A Short Grammar of Classical Greek: Part III, Syntax

Английский Грамматика Начальный 20 век Adolf Kaegi James A. Kleist

Syntax, Homeric dialect, and reference tables from Kaegi and Kleist's A Short Grammar of Classical Greek.

IV. THE CASES.

131. The Greek, like other kindred languages, originally had eight cases, but in course of time lost three of them: the ablative (whence?), the locative (where? when?) and the instrumental (whereby? wherewith?). The lost cases are made up for partly by the genitive, partly by the dative.

A. THE ACCUSATIVE.

132. The accusative is the case of the so-called direct or nearer object, which is either external to, and merely affected by, the action (ἐνίκησαν τοὺς πολεμίους), or internal to, and already implied in the meaning of, the action (τίνα νίκην ἐνίκησας;).

ACCUSATIVE OF EXTERNAL OBJECT.

133. Verbs that regularly take an external object in the accusative are called transitive, all others intransitive verbs. For verbs which are transitive in Greek, see the Lexicon.

Attention is here called to:

do good (harm) to one εὖ (κακῶς) ποιῶ τινα,

speak well (ill) of one εὖ (κακῶς) λέγω τινά,

escape the notice of λανθάνω τινά (secretly, unawares!),

swear, swear falsely by ὄμνυμι, ἐπιορκέω τινά.

Hence νὴ Δία yes, by Zeus; οὐ μὰ τοὺς θεούς no, by the gods.

am on my guard against, beware of φυλάττομαι τινα.

Οὐδεὶς ποιῶν πονηρὰ λανθάνει θεόν.

134. Even (originally) intransitive verbs, esp. such as express motion and are compounded with a preposition, are employed as transitives. E.g.

μένω wait, stay, remain, τινά, τί wait for, am in store for, expect,

σπουδάζω am eager, in earnest, τινά promote, further,

σπείδω press on, hasten, τί urge on, push,

πλέω sail, go by sea, τὴν θάλατταν sail (over) the sea.

In like manner (cp. the English to under-go dangers):

διαβαίνω ποταμόν, ὑφίσταμαι κινδύνους, ὑπερβαίνω ὄρος.

παραβαίνει τοὺς νόμους, διέρχομαι τὴν χώραν, παραπλέω νῆσον etc.

135. Verbs that signify to name, make, appoint and the like take two accusatives, one of the external object, the other a predicate accusative. In the passive both accusatives become nominatives.

Δαρεῖος Κῦρον σατράπην ἐποίησε. Κῦρος στρατηγὸς ἀπεδείχθη.

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COGNATE ACCUSATIVE.

136. The following verbs take two accusatives of the external object, one of the person, the other of the thing affected.

Meaning	Greek
remind of, ask, question	(ἀνα-)μιμνήσκω, ἐρωτάω
demand from, ask for, exact	αἰτέω, ἀπαιτέω, πράττομαι
deprive of, rob of	ἀφαιρέομαι, ἀποστερέω

τινά τι.

Ἀναμνήσω ὑμᾶς τοὺς τῶν προγόνων κινδύνους.

Κῦρον αἰτήσομεν πλοῖα καὶ ἡγεμόνα.

Τὸν πάντα δ’ ὄλβον ἦμαρ ἐν μ’ ἀφείλετο.

Note 1. - In the passive, the acc. of the person becomes the subject nominative, that of the thing remains unchanged: Αἴκης ἀπεστερήθη τὴν ἀρχήν.

Note 2. - For ἀποστερέω τινά τινος and ἀφαιρέομαι τινός τι see 147, 2. with note 2.

ACCUSATIVE OF INTERNAL OBJECT.

137. Sometimes a transitive or an intransitive verb takes an accusative of the internal object (accusative of content or cognate accusative). The object may be

1. a noun of kindred etymology or meaning. It is nearly always modified by an attribute (or a relative clause). The cognate accusative is more frequent in Greek than in English. (Figura etymologica. Compare: vitam iucundam vivere, to live a pleasant life.)

