, 6.)
5. Metathesis sometimes occurs; as βάλλω (βᾰλ-), throw, βέβλη-μαι (βλᾱ-). (§ 109, 7.)

For the euphonic changes made in consonant stems on adding the endings, see § 97, N. 2.

(b) Perfect Active Stem.

The stem of the first perfect and pluperfect active is formed by adding κ to the reduplicated or augmented simple or present stem (§ 108, II. Note), except when this ends in a labial or palatal mute. Stems ending in π or β, κ or γ, aspirate these letters, making them φ or χ, while final φ and χ remain unchanged. E.g.

Λύω, λελυκ-, λέλυκα, ἐλελύκειν; νέω (νυ-, νεϝ-), swim, νένευκα; πείθω, persuade, πέπεικα (for πε-πειθ-κα). Κόπτω (κοπ-), cut, κέκοφα; βλάπτω (βλᾰβ-), hurt, βέβλαφα; πτήσσω (πτηκ-), cower, ἔπτηχα; πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), do, πέπρᾱχα, ἐπεπρᾱχειν; γράφω, write, γέγραφα, ἐγεγράφειν; ὀρύσσω (ὀρῠχ-), dig, ὀρώρυχα. So κομίζω (κομιδ-), carry, κεκόμικα (§ 16, 1, N. 2).

This stem may be modified (§ 109) in various ways: –

1. A short final vowel is regularly lengthened; as φιλέω, πεφίληκα. (§ 109, 1.)
2. Most monosyllabic liquid stems and some others change ε to ᾰ; as στέλλω (στελ-), ἔσταλκα, ἐστάλκειν. (§ 109, 4.)
3. A few labial and palatal stems change ε to ο, as in the second perfect. (§ 109, 3, N. 2.)
4. A few stems in ν drop ν, and become vowel stems. (§ 109, 6.)
5. Metathesis sometimes occurs; as βάλλω (βᾰλ-, βλᾰ-), βέβληκα. (§ 109, 7, a.)

Note. The only form of first perfect found in Homer is that in κα of verbs having vowel stems. The perfect in κα of liquid and lingual stems, and the aspirated perfects of labial and palatal stems, belong to a later development of the language.

(c) Future Perfect Stem. The stem of the future perfect is formed by adding σ to the stem of the perfect middle, as λελυ-, λελυσ-, λελύσομαι; γραφ-, γεγραφ-, γεγραψ-, γεγράψομαι; λειπ-, λελειπ-, λελειψ-, λελείψομαι; πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), πεπρᾱγ-, πεπρᾱξ-, πεπράξομαι.

Note 1. The future perfect is found in only a small number of verbs. Its stem, when a consonant precedes σ, is subject to all the euphonic changes noticed in the future stem (§ 110, II. 1).

Note 2. Two verbs have a special form in Attic Greek for the future perfect active; θνήσκω, die, has τεθνήξω, shall be dead, formed from τεθνηκ-, the stem of perf. τέθνηκα, am dead; and ἵστημι, set, has ἑστήξω, shall stand, from ἑστηκ-, stem of perf. ἕστηκα, stand. In Homer, we have also κεχαρήσω and κεχαρήσομαι, from χαίρω (χᾰρ-), rejoice; and κεκαδήσω, (irreg.) from χάζω (χᾰδ-), yield.

(d) Second Perfect Stem. The stem of the second perfect and pluperfect is always the simple stem with the reduplication (or augment) prefixed. The stem is generally modified by changing ε to ο, or by lengthening other short vowels. See § 109, 3, with the examples.

For second perfects and pluperfects of the μι-form, see § 124.

Note 1. Vowel stems do not form second perfects; ἀκού-ω, hear, is only an apparent exception, as ἀκήκοα is for ἀκ-ηκοϝ-α with ϝ omitted (§ 102).

Note 2. Few verbs have both a first and a second perfect. In πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), do, we have πέπρᾱχα, have done, and πέπρᾱγα, fare (well or ill); so ἀν-οίγω, open, ἀν-έῳχα (trans.), ἀν-έῳγα (intrans.).

