A Short Grammar of Classical Greek: Part III, Syntax

SIMPLE SENTENCES IN INDIR. DISCOURSE.

177. They are introduced by ὅτι, ὡς that, and take

after a princ. tense the indic. (potent., unreal.), after an hist. tense the opt. (potent., unreal.), rarely the indicative.

For other cases of indirect discourse, see 193, 1 and 202, 2, n. 1. The negative is οὐ.

Λέγει ὁ κατήγορος, ὡς ὑβριστής εἰμι καὶ βίαιος. Κῦρος ἔλεγεν, ὅτι ἡ ὁδὸς ἔσοιτο πρὸς βασιλέα μέγαν. Ἔλεγον, ὅτι Κῦρος μὲν τέθνηκεν, Ἀριαῖος δὲ πεφευγὼς ἐν τῷ σταθμῷ εἴη.

Note. - The sentence ἔλεγεν, ὅτι ἀδικοίην (present opt.) may mean: both: he said [that] I was doing wrong (direct: ἀδικεῖς), and: he said [that] I had been doing wrong (direct: ἠδίκεις), 169, 4.

1 (potent., unreal.) = "unless the expression of potentiality or unreality should require a different mood." See 176, 4.

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SYNTAX.

DEPENDENT CAUSAL CLAUSES.

178. They are introduced by

ὅτι, διότι, ὡς because, as, quod, ἐπεί since, because, ἐπειδή inasmuch as, quoniam, ὅτε, ὁπότε since then, quando,

and take after a princ. tense the indic.; after an hist. tense the indic. (point of view of writer) or the opt. (view of leading subject) (potent. or unreal.) The negative is οὐ.

Ἀθηναῖοι ἐνόμισαν ἡττᾶσθαι ὅτι οὐ πολὺ ἐνίκων (reason assigned by writer). Οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι Περικλέα ἐκάκιζον, ὅτι στρατηγὸς ὢν οὐκ ἐπεξάγοι (reason ass. by the κακίζοντες). Ἐθαύμαζον οἱ Ἕλληνες, ὅτι οὐδαμοῦ Κῦρος φαίνοιτο οὐδ' ἄλλος ἀπ' αὐτοῦ οὐδεὶς παρείη. Δέομαί σου παραμεῖναι ἡμῖν, ὡς ἐγὼ οὐδ' ἂν ἑνὸς ἥδιον ἀκούσαιμι ἢ σοῦ.

179. 1. They are introduced by interrogative or relative pronouns and adverbs (130), or by the interrogative particles:

εἰ if, whether, num, πότερον - ἤ, εἰ - ἤ whether - or, πότερα - ἤ, εἴτε - εἴτε utrum - an.

They take after a princ. tense the indic.; after an hist. tense the opt. (rarely the indic.) (pot. or unreal.) The negative is οὐ.

Συμβουλευόμεθά σοι, τί χρὴ ποιεῖν. Ἐπήρετο τὸν Μηδοσάδην, εἰ ἀληθῆ ταῦτ' εἴη. Οἷων ἂν ἐλπίδων ἐμαυτὸν στερήσαιμι, ταῦτα λέξω. Ξενοφῶν οὐ τοῦτο πρῶτον ἠρώτα, πότερον λαβὼν εἴη αὐτῷ πορεύεσθαι ἢ μένειν, ἀλλὰ τοῦτ' ἐπυνθάνετο, ὅπως ἂν κάλλιστα πορευθείη.

Note 1. - Observe that εἰ has not the same limitations as si in Latin.

Note 2. - Ordinarily the negative is οὐ. But μή is not unfrequently found, esp. in the second part of alternative indirect questions.

1. Dependent questions implying doubt (173, 2) take

after a princ. tense the subjunctive, after an hist. tense the optative or subjunctive.

The negative is always μή.