ταύτην τὴν στρατηγίαν στρατηγεῖν - κάλλιστον ἔργον ἐργάζεσθαι -

δουλείας δουλεύειν, οἷας οὐδ’ ἂν δοῦλος οὐδείς -

Μέγιστα καὶ ἀνοσιώτατα ἁμαρτήματα ἁμαρτάνουσιν.

κινδυνεύω τὸν ἔσχατον κίνδυνον - τὸν ἱερὸν πόλεμον στρατεύσαι -

ἄπιμεν, ἥνπερ ἤλθομεν, ἢ ἄλλην τινὰ ὁδόν;

Ζήσεις βίον κράτιστον, ἢν θυμοῦ κρατῇς.

Note. - The modifying attribute may be wanting in certain idiomatic phrases with pregnant meaning, as in φυλακὰς φυλάττειν to keep watch and ward, φόρον φέρειν to pay tribute, and some others.

2. or an attribute (sometimes a noun, sometimes the neuter of an adjective or pronoun) relating to a noun that is understood.

Ὀλύμπια νικᾶν = Ὀλυμπικὴν νίκην νικᾶν,

ἡδὺ γελᾶν to laugh heartily - δεινὰ ὑβρίζειν to commit an outrageous insult, πάντα νικᾶν, οὐδὲν φροντίζειν, τὰ ἄλλα ἐπιμελεῖσθαι etc.

Οὐκ ἔστιν ὅστις πάντ’ ἀνὴρ εὐδαιμονεῖ.

138. Many transitive verbs take two accusatives, one a cognate accusative, the other of the external object. See 133.

Βασιλεὺς ἡμᾶς τὰ ἔσχατα αἰκίζεται.

Λακεδαιμόνιοι πολλὰ τὴν πόλιν ἡμῶν ἠδικήκασι καὶ μεγάλα.

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SYNTAX.

Note. - In the passive the acc. of the external object becomes the subject nominative, the cognate acc. is retained:

ἄλλην εὐεργεσίαν εὐεργετηθείς - οὐδὲν ἀδικούμενος.

GREEK ACCUSATIVE - ACCUSATIVE OF EXTENT - ADVERBIAL ACCUSATIVE.

139. The accusative is sometimes somewhat loosely used after verbs that express a state or condition, as well as after adjectives, in order to limit their application. (Accus. of limitation; Greek Accus. Compare: os humerosque deo similis.)

κάμνω τὴν κεφαλήν suffer from my head, have a headache;

κάμνω τοὺς ὀφθαλμούς suffer from my eyes, have sore eyes.

(τὸ) ὄνομα, γένος, εἶδος by name, by birth - race, in appearance, in form.

(τὸ) εὖρος, ὕψος, βάθος, πλῆθος, κάλλος in breadth, ... (its) breadth being ...

Βέλτιόν ἐστι σώμα γ’ ἢ ψυχὴν νοσεῖν.

Τυφλὸς τά τ’ ὦτα τόν τε νοῦν τά τ’ ὄμματ’ εἶ.

140. The accusative of extent (of space and time) answers the questions: how far? (for) how long?

Τῆς Ἑλλάδος οὐ μεῖον ἢ μύρια στάδια ἀπεῖχον.

Ψευδόμενος οὐδεὶς λανθάνει πολὺν χρόνον.

Note 1. - τριάκοντα ἔτη γεγονώς triginta annos natus 30 years old.

and: ἐνάτην ἡμέραν (this being the ninth day =) eight days ago (before).

Note 2. - The terminal accusative without a preposition (whither?) is found only in poetry.

In prose a preposition must be used; hence only εἰς Ἀθήνας Athenas.

141. Very many accusatives of content, of restriction and of extent have by frequent use become adverbs or adverbial phrases (Adverbial Acc.).

Expression	Meaning
Οὐδέν	in no respect, not at all
τί	in what respect? why?
πολύ	much, by far, multo
(τὰ) πάντα	in all respects, in every way, in all
(τὸ) πρῶτον, (τὴν) πρώτην	in the first place, at first
μακράν	far, a long way
τί	in any (some) respect, to some extent, at all
τἆλλα	in other respects, for the rest
τίνα τρόπον; - τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον	in what manner? in this manner, thus
τὸ πρίν, τὸ νῦν	formerly; nowadays, at present
πολλά	in many respects, often
τὰ πολλά	for the most part, generally

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THE GENITIVE.