Note 3. The second perfect stem appears especially in the Homeric dialect, which has many second perfects not found in Attic; as προ-βέβουλα from βούλομαι, wish, μέμηλα from μέλω, concern. Homer has many varieties of the 2 perfect participle of the μι-form; in ἀώς, gen. ἀότος (sometimes αὖτος), fem. αὐῖα, as γεγαώς, βεβαώς; in ηώς, gen. ηότος or ηῶτος, fem. ηυῖα, as τεθηώς, τεθνηῶτος or -ότος, τεθνηυῖα. Herodotus has ἐώς, ἐῶσα, ἐός, gen. ἐῶτος, ἐώσης, as ἑστεώς, &c., some forms of which (e.g. ἑστεῶτα, τεθνεῶτι) occur in Homer. The Attic contracts αώς, αῶσα, αός, to ώς, ῶσα, ός (§ 69, N.), gen. ῶτος, ώσης, &c., but leaves τεθνεώς (of θνήσκω) uncontracted.

Note 4. The stem of the feminine of the second perfect participle in Homer often has a short vowel when the other genders have a long one; as ἀρηρώς, ἀραρυῖα; τεθηλώς, τεθαλυῖα.

V. (Second Aorist Stem.)

The stem of the second aorist active and middle is the simple stem of the verb, to which the second aorist stands in the same relation in which the imperfect stands to the present stem; as λείπω (λῐπ-), 2 aor. ἔλιπον, ἐλιπόμην (impf. ἔλειπον, ἐλειπόμην); λαμβάνω (λᾰβ-), take, 2 aor. ἔλαβον, ἐλαβόμην.

Note 1. A few second aorist stems change ε to ᾰ; as τέμνω (τεμ-), cut, ἔταμον, ἐταμόμην. See § 109, 4, N. 1.

Note 2. A few stems are syncopated (§ 109, 7); as πέτομαι (πετ-), fly, 2 aor. m. ἐπτόμην for ἐπετ-ομην; ἐγείρω (ἐγερ-), rouse, ἠγρόμην for ἠγερ-ομην; ἦλθον, went, from stem ἐλυθ-, for ἤλυθον (Hom.); ἕπομαι (σεπ-), follow, ἑσπόμην, for ἐσεπ-ομην; ἔχω (σεχ-), have, ἔσχον for ἐ-σεχ-ον. So the Homeric ἐκεκλόμην, for ἐ-κε-κελ-ομην, or κεκλόμην, from κέλομαι, command; ἤλαλκον, for ἀλ-αλεκ-ον, from ἀλέξω (ἀλεκ-), ward off: for these and other reduplicated second aorists, see § 100, Notes 3 and 4.

Note 3. For second aorists of the μι-form, like ἔβην, see § 125, 3.

VI. (First Passive Stem.)

The stem of the first aorist passive is formed by adding θε to the stem as it appears (omitting the reduplication or augment) in the perfect middle or passive, with all its modifications (IV. a): in the indicative, imperative, and infinitive, θε becomes θη. In the future passive σ is added to θη, making the stem in θησ. E.g.

Λύω, λέλυ-μαι, ἐλύθην (λυθη-), (λυθέ-ω) λυθῶ, λυθείην, λυθῆναι, λυθείς (λυθε-ντ-), λυθήσ-ομαι; πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), πέπρᾱγ-μαι, ἐπράχ-θην (§ 16, 1), πραχθήσ-ομαι; πείθω, persuade, πέπεισ-μαι (§ 16, 3; § 108, II. Note), ἐπείσθην, πεισθήσομαι; φιλέω, πε-φίλη-μαι (§ 109, 1), ἐφιλήθην; τιμάω, τε-τίμη-μαι, ἐτιμήθην, τιμηθήσομαι; τελέω, τετέλε-σ-μαι (§ 109, 2), ἐτελέσ-θην, τελεσθήσομαι; κλίνω, κέκλι-μαι (§ 109, 6), ἐκλί-θην, κλι-θήσομαι; τείνω (τεν-), τέτα-μαι (§ 109, 4 and 6), ἐτάθην, ἐκ-ταθήσομαι.

Note 1. Τρέπω has τέτραμμαι, ἐτρέφθην (Ion. ἐτράφθην); τρέφω has τέθραμμαι, ἐθρέφθην; and στρέφω has ἔστραμμαι, with (rare) ἐστρέφθην (Ion. and Dor. ἐστράφθην). Φαίνω has πέφασμαι (§ 16, 6, N. 4), but ἐφάνθην.