Ὁρῶ σε ἀποροῦντα, ποίαν ὁδὸν ἐπὶ τὸν βίον τράπῃ which road to take. Ὁ Θηβαῖος ἠπόρει, ὅ,τι χρήσαιτο τῷ πράγματι what to make of it.

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CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES.

CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES.

180. 1. They are introduced by ὥστε (ὡς) so that, so (such ...) as.

An actual result (histor. fact) requires ὥστε with the indic. (pot., unreal.), neg. οὐ,

a merely conceivable (expected, possible) result or tendency shading over into purpose requires ὥστε (ὡς) with the inf., neg. μή.

Ἦν ψῦχος δεινόν, ὥστε τὸ ὕδωρ ἐπήγνυτο. Ἔχω τριήρεις ὥστε ἑλεῖν τὸ ἐκείνων πλοῖον so as to be able. Κραυγὴν πολλὴν ἐποίουν οἱ στρατιῶται καλοῦντες ἀλλήλους, ὥστε καὶ τοὺς πολεμίους ἀκούειν could hear or could not help hearing it.

1. The infinitive is regularly used in the following cases:

a) to denote an intended result:

Πᾶν ποιοῦσιν ὥστε δίκην μὴ διδόναι. Πάντας οὕτω διατιθεὶς ἀπεπέμπετο ὥστε αὐτῷ μᾶλλον φίλους εἶναι ἢ βασιλεῖ.

b) after such expressions as: to be able, qualified; to bring about, effect; to be such as; e.g.

Τὸ θεῖον τοιοῦτόν ἐστιν ὥστε πανταχοῦ παρεῖναι. Τίς οὕτω δεινός ἐστι λέγειν ὥστε σε πεῖσαι;

c) after a comparative with ἤ, or after a negative; e.g.

Βραχύτερα ἠκόντιζον ἢ ὡς ἐξικνεῖσθαι ἡμῶν. Ταῦτα οὐ πάλαι ἐστὶ γεγενημένα, ὥστε ἀγνοεῖν ὑμᾶς.

d) when ὥστε means on condition that (= provided that, dummodo) and takes the place of the more frequent ἐφ' ᾧ, ἐφ' ᾧτε with inf. (or fut. indic. 191, 3. c).

Πολλὰ Τιμασίωνι οἱ Ἡρακλεῶται ὑπισχνοῦντο ὥστε ἐκπλεῖν. Ἔφασαν ἀποδώσειν τοὺς νεκρούς, ἐφ' ᾧ μὴ καίειν τὰς οἰκίας.

Note 1. - Ὥστε, with the force wherefore, consequently, itaque, sometimes introduces independent clauses.

Εἰς τὴν ὑστεραίαν οὐχ ἧκε Τισσαφέρνης· ὥσθ' οἱ Ἕλληνες ἐφρόντιζον.

Note 2. - For the subject (nom. or acc.) of the infinitive, see 197.

181. 1. Final clauses are introduced by

ἵνα, ὡς, ὅπως, ut, in order that, negatived ἵνα μή, ὡς μή, ὅπως μή or μή, ne, lest, in order that - not.

After a princ. tense they always take the subj. (pres. or aor.), after an hist. tense they generally take the opt. (pres. or aor.), less frequently the subjunctive.

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SYNTAX.

Μὴ φθόνει τοῖς εὐτυχοῦσι, μὴ δοκῇς εἶναι κακός. Ταῦτ' εἰπὼν εὐθὺς ἀνέστη, ἵνα περαίνοιτο τὰ δέοντα. Τὰ πλοῖα Ἀβροκόμας κατέκαυσεν, ἵνα μὴ Κῦρος διαβῇ.

1. In like manner, final object clauses after verbs of fearing and other expressions that imply apprehension, anxiety, alarm,

introduced by μή, ne, that, lest, negatived μὴ οὐ, ne non, that - not,

always take after a princ. tense the subj., after an hist. tense the opt., less frequently the subjunctive.