ἀρχήν at all, at first, from the beginning,

τὸ λοιπόν for the rest, for the (in) future,

τὴν ταχίστην (ὁδόν) as soon as possible,

τὸ κατ’ ἐμέ, τὸ κατὰ τοῦτον as far as depends on me (him), as far as I am (he is) concerned. 199, 5.

πρόφασιν professedly, pretendedly, ostensibly.

Note. - For the acc. absolute see 203, 4.

B. THE GENITIVE.

142. The Greek Genitive is partly genitive proper and partly represents the original ablative (whence-case) which denotes the source of an action. This can be either material (separation - comparison - matter) or mental (cause).

THE GENITIVE PROPER.

143. The possessive genitive with nouns and adjectives, as also after εἶναι, γίγνεσθαι (to belong to, be owned by; to be the part, characteristic, in the power of; to betoken, give evidence of etc.) denotes the owner or author.

ἡ Κύρου στρατιά - τὸ τοῦ Σόλωνος, τὰ τῶν Ἑλλήνων etc.

ἱερὸς ὁ χῶρος τῆς Ἀρτέμιδος - Κίμων Μιλτιάδου, Περικλῆς ὁ Ξανθίππου. - ἀπόρων ἐστὶ καὶ ἀμηχάνων.

ἐν Ἅιδου (sc. τῇ οἰκίᾳ), εἰς Ἅιδου. Compare: at my brother’s.

Πενίαν φέρειν οὐ παντός, ἀλλ’ ἀνδρὸς σοφοῦ - but ἐμόν ἐστιν.

Compare: cuiusvis hominis est errare - but meum est.

144. The objective genitive, which denotes the object of an action or feeling, is used

1. with nouns which denote an action (compare cupiditas gloriae):

ἡ τῆς πατρίδος σωτηρία - ἡ ἐπιθυμία ἡδονῶν,

τὸ μῖσος Παυσανίου the hatred of (felt against) P. (subj. hatred of [felt by] Paus.),

βία τῶν πολιτῶν against the will of the citizens,

δι’ αἰσχύνην ἀλλήλων καὶ Κύρου from a sense of shame before.

2. with judicial verbs, nouns and adjectives that denote a charge or crime. E.g.

to accuse of, charge with αἰτιάομαι, γράφομαι τινά τινος.

to convict, detect one doing, catch in αἱρέω τινά τινος - ἁλίσκομαί τινος.

guilty of αἴτιος, ἀναίτιός τινος.

Ἐάν τις ἁλῷ τῆς κακώσεως τῶν γονέων, δεδέσθω.

3. with verbs and adjectives expressing the following notions (and their opposites):

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SYNTAX.

desire: ἐπιθυμέω, ἐράω, ἐφίεμαι, ὀρέγομαί τινος.

knowledge: ἔμπειρος, ἄπειρος, ἐπιστήμων τινός.

memory: μέμνημαι, μνήμων - ἐπιλανθάνομαι τινος.

concern: ἐπιμέλομαι, φροντίζω - ἀμελέω τινός,

μέλει μοι τινος - ἐπιμελής, ἀμελὴς τινος.

participation: κοινωνέω, μετέχω - μεταδίδωμί τινος.

power: ἄρχω, βασιλεύω - κύριος, ἐγκρατής τινος, see 148, 2.

plenty: ἐμπίμπλημι, πληρόω - πλήρης, μεστός, κενός τινος.

Ὁ γραμμάτων ἄπειρος οὐ βλέπει βλέπων.

Ἄνθρωπος ὢν μέμνησο τῆς κοινῆς τύχης.

4. after verbs that signify:

to seize, grasp, touch: λαμβάνομαι, ἅπτομαί τινος.

to cling: ἔχομαι, - hit, find: τυγχάνω τινός.

to obtain: λαγχάνω, - miss, lose: ἁμαρτάνω τινός.

to be mistaken, disappointed: ψεύδομαι, experience: πειράομαί τινος.