Note 2. Ν is added in Homer to some vowel stems before θ of the aorist passive; as ἱδρύω, erect, ἵδρυμαι, ἱδρύν-θην (Attic ἱδρύθην). So Hom. ἐκλίνθην and ἐκρίνθην (§ 109, 6).

Note 3. For ἐτέθην (for ἐθε-θην), from τίθημι (θε-), and ἐτύθην (for ἐθυ-θην) from θύω, sacrifice, see § 17, 2, Note. We have, however, ἐθρέφθην and τεθράφ-θαι from τρέφω, nourish, perhaps to distinguish these forms from ἐτρέφθην and τετράφθαι from τρέπω, turn.

VII. (Second Passive Stem.)

The stem of the second aorist passive is formed by adding ε to the simple stem: in the indicative, imperative, and infinitive, ε becomes η. In the second future passive σ is added to this η, making the stem in ησ. The only regular modification of the stem is the change of ε to ᾰ explained in § 109, 4. E.g.

Βλάπτω (βλᾰβ-), hurt, ἐβλάβην, βλαβήσομαι; γράφω, write, ἐγράφην, γραφήσομαι; ῥίπτω (ῥῐφ-), throw, ἐρρίφην; φαίνω (φᾰν-), show, ἐφάνην, φανήσομαι; στρέφω, turn, ἐστράφην, στραφήσομαι; τέρπω, amuse, ἐτάρπην (Hom.) with subj., by metathesis, τραπείω. See the examples in § 109, 4, and N. 1.

Note 1. The simple stem of verbs of the second class, which seldom appears in other tenses (§ 108, II. Note), is seen in the second passive system; as σήπω (σᾰπ-), corrupt, ἐσάπην, σαπήσομαι; τήκω (τᾰκ-), melt, ἐτάκην; ῥέω (ῥῠ-), flow, ἐρρύην, ῥυήσομαι; ἐρείπω (ἐρῐπ-), throw down, ἠρίπην (poetic), but 1 aor. ἠρείφθην (ἐρειπ-).

Note 2. Πλήσσω (πληγ-), strike, has 2 aor. pass. ἐπλήγην, but in composition ἐξ-επλάγην and κατ-επλάγην (as if from a stem πλᾰγ-).

Note 3. The only verb which has both the 2 aor. passive and the 2 aor. active is τρέπω, turn, which has all the six aorists.

§ 111.

The following table shows the seven tense stems (so far as they exist) of λύω, λείπω (λῐπ-), πράσσω (πρᾱγ-), φαίνω (φᾰν-), and στέλλω (στελ-).

Tense stem	Formation	`λύω`	`λείπω`	`πράσσω`	`φαίνω`	`στέλλω`
I. Present (all voices)		`λυ-`	`λειπ-`	`πρασσ-`	`φαιν-`	`στελλ-`
II. Future active and middle		`λυσ-`	`λειψ-`	`πραξ-`	`φανε-`	`στελε-`
III. Aorist active and middle		`λυσ-`		`πραξ-`	`φην-`	`στειλ-`
IV. Perfect	(a) Middle	`λελυ-`	`λελειπ-`	`πεπρᾱγ-`	`πεφαν-`	`ἐσταλ-`
IV. Perfect	(b) Active	`λελυκ-`		`πεπρᾱχ-`	`πεφαγκ-`	`ἐσταλκ-`
IV. Perfect	(c) Future passive	`λελυσ-`	`λελειψ-`	`πεπρᾱξ-`
IV. Perfect	(d) Second perfect		`λελοιπ-`	`πεπρᾱγ-`	`πεφην-`
V. Second aorist active and middle			`λῐπ-`
VI. First passive	(a) First aorist	`λυθε(η)-`	`λειφθε(η)-`	`πραχθε(η)-`	`φανθε(η)-`
VI. First passive	(b) First future	`λυθησ-`	`λειφθησ-`	`πραχθησ-`
VII. Second passive	(a) Second aorist				`φᾰνε(η)-`	`στᾰλε(η)-`
VII. Second passive	(b) Second future				`φᾰνησ-`	`στᾰλησ-`

§112

PERSONAL ENDINGS

PERSONAL ENDINGS 

The endings which are peculiar to the different persons of the verb are called personal endings. These have one form for the active voice, and another for the passive and middle; but the aorist passive has the endings of the active voice.