Δέδοικα, μὴ ἐπιλαθώμεθα τῆς οἴκαδε ὁδοῦ. Ἐφοβεῖτο, μὴ οὐ δύνατο ἐκ τῆς χώρας ἐξελθεῖν.

Note. - When these verbs signify: to scruple, hesitate, be reluctant, shrink from, like vereor, metuo, dubito in Latin, they require the infinitive. See An. 1, 3, 17.

1. Final object clauses after verbs of caring and other expressions that imply care, anxiety, concern, endeavor,

as ἐπιμέλομαι, φροντίζω take care, am concerned, σκοπῶ, σκοποῦμαι see, consider, μέλει μοι it is an object of care, thought to me, I mind, σκεπτέον (ἐστίν) (you, we) must see to it that, - examine, βουλεύομαι deliberate, παρασκευάζομαι get ready, prepare myself,

introduced by ὅπως, ὡς how, that, negatived ὅπως μή, ὡς μή that - not, how - not,

take either the subj. or the opt. (see 181, 1) or generally the future indicative (according to 191, 3 c). Ὅπως in this case is a relative and the clauses are final rel. clauses.

Σκεπτέόν μοι δοκεῖ, ὅπως ὡς ἀσφαλέστατα μενοῦμεν. Κῦρος βουλεύεται, ὅπως μήποτε ἔσται ἐπὶ τῷ ἀδελφῷ.

Compare An. 3, 1, 38 with 3, 1, 13. 16; 4, 6, 10 (bis) with 1, 3, 11.

Note 1. - In independent sentences expressing apprehension, warning, a cautious or ironical assertion,

μή or ὅπως μή with the subj. means: I wish that - not; I am afraid that, μὴ οὐ with the subj. means: I rather think that - not; not ... I dare say, οὐ μή with the aor. subj. or fut. indic. means: hardly, very improbably, not at all likely, surely not.

Μὴ λίαν πικρὸν εἰπεῖν ᾖ. Ὅπως μὴ ποιήσητε, ὃ πολλάκις ὑμᾶς ἔβλαψεν. Ἀλλὰ μὴ οὐ τοῦτ' ᾖ χαλεπόν, θάνατον ἐκφυγεῖν, ἀλλὰ πονηρίαν. Τὸν ἄνδρ' ἐκεῖνον οὔ τι μὴ λίπω ποτέ. Τοὺς πονηροὺς οὐ μή ποτε βελτίους ποιήσετε.

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CONDITIONAL CLAUSES.

Note 2. - Μή with the indicative after verbs of fearing or caring has interrogative force (if not, whether not), and often represents the thing feared as positively taking or having taken place:

Φοβούμεθα, μὴ ἄμα ἀμφοτέρων ἡμαρτήκαμεν we fear we have missed. Ὅρα μή with the ind.: (see if not) perhaps, beware lest; e.g. ὅρα μὴ σκῆψιν οὐκ οὖσαν τιθῇς. with the subj.: take care not to, beware lest: μὴ γῆμα νῦν σαυτῷ τιθῇς.

182. 1. Hypothetical propositions are introduced by

εἰ, ἐάν (= εἰ ἄν, also ἄν, ἤν) if, in case that, if perchance.

1. The negative of the condition is always μή; that of the conclusion either οὐ or μή, according to its character as a statement or a wish. See 171, 1.

Note. - The condition is also called protasis, the conclusion apodosis.

Classification.

183. 1. There are four types of hypothetical sentences:

I. The First Type (expressing conditioned reality): Asserts merely the nexus between protasis and apodosis.

II. The Second Type (expressing unreality): Represents the unreality of both protasis and apodosis.

III. The Third Type (expressing potentiality): Represents both protasis and apodosis as conceivable.

IV. The Fourth Type (expressing a single future or repeated occurrence): Represents the protasis as possible or even as expected in a certain contingency.

Note. - The choice of any one of the four forms depends on the point of view of the writer, which is, of course, somewhat free to shift.