Ἐλαίβετο τῆς χειρὸς αὐτοῦ.

Ἐσφάλημεν τῆς δόξης. Πολλῶν κακῶν πεπειράμεθα.

Note. - With many of the verbs that belong to 3 and 4, the objective genitive is at the same time partitive.

145. 1. The partitive genitive is the genitive of the whole of which a part is taken. It has nearly always the predicate position (121). It is more frequent in Greek than in Latin, and may be used wherever there is an expressed or implied relation of whole to part.

τῶν ἀνθρώπων οἱ σοφοί - (but only οἱ θνητοὶ ἄνθρωποι) -

ὁ ἄριστος ἁπάντων - τίς ἡμῶν - οὐδεὶς αὐτῶν -

Θῆβαι τῆς Βοιωτίας - ποῦ γῆς; ubi terrarum? -

ὀψὲ τῆς ἡμέρας - εἰς τοῦθ’ ὕβρεως (eo vecordiae).

Ἀριστεὺς ἤθελε καὶ αὐτὸς τῶν μενόντων εἶναι.

2. Accordingly, the partitive genitive may be dependent upon any verb, if its action affects only a part and not the whole of the object. It follows, therefore, especially

a) verbs that signify to eat, to drink, to take, to taste, if only part of the food etc. is taken.

Τῶν κηρίων ὅσοι ἔφαγον, πάντες ἄφρονες ἐγίγνοντο.

Ὀλίγου σίτου ἐγεύσαντο. - but: Σωκράτης τὸ φάρμακον ἔπιεν.

b) verbs and adjectives that signify participation or fullness. See 144, 3.

Note 1. - καινόν τι (aliquid novi) [not: καινοῦ τι],

οὐδὲν ἀγαθόν (nihil boni) [not: οὐδὲν ἀγαθοῦ].

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THE GENITIVE.

Note 2. - When a partitive genitive depends on a numeral adjective, the latter agrees in gender with the genitive:

ὁ λοιπὸς τοῦ χρόνου - τῆς γῆς τὴν πολλήν - τοῦ σίτου τὸν ἥμισυν.

146. The genitive of quality is used almost exclusively with definite numbers to express size or age. An. 1, 2, 8.

Τριῶν ἡμερῶν ὁδόν - τεῖχος εὖρος εἴκοσι ποδῶν, ὕψος δὲ ἑκατόν -

Πρόξενος ἦν, ὅτε ἀπέθνῃσκεν, ἐτῶν ὡς τριάκοντα.

Note. - In other instances, quality is expressed by the Greek accusative. 139 sq.

THE GENITIVE WITH ABLATIVE FORCE.

147. The genitive of separation is used with verbs (and adjectives of kindred meaning) that signify

1. to separate, remove, free and the like.

Here belongs: φείδομαί τινος I spare.

Ἀπέχει ἡ Πλάταια τῶν Θηβῶν σταδίους ἑβδομήκοντα.

2. to deprive, be in want of, need and the like.

Note in particular: δεῖ μοί τινος I need something.

Ὁ μηδὲν ἀδικῶν οὐδενὸς δεῖται νόμου.

Note 1. - “I ask something of some one” means δέομαί τινός τι, if the thing asked for is expressed by a neuter adjective or pronoun. Otherwise, αἰτῶ with two accusatives is generally used.

E.g. Ὑμῶν δεόμεθα ταῦτα, but: Κῦρον ᾔτησαν μισθόν.

Note 2. See 136. - Ἀφαιρέομαι takes also τινός τι.

3. to begin and to cease:

ἄρχω I begin (what others continue): τοῦ λόγου open the discussion.

ἄρχομαι (I begin what I myself continue): τοῦ λόγου my speech.

ἄρχομαι ἀπό, ἐκ τινος from, with, at: ἀπὸ or ἐκ τῶν θεῶν.

παύω cause to stop, τινά τινος restrain, prevent; depose, divest (ἀρχῆς).

παύομαι, λήγω τινός quit, cease, desist from (ὀργῆς).

Πειρᾶσθε σὺν τοῖς θεοῖς ἄρχεσθαι παντὸς ἔργου.