The personal endings, which are most distinctly preserved in verbs in μι and other primitive forms, are as follows: -

Number and person	Active: primary tenses	Active: secondary tenses	Passive and middle: primary tenses	Passive and middle: secondary tenses
Singular 1	μι or -	ν or -	μαι	μην
Singular 2	σι (ς)	ς	σαι	σο
Singular 3	σι (τι) or -	-	ται	το
Dual 2	τον	τον	σθον	σθον
Dual 3	τον	την	σθον	σθην
Plural 1	μεν (μες)	μεν (μες)	μεθα	μεθα
Plural 2	τε	τε	σθε	σθε
Plural 3	νσι (ντι)	ν or σαν	νται	ντο

Note. The active endings μι and σι in the first and third person singular are not used in the indicative except in verbs in μι, verbs in ω having no endings in these persons. The original ending σι of the second person singular is found only in the Epic ἐσ-σί, thou art, in all other verbs being reduced to ς. In the third person singular τι is Doric, as τίθη-τι for τίθησι; and it is preserved in Attic in ἐσ-τί, he is. In the first person plural μες is Doric. In the third person plural νσι always drops ν and lengthens the preceding vowel, as in λύουσι for λυο-νσι (§ 16, 6); the original form ντι is Doric, as φέροντι for φέρουσι (Lat. ferunt). The perfect indicative active of all verbs, and the present indicative active of verbs in μι (§ 121, 2, a), have ᾱσι (for ανσι) in the third person plural. [1]

[1]: Among the original active endings, inherited from the parent language of the Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, German, &c., were μι, σι, τι, in the singular, and ντι in the third person plural. In the past tenses, these were first shortened by dropping ι, and became μ, ς, τ, and ντ, in which form they appear in Latin, as in era-m, era-s, era-t, era-nt. In μι, σι, and τι, and in the original μες in the first person plural (compare Latin mus), we see the roots of the personal pronouns, I, thou, he, and we (compare μέ, σέ, τόν, and the Epic ἄμ-μες), which were originally appended to the verbal root, instead of being prefixed as in English. These forms therefore really include the pronoun, which is commonly said to be omitted. A comparison of the various forms of the present indicative of the primitive verb be (whose original stem is as-, in Greek and Latin es-), as it appears in Sanskrit, the older Greek, Latin, Old Slavic, and Lithuanian (the most primitive modern language, still spoken on the Baltic), will illustrate the Greek verbal endings.

In the perfect and pluperfect passive and middle, and in both aorists passive (except in the subjunctive and optative), the endings are added directly to the tense stem; as

λέλυ-μαι, λέλυ-σαι, λέλυ-ται, λέλυ-νται, ἐ-λελύ-μην; ἐ-λύθη-ν, ἐ-λύθη-ς, ἐ-λύθη, ἐ-λύθη-σαν (§ 111).

So also in verbs in μι, in most of the forms which are peculiar to that conjugation (§ 121, 1); as φα-μέν, φα-τέ, from φημί (φᾰ-), say; ἵστα-μαι, ἵστα-σαι, ἵστα-ται, ἵστα-νται, from ἵστημι, set (§ 123).

In other parts of the verb the tense stem appears in a prolonged form, consisting of the fixed portion and a variable vowel (sometimes a diphthong), to which the endings are affixed. This formation will be seen by a comparison of the present indicative middle of τίθημι (τιθε-) with that of φιλέω (φιλε-) in its uncontracted (Ionic) form: -

τίθημι	φιλέω	τίθημι	φιλέω
τίθε-μαι	φιλέ-ο-μαι	τιθέ-μεθα	φιλε-ό-μεθα
τίθε-σαι	φιλέ-ε-(σ)αι	τίθε-σθε	φιλέ-ε-σθε
τίθε-ται	φιλέ-ε-ται	τίθε-νται	φιλέ-ο-νται
τίθε-σθον	φιλέ-ε-σθον	(For τίθημι see § 123.)	

Compare also the perfect λέ-λυ-μαι, λέ-λυ-ται, λέ-λυ-σθε, λέ-λυ-νται (§ 112, 3), with the present λύ-ο-μαι, λύ-ε-ται, λύ-ε-σθε, λύ-ο-νται.