1. The conditional clauses admit of the following variety of construction:

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SYNTAX.

Conditional Sentences of the First Type.

184. This form merely sets forth the nexus between the conclusion and the condition; in other words: it sets forth the conclusion as real, if the condition be real - but implies nothing as to the latter.

Εἰ with ind. of any tense - indic. of any tense.

Εἰ βούλει - δύνασαι. If you wish, you can: Si vis, potes.

Εἰ θεοί τι δρῶσιν αἰσχρόν, οὐκ εἰσὶν θεοί. Εἰ δειν' ἔδρασας, δεινὰ καὶ παθεῖν σὲ χρή. Εἰ μὴ καθέξεις γλῶσσαν, ἔσται σοι κακά.

185. Both the condition and the conclusion are represented as unreal or contrary to fact.

Εἰ w. hist. tense indic., ἄν w. hist. tense indic.; for the present: impf., ἄν w. impf., for the past: aor. (plupf.), ἄν w. aor. (plupf.).

a) Present time:

Εἰ ἐβούλου, ἐδύνασο ἄν. Si velles, posses (sed non vis). If you wished, you could (but you do not wish).

Φῶς εἰ μὴ εἴχομεν, ὅμοιοι τοῖς τυφλοῖς ἂν ἦμεν. Εἰ μὴ γὰρ ἦν Χρύσιππος, οὐκ ἂν ἦν στοά.

b) Past time:

Εἰ ἐβουλήθης, ἐδυνήθης ἄν. Si voluisses, potuisses (sed non voluisti), If you had wished, you could have (but you did not wish).

Οὐκ ἂν ἐποίησεν Ἀγασίας, εἰ μὴ ἐγὼ ἐκέλευσα. Εἰ τριάκοντα μόναι μετέπεσον τῶν ψήφων, ἀπεπεφεύγη ἄν.

c) Mixed Forms:

Εἰ μὴ ὑμεῖς ἤλθετε, ἐπορευόμεθα ἂν ἐπὶ βασιλέα. Εἰ γάρ σὺ μὲν παῖς ἦσθ', ἐγὼ δὲ σὸς πατήρ, ἔκτεινά τοί σ' ἂν κοὐ φυγαῖς ἐζημίουν.

Note. - In conditional sentences of the second type, the imperfect occasionally expresses continuance of a past, and the aor. ind. instantaneous occurrence of a present action.

Οὐκ ἂν Ἀγαμέμνων νήσων ἠπειρώτης ὧν ἐκράτει, εἰ μή τι καὶ ναυτικὸν εἶχεν. A. would not have been master, had he not had... Εἰ μὴ πατὴρ ἦσθα, εἶπον ἄν σ' οὐκ εὖ φρονεῖν.

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CONDITIONAL CLAUSES.

Conditional Sentences of the Third Type.

186. Both the condition and the conclusion are set forth as purely imaginable, or as mere thoughts or suppositions that are gratuitously assumed by the speaker.

Εἰ with optative - ἄν with optative.

Εἰ βούλοιο, δύναιο ἄν: Si velis, possis. If you should wish (= Suppose you were to wish), you would be able.

Εἴ τις ξυνελὼν ταῦτα φαίη, ὀρθῶς ἂν εἴποι. Εἰ ἀναγκαῖον εἴη ἀδικεῖν ἢ ἀδικεῖσθαι, ἑλοίμην ἂν μᾶλλον ἀδικεῖσθαι ἢ ἀδικεῖν.

Note. - Suppositions that are contrary to fact may evidently also be expressed by the speaker, if he chooses, in this potential form. See 183, 1. note.

Καὶ ἔγωγ' ἄν, εἰ σύ εἴην (which is contrary to fact!), εὑροίην ἂν ποταμὸν ὥσπερ Ἀργεῖος.

187. 1. The condition is represented as objectively possible, or even as anticipated under certain circumstances. The conclusion is set forth as positively certain. This form of hypothetical proposition is especially employed to express thoughts or truths of universal application and is, therefore, of constant occurrence in legal phraseology.