Ἔπαυσαν οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι Τιμόθεον τῆς στρατηγίας.

4. to perceive, hear etc., to denote the person who is heard:

ἀκούω, μανθάνω, αἰσθάνομαι, πυνθάνομαι.

Ἀκούσεσθε ἐμοῦ πᾶσαν τὴν ἀλήθειαν.

Note. - The thing that is heard etc. is generally put in the accusative. There is, however, a difference between

ἀκούω, αἰσθάνομαί τι I hear, learn, notice, perceive something; and

ἀκούω, αἰσθάνομαί τινος (persons or things): listen, harken, give heed, attend to, obey.

Ἀκούσαντες τὸν θόρυβον οὐχ ὑπέμειναν.

Ἄκουε πάντων, ἐκλέγου δ’ ἃ συμφέρει.

Νέος ὢν ἀκούειν τῶν γεραιτέρων θέλε.

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SYNTAX.

148. The genitive of comparison is used

1. with comparatives. It is equivalent to ἤ with a nom., acc., (gen.) or dat.

Σιγὴ ποτ’ ἐστὶν αἱρετωτέρα λόγου - cf. luce clarius.

Φιλεῖ δ’ ἑαυτοῦ πλέον οὐδεὶς οὐδένα.

Τοῦτο δ’ ἔξεστιν ἡμῖν μᾶλλον ἑτέρων.

2. with verbs and adjectives involving comparison, i.e. such as denote

superiority: περιγίγνομαι, στρατηγέω, ἡγέομαι (cf. 144, 3) etc.;

inferiority: ἡττάομαι - ὑστερέω etc., am (come) later than (too late for).

Ἄνθρωπος ξυνέσει ὑπερέχει τῶν ἄλλων. - Οὐδενὸς ὕστερος.

Παυσανίας εἰς Ἁλίαρτον ὑστέρησεν Λυσάνδρου.

Note. - κρατέω τινός: lord it over, am master of: κρατοῦσι πάντων οἱ θεοί;

but κρατέω τινά: conquer, vinco: ἐκρατήσαμεν μάχας Συρακοσίους.

ἡγέομαί τινος: am leader (head) of, command: στρατεύματος.

ἡγέομαί τινι: lead = guide, show the way to: ναυσίν.

149. The genitive of material denotes the material of which anything consists or is made, or the contents of anything. The Latin has here ex aliqua re.

παράδεισος παντοίων δένδρων, γέρρα δασείων βοῶν (β. here ox-hides).

Οἱ στέφανοι οὐκ ἴων ἢ ῥόδων ἦσαν, ἀλλὰ χρυσίου.

150. The genitive of cause, after verbs and adjectives denoting mental states, designates the person or thing that causes an emotion. (Comp. 159, 2.) Also: οἴμοι ταλαίνης o te miseram.

εὐδαιμονίζω, μακαρίζω τινά τινος count one happy for,

χαλεπαίνω, ὀργίζομαί τινί τινος am angry with one on account of.

Εὐδαιμονίζω ὑμᾶς τῆς ἐλευθερίας, ἧς κέκτησθε.

151. The genitive of price denotes the price after verbs (and adjectives) that signify:

to buy: ὠνέομαι - to sell: πωλέω, ἀποδίδομαί τί τινος,

to value, to think worthy: τιμάω, ἀξιόω - ἄξιος, ἀνάξιος.

Τῶν πόνων πωλοῦσιν ἡμῖν πάντα τἀγαθ’ οἱ θεοί.

Ἰητρὸς γὰρ ἀνὴρ πολλῶν ἀντάξιος ἄλλων worth as much as.

Thus: πολλοῦ magno, dear - ὀλίγου, μικροῦ parvo, cheap, πλείονος, ἐλαχίστου etc. - μισθοῦ mercede, for money, for a salary. - τιμᾶσθαί τι πολλοῦ magno aestimare.

Note especially the phrase: περὶ πολλοῦ (πλείονος, πλείστου, παντός, οὐδενὸς) ποιεῖσθαι magni, pluris, etc., facere, to make much of, etc., to value highly, etc.

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THE DATIVE.

152. The genitive of time stands

1. without an attribute, in answer to the question: at what time? (General statements of time!)

νυκτὸς καὶ ἡμέρας - θέρους aestate, χειμῶνος hieme,

τοῦ ἐνιαυτοῦ quotannis - τοῦ μηνός every month (117, 1. extr.).

2. with an attribute, in answer to the question: since or within what time?

πολλοῦ, πλείστου χρόνου for a long, very long time.

πέντε, δέκα ἡμερῶν within five, ten days.

153. The genitive is used with many verbs, one of whose component parts is a preposition that requires the genitive (162, 3). So especially with:

Preposition	Examples
ἀπό: 147	ἀποτρέπω τινός turn away from, ἀπογιγνώσκω τινός despair of, ἀφίστημί τινος cause to revolt from, ἀφίσταμαί τινος revolt from,
ἐκ, ἐξ: 147	ἐκβάλλω τινά τινος banish, ἐκπίπτω τινός am banished, ἐξίστημί τινά τινος remove, ἐξίσταμαί τινος depart, retire,
κατά	meaning “down upon, against,” in a hostile sense: καταγελάω τινός laugh at, καταφρονέω τινός despise, κατηγορέω “speak agt.” = accuse, καταψηφίζομαι “vote agt.,” condemn,
πρό: 148	προαιρέομαί τινος prefer, προκρίνω τινός praefero alicui, προτίθημί τινος antepono alicui, προΐστημί τινος praeficio alicui etc.

Πολλῶν κατέγνωσαν θάνατον (κατεγνώσθη θάνατος) μηδισμοῦ.

C. THE DATIVE.

154. The Greek dative has two functions, one of its own (the dative proper), the other representing the Latin ablative (the dative of accompaniment, of means or instrument, the locative dative).

THE DATIVE PROPER OR OF INDIRECT OBJECT.

155. Very many (transitive as well as intransitive) verbs and adjectives[^1] take a dative of the person (or thing) to whom anything is done. Most of the verbs of this kind govern other cases in English.

Ἡ μωρία δίδωσιν ἀνθρώποις κακά.

Νόμοις ἕπεσθαι τοῖς ἐπιχωρίοις καλόν.

Οὐκ ἔστιν οὐδείς, ὅστις οὐχ αὐτῷ φίλος.

Note. - εὔχομαί τινί τι wish one something: ὑμῖν ἀγαθά.

εὔχομαι θεοῖς τι promise the gods: σωτήρια, δεκάτην,

[^1]: esp. βοηθέω τινί help, ἕπομαι, ἀκολουθέω follow, πιστεύω, πέποιθα trust, ἀπειλέω threaten, ὀργίζομαι am angry with (τινί), δουλεύω serve, πείθομαι obey, ἀρκέω suffice, help, πρέπει, προσήκει it becomes, συμφέρει it is of advantage.

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SYNTAX.

or implore the g. for, implore something from the g.: σωτηρίαν, σῴζειν.

φθονέω τινί τινος begrudge one something (150).

156. The dative of advantage (or disadvantage) designates the person (or thing) for whose sake, benefit or advantage (disadvantage) anything is done or exists, at whose disposal it is etc. So especially with εἶναι and γίγνεσθαι. Εἰσίν ἐμοί sunt mihi, I have.

Ἐνταῦθα Κύρῳ βασίλεια ἦν καὶ παράδεισος.

Ἕκαστος οὐχὶ τῷ πατρὶ καὶ τῇ μητρὶ μόνον γεγέννηται, ἀλλὰ καὶ τῇ πατρίδι.

157. Closely akin are the following varieties:

1. The ethical dative denotes in general the person who is morally or mentally interested in an action. In particular it designates

a) the person who desires the performance of an action.

Τί σοι μαθήσομαι; what do you want me to learn? - tell me, what . . .?

Μή μοι θορυβήσητε pray, do not raise an uproar.

Τούτῳ πάνυ μοι προσέχετε τὸν νοῦν I beg you to pay close attention to this.

b) the person whose feelings (joy, surprise, distress, impatience) are awakened by an action [often untranslatable].

Πῶς ἡμῖν ἔχεις; how is our darling? comp. quid mihi Celsus agit? = “How fares my Celsus?”

Ὦ τέκνον, ἦ βέβηκεν ἡμῖν ὁ ξένος; O daughter, is the stranger gone at length?

c) the person with whose mind or view anything accords.

Οὕτως ἔχει σοι ταῦτα such is the case - you understand?

Ἡμῖν δ’ Ἀχιλλεὺς ἄξιος τιμῆς in our opinion.

2. The dative of agent denotes the personal agent or author of an action. This dative:

is always used with the verb. adj. in -τέος: ἡμῖν ποιητέον nobis faciendum est, and

often with the passive, esp. the perf. pass. (instead of ὑπό with the genit.):

τὰ ὑμῖν πεπραγμένα your achievements - your policy.

Ἐὰν ἐκεῖ νικῶμεν, πάνθ’ ἡμῖν πεποίηται.

3. The dative of reference: “judging from the point of view of one who,” “with respect to one (doing),” “when or as one [you] . . .” Compare: in universum aestimanti.

Διαβάντι, εἰσπλέοντι (as you sail in), προϊοῦσιν. An. 3, 5, 15; 6, 4, 1; (Ὡς) συνελόντι εἰπεῖν. [3, 2, 22.

Τῷ γὰρ καλῶς πράσσοντι πᾶσα γῆ πατρίς.

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THE DATIVE.

Likewise γίγνεταί μοι βουλομένῳ, ἡδομένῳ, ἀχθομένῳ,

I am pleased with it, glad of it, vexed at it.

Ἐπανέλθωμεν, εἰ σοι ἡδομένῳ ἐστίν if you please.

Note. - In the phrase ὄνομά μοί ἐστι (mihi nomen est), the name is always put in the same case as ὄνομα: Ἐμοὶ δ’ ὄνομα κλυτὸν Αἴθων.

THE DATIVE OF UNION.

158. The dative of union and accompaniment denotes union, approach or concurrence, in both a friendly and a hostile sense. Here the English generally uses the preposition with.

1. It follows verbs, adjectives and adverbs to denote the person (or thing) with whom any sort of union (or its opposite) is entered into; thus esp.

Greek	Meaning
διαλέγομαι	speak, converse
μάχομαι, πολεμέω	fight, make war
ὁμολογέω, ὁμονοέω	agree
κοινωνέω, μετέχω, μεταδίδωμι	144, 3
ὁμιλέω	associate, mingle
σπένδομαι	make a treaty
κεράννυμι, μείγνυμι	mix
ἅμα, ὁμοῦ	together with

χράομαί τινι utor aliquo familiariter, am intimate with.

Σοφοῖς ὁμιλῶν καὐτὸς ἐκβήσῃ σοφός. Ἅμα τῇ ἡμέρᾳ.

Θεῷ μάχεσθαι δεινόν ἐστι καὶ τύχῃ.

Note. - Πολεμεῖν and μάχεσθαι σὺν τινι or μετά τινος mean:

to fight with = in alliance with one, as one’s ally.

2. It denotes accompaniment of military forces (mostly without σύν):

ὀλίγῳ στρατεύματι ἕπεσθαι parva manu.

δισχιλίοις ὁπλίταις στρατεύειν.

3. It stands with αὐτός “together with,” - “even inclusive of,” and: ὁ αὐτός τινι, “the same as:”

Μίαν ναῦν λαμβάνουσιν αὐτοῖς ἀνδράσιν with all the crew - men and all.

Ἐν ταὐτῷ ᾖσθα τούτοις at the same place as these.

4. It is often qualified by σύν (163, 27): σὺν τοῖς θεοῖς.

THE INSTRUMENTAL USES OF THE DATIVE.

159. The dative (as instrumental case) is used like the ablative in Latin.

1. The dative of instrument denotes the means or instrument by which anything is accomplished. So especially with χράομαι: use, employ; treat, deal with; have as.

Οὐδεὶς ἔπαινον ἡδοναῖς ἐκτήσατο.

Χρῆται ἡμῖν βασιλεὺς ὅ,τι βούλεται.

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SYNTAX.