Number and person	Sanskrit	Greek	Latin	Old Slavic	Lithuanian
Singular 1	as-mi	ἐμ-μί (for ἐσ-μι)	[e]s-um	yes-m’	es-mi
Singular 2	asi	ἐσ-σί	es	yesi	esi
Singular 3	as-ti	ἐσ-τί	es-t	yes-t’	es-ti
Plural 1	s-mas	ἐσ-μέν (Dor. εἰμές)	[e]s-u-mus	yes-mi	es-me
Plural 2	s-tha	ἐσ-τέ	es-tis	yes-te	es-te
Plural 3	as-anti	ἐν-τί (Doric)	[e]s-u-nt	s-u-t’	es-ti

The vowel which thus completes the stem is called a connecting vowel; [1] and it appears (sometimes with ο and ε lengthened to ω and ει) even when the ending is dropped (§ 113, 1), as in λέγω (for λεγο-μι) and λέγει (for λεγε-τι).

[1]: The name "connecting vowel" belongs to the doctrine formerly held, by which this vowel was made a third element in the formation of the verb, distinct from both the stem and the ending. The more correct view considers it a part of the tense stem, which thus consists of the fixed portion (e.g. λεγ-, λυ-, λειπ-, in the present) and a vowel sound which varies according to the following letter (e.g. λεγο- or λεγε-). In the original language it was uniformly a, as it appears in the Sanskrit bhara-mi (below). In an elementary work, it is more convenient to treat this variable formative suffix separately, so that the tense stems are given (as in § 95) in their shorter forms (λυ-, λειπ-, &c.).

1. The endings which are peculiar to the different persons of the verb are called personal endings. These have one form for the active voice, and another for the passive and middle; but the aorist passive has the endings of the active voice.

2. The personal endings, which are most distinctly preserved in verbs in μι and other primitive forms, are as follows: -

Number and person	Active: primary tenses	Active: secondary tenses	Passive and middle: primary tenses	Passive and middle: secondary tenses
Singular 1	`μι` or -	`ν` or -	`μαι`	`μην`
Singular 2	`σι` (`ς`)	`ς`	`σαι`	`σο`
Singular 3	`σι` (`τι`) or -	-	`ται`	`το`
Dual 2	`τον`	`τον`	`σθον`	`σθον`
Dual 3	`τον`	`την`	`σθον`	`σθην`
Plural 1	`μεν` (`μες`)	`μεν` (`μες`)	`μεθα`	`μεθα`
Plural 2	`τε`	`τε`	`σθε`	`σθε`
Plural 3	`νσι` (`ντι`)	`ν` or `σαν`	`νται`	`ντο`

Note. The active endings μι and σι in the first and third person singular are not used in the indicative except in verbs in μι, verbs in ω having no endings in these persons. The original ending σι of the second person singular is found only in the Epic ἐσ-σί, thou art, in all other verbs being reduced to ς. In the third person singular τι is Doric, as τίθη-τι for τίθησι; and it is preserved in Attic in ἐσ-τί, he is. In the first person plural μες is Doric. In the third person plural νσι always drops ν and lengthens the preceding vowel, as in λύουσι for λυο-νσι (§ 16, 6); the original form ντι is Doric, as φέροντι for φέρουσι (Lat. ferunt). The perfect indicative active of all verbs, and the present indicative active of verbs in μι (§ 121, 2, a), have ᾱσι (for ανσι) in the third person plural. [1]

[1]: Among the original active endings, inherited from the parent language of the Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, German, &c., were μι, σι, τι, in the singular, and ντι in the third person plural. In the past tenses, these were first shortened by dropping ι, and became μ, ς, τ, and ντ, in which form they appear in Latin, as in era-m, era-s, era-t, era-nt. In μι, σι, and τι, and in the original μες in the first person plural (compare Latin mus), we see the roots of the personal pronouns, I, thou, he, and we (compare μέ, σέ, τόν, and the Epic ἄμ-μες), which were originally appended to the verbal root, instead of being prefixed as in English. These forms therefore really include the pronoun, which is commonly said to be omitted. A comparison of the various forms of the present indicative of the primitive verb be (whose original stem is as-, in Greek and Latin es-), as it appears in Sanskrit, the older Greek, Latin, Old Slavic, and Lithuanian (the most primitive modern language, still spoken on the Baltic), will illustrate the Greek verbal endings.

3. In the perfect and pluperfect passive and middle, and in both aorists passive (except in the subjunctive and optative), the endings are added directly to the tense stem; as

λέλυ-μαι, λέλυ-σαι, λέλυ-ται, λέλυ-νται, ἐ-λελύ-μην; ἐ-λύθη-ν, ἐ-λύθη-ς, ἐ-λύθη, ἐ-λύθη-σαν (§ 111).

So also in verbs in μι, in most of the forms which are peculiar to that conjugation (§ 121, 1); as φα-μέν, φα-τέ, from φημί (φᾰ-), say; ἵστα-μαι, ἵστα-σαι, ἵστα-ται, ἵστα-νται, from ἵστημι, set (§ 123).

4. In other parts of the verb the tense stem appears in a prolonged form, consisting of the fixed portion and a variable vowel (sometimes a diphthong), to which the endings are affixed. This formation will be seen by a comparison of the present indicative middle of τίθημι (τιθε-) with that of φιλέω (φιλε-) in its uncontracted (Ionic) form: -

`τίθημι`	`φιλέω`	`τίθημι`	`φιλέω`
`τίθε-μαι`	`φιλέ-ο-μαι`	`τιθέ-μεθα`	`φιλε-ό-μεθα`
`τίθε-σαι`	`φιλέ-ε-(σ)αι`	`τίθε-σθε`	`φιλέ-ε-σθε`
`τίθε-ται`	`φιλέ-ε-ται`	`τίθε-νται`	`φιλέ-ο-νται`
`τίθε-σθον`	`φιλέ-ε-σθον`	(For `τίθημι` see § 123.)

Compare also the perfect λέ-λυ-μαι, λέ-λυ-ται, λέ-λυ-σθε, λέ-λυ-νται (§ 112, 3), with the present λύ-ο-μαι, λύ-ε-ται, λύ-ε-σθε, λύ-ο-νται.

Number and person	Sanskrit	Greek	Latin	Old Slavic	Lithuanian
Singular 1	as-mi	`ἐμ-μί` (for `ἐσ-μι`)	[e]s-um	yes-m’	es-mi
Singular 2	asi	`ἐσ-σί`	es	yesi	esi
Singular 3	as-ti	`ἐσ-τί`	es-t	yes-t’	es-ti
Plural 1	s-mas	`ἐσ-μέν` (Dor. `εἰμές`)	[e]s-u-mus	yes-mi	es-me
Plural 2	s-tha	`ἐσ-τέ`	es-tis	yes-te	es-te
Plural 3	as-anti	`ἐν-τί` (Doric)	[e]s-u-nt	s-u-t’	es-ti

The vowel which thus completes the stem is called a connecting vowel; [1] and it appears (sometimes with ο and ε lengthened to ω and ει) even when the ending is dropped (§ 113, 1), as in λέγω (for λεγο-μι) and λέγει (for λεγε-τι).

[1]: The name "connecting vowel" belongs to the doctrine formerly held, by which this vowel was made a third element in the formation of the verb, distinct from both the stem and the ending. The more correct view considers it a part of the tense stem, which thus consists of the fixed portion (e.g. λεγ-, λυ-, λειπ-, in the present) and a vowel sound which varies according to the following letter (e.g. λεγο- or λεγε-). In the original language it was uniformly a, as it appears in the Sanskrit bhara-mi (below). In an elementary work, it is more convenient to treat this variable formative suffix separately, so that the tense stems are given (as in § 95) in their shorter forms (λυ-, λειπ-, &c.).

§113

INDICATIVE

INDICATIVE

The original connecting vowel in the indicative of verbs in ω (except in the aorist active and middle, and the perfect and pluperfect active) was ο before μ or ν, and elsewhere ε. In the singular of the present and future active, when μι and τι were dropped and σι became ς (§ 112, 2, Note), the primitive ο and ε were lengthened into ω and ει. [2]

[2]: The supposed original forms of the present indicative of λέγω and the Latin lego are thus given by G. Curtius (Griechisches Verbum, I. p. 200). The actual forms of the Sanskrit present bharami, I bear (= φέρω, fero), are given on the right, and the Attic forms of λέγω on the left.

Attic Greek	Primitive Greek	Primitive Latin	Sanskrit
λέγω	λεγο-μι	lego-m(i)	bhara-mi
λέγεις	λεγε-σι	lege-s(i)	bhara-si
λέγει	λεγε-τι	lege-t(i)	bhara-ti
λέγο-μεν	λεγο-μες	lego-mas	bhara-mas
λέγε-τε	λεγε-τε	lege-tes	bhara-tha
λέγουσι (for λεγο-νσι, § 16, 6)	λεγο-ντι	lego-nt(i)	bhara-nti

From λεγο-μι comes λέγω, from λεγε-σι comes λέγεις, and from λεγε-τι comes λέγει for λέγετι (§ 7).

The connecting vowel is α in all persons of the first aorist middle; also in the perfect and first aorist active, except in the third person singular where it is ε. In the pluperfect active it is ει; but in the third person plural it is ε (rarely ει).

The personal endings of the indicative, as they appear in verbs in ω united with the connecting vowels, are as follows: -

I. Active

Number and person	Present and future	Perfect	Aorist	Imperfect and 2 aorist	Pluperfect
Singular 1	ω	α	α	ον	ειν
Singular 2	εις	ας	ας	ες	εις
Singular 3	ει	ε	ε	ε	ει
Dual 2	ετον	ατον	ατον	ετον	ειτον
Dual 3	ετον	ατην	ατην	ετην	ειτην
Plural 1	ομεν	αμεν	αμεν	ομεν	ειμεν
Plural 2	ετε	ατε	ατε	ετε	ειτε
Plural 3	ουσι (for ονσι)	ᾱσι (for ανσι)	αν	ον	εσαν or εισαν

II. Passive and middle

Number and person	Present, future, and future perfect	Imperfect passive and middle, and 2 aorist middle	Aorist middle
Singular 1	ομαι	ομην	ᾱμην
Singular 2	ῃ or ει (for εσαι, εαι)	ου (for εσο, εο)	ω (for ασο, αο)
Singular 3	εται	ετο	ᾱτο
Dual 2	εσθον	εσθον	ασθον
Dual 3	εσθον	εσθην	ασθην
Plural 1	ομεθα	ομεθα	αμεθα
Plural 2	εσθε	εσθε	ασθε
Plural 3	ονται	οντο	αντο

By adding these terminations to the unprolonged tense stems as they are given in § 111, all the tenses of the indicative, except those included in § 112, 3, may be formed. The latter may be formed by adding the personal endings given in § 112, 2 directly to the tense stems.

Note 1. The endings σαι and σο in the second person singular of the passive and middle drop σ after a connecting vowel (§ 9, 4, N. 1), and are then contracted with the connecting vowel (§ 9, 4, N. 1). Thus, λύῃ or λύει is for λυεσαι, λύεαι; ἐλύου is for ἐλυεσο, ἐλύεο; ἐλύσω (aorist middle) is for ἐλυσασο, ἐλύσαο. The uncontracted forms (without σ) are common in Ionic Greek (§ 119, 2).

Note 2. The second persons βούλει (of βούλομαι, wish), οἴει (of οἴομαι, think), and ὄψει (of ὄψομαι, fut. of ὁράω, see) have no forms in ῃ.

Note 3. A first person dual in μεθον is found very rarely in poetry; as λελείμμεθον (pf. pass. of λείπω).

Note 4. The Attic writers sometimes have η (contracted from the Ionic εα, § 119, 4) for ειν in the first person singular of the pluperfect active, as ἐμεμαθήκη.

Note 5. In Homer τον and σθον are sometimes used for την and σθην in the dual. This occurs rarely in the Attic poets, who sometimes have την for τον in the second person. The latter is found occasionally even in prose.

1. The original connecting vowel in the indicative of verbs in ω (except in the aorist active and middle, and the perfect and pluperfect active) was ο before μ or ν, and elsewhere ε. In the singular of the present and future active, when μι and τι were dropped and σι became ς (§ 112, 2, Note), the primitive ο and ε were lengthened into ω and ει. [2]

[2]: The supposed original forms of the present indicative of λέγω and the Latin lego are thus given by G. Curtius (Griechisches Verbum, I. p. 200). The actual forms of the Sanskrit present bharami, I bear (= φέρω, fero), are given on the right, and the Attic forms of λέγω on the left.

Attic Greek	Primitive Greek	Primitive Latin	Sanskrit
`λέγω`	`λεγο-μι`	lego-m(i)	bhara-mi
`λέγεις`	`λεγε-σι`	lege-s(i)	bhara-si
`λέγει`	`λεγε-τι`	lege-t(i)	bhara-ti
`λέγο-μεν`	`λεγο-μες`	lego-mas	bhara-mas
`λέγε-τε`	`λεγε-τε`	lege-tes	bhara-tha
`λέγουσι` (for `λεγο-νσι`, § 16, 6)	`λεγο-ντι`	lego-nt(i)	bhara-nti

From λεγο-μι comes λέγω, from λεγε-σι comes λέγεις, and from λεγε-τι comes λέγει for λέγετι (§ 7).

The connecting vowel is α in all persons of the first aorist middle; also in the perfect and first aorist active, except in the third person singular where it is ε. In the pluperfect active it is ει; but in the third person plural it is ε (rarely ει).

2. The personal endings of the indicative, as they appear in verbs in ω united with the connecting vowels, are as follows: -

I. Active

Number and person	Present and future	Perfect	Aorist	Imperfect and 2 aorist	Pluperfect
Singular 1	`ω`	`α`	`α`	`ον`	`ειν`
Singular 2	`εις`	`ας`	`ας`	`ες`	`εις`
Singular 3	`ει`	`ε`	`ε`	`ε`	`ει`
Dual 2	`ετον`	`ατον`	`ατον`	`ετον`	`ειτον`
Dual 3	`ετον`	`ατην`	`ατην`	`ετην`	`ειτην`
Plural 1	`ομεν`	`αμεν`	`αμεν`	`ομεν`	`ειμεν`
Plural 2	`ετε`	`ατε`	`ατε`	`ετε`	`ειτε`
Plural 3	`ουσι` (for `ονσι`)	`ᾱσι` (for `ανσι`)	`αν`	`ον`	`εσαν` or `εισαν`

II. Passive and middle

Number and person	Present, future, and future perfect	Imperfect passive and middle, and 2 aorist middle	Aorist middle
Singular 1	`ομαι`	`ομην`	`ᾱμην`
Singular 2	`ῃ` or `ει` (for `εσαι`, `εαι`)	`ου` (for `εσο`, `εο`)	`ω` (for `ασο`, `αο`)
Singular 3	`εται`	`ετο`	`ᾱτο`
Dual 2	`εσθον`	`εσθον`	`ασθον`
Dual 3	`εσθον`	`εσθην`	`ασθην`
Plural 1	`ομεθα`	`ομεθα`	`αμεθα`
Plural 2	`εσθε`	`εσθε`	`ασθε`
Plural 3	`ονται`	`οντο`	`αντο`

By adding these terminations to the unprolonged tense stems as they are given in § 111, all the tenses of the indicative, except those included in § 112, 3, may be formed. The latter may be formed by adding the personal endings given in § 112, 2 directly to the tense stems.

Note 1. The endings σαι and σο in the second person singular of the passive and middle drop σ after a connecting vowel (§ 9, 4, N. 1), and are then contracted with the connecting vowel (§ 9, 4, N. 1). Thus, λύῃ or λύει is for λυεσαι, λύεαι; ἐλύου is for ἐλυεσο, ἐλύεο; ἐλύσω (aorist middle) is for ἐλυσασο, ἐλύσαο. The uncontracted forms (without σ) are common in Ionic Greek (§ 119, 2).

Note 2. The second persons βούλει (of βούλομαι, wish), οἴει (of οἴομαι, think), and ὄψει (of ὄψομαι, fut. of ὁράω, see) have no forms in ῃ.

Note 3. A first person dual in μεθον is found very rarely in poetry; as λελείμμεθον (pf. pass. of λείπω).

Note 4. The Attic writers sometimes have η (contracted from the Ionic εα, § 119, 4) for ειν in the first person singular of the pluperfect active, as ἐμεμαθήκη.

Note 5. In Homer τον and σθον are sometimes used for την and σθην in the dual. This occurs rarely in the Attic poets, who sometimes have την for τον in the second person. The latter is found occasionally even in prose.