1. Sentences of this type admit of a double construction.

I. The condition refers to a single future occurrence (if).

Ἐάν with subj. (pres. or aor.) - fut. indic. or imperative.

Ἐὰν βούλῃ (βουληθῇς), δυνήσῃ. Si voles (volueris), poteris. If you wish, you will be able.

Ἥξω παρὰ σὲ αὔριον, ἐὰν θεὸς ἐθέλῃ. Νέος ἂν πονήσῃς, γῆρας ἕξεις εὐθαλές. Ἐὰν δ' ἔχωμεν χρήματα, ἕξομεν φίλους.

Compare Donec eris felix, multos numerabis amicos.

Here the pres. subj. stands in the sense of the Latin future, the aor. subj. stands in the sense of the Latin fut. perfect.

II. The condition implies repeated occurrence (as often as).

a) in the present:

Ἐάν with subj. (pres. or aor.) - present indicative.

Ἐὰν βούλῃ (βουληθῇς), δύνασαι. Cum vis (voluisti), potes. If (= whenever) you wish, you (always) can.

Ἅπας λόγος, ἂν ἀπῇ τὰ πράγματα, μάταιος φαίνεται. Ἄν ἐγγὺς ἔλθῃ θάνατος, οὐδεὶς βούλεται θνῄσκειν.

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SYNTAX.

b) in the past:

Εἰ with opt. (pres. or aor.) - hist. tense ind. (esp. impf.).

Εἰ βούλοιο (βουληθείης), ἐδύνασο. Cum volebas (volueras), poteras. If (= as often as) you (had) wished, you (always) could.

Ξενοφῶν εἴ πού τι ὁρῴη βρωτόν, διεδίδου. Εἴ τίς γέ τι Κύρῳ προστάξαντι καλῶς ὑπηρετήσειεν, οὐδενὶ πώποτε ἀχάριστον εἴασε τὴν προθυμίαν. - (See Anab. 2, 3, 11; 1, 9, 19. cf. 172, 4.)

Here the pres. opt. stands in the sense of the Lat. imperfect, the aor. opt. stands in the sense of the Lat. pluperfect.

Note. - These hypothetical forms account for the construction of those temporal and relative clauses (190, 3. and 4. b; 191, 4. d) in which

ὅταν, ἕως ἄν, πρὶν ἄν - ὅς ἄν, ὅπως ἄν, ᾗ ἄν take the subj. after a princ. tense, or ὅτε, ἕως, πρίν - ὅς, ὅπως, ᾗ take the opt. after an hist. tense.

All these clauses are equivalent in meaning to hypothetical propositions.

188. 1. The protasis of one type is sometimes followed by the apodosis of another. In particular, a potential apodosis (as a more polite and less peremptory mode of expression, 174, 2) is often joined to a protasis of the first or the fourth type.

Δείξαιμι ἂν ταῦτα, εἴ μοί τινα βούλεσθε συμπέμψαι. Οὐδέ, ἂν πολλαὶ γέφυραι ὦσι, ἔχοιμεν ἄν, ὅποι σωθῶμεν.

1. Besides the simple particles εἰ and ἐάν, the following combinations are worthy of note:

a) εἰ μή after a negative means (like nisi): save, except, unless. b) εἰ δὲ μή, when used without a verb after εἰ μέν (μή), ἐάν μέν (μή), is the regular expression for the English: otherwise, or else. c) εἴπερ with the indic. means: si quidem, if indeed, if really, if it be true that. Sometimes it is equivalent to: since indeed, etc. d) εἰ μὴ ἄρα with the indic. is (like nisi forte, nisi vero) used chiefly in irony: unless perhaps, unless indeed, unless of course, unless forsooth. e) ὥσπερ ἂν εἰ with the opt. (denoting potentiality) or with hist. tense ind. (denoting unreality): (just) as if, as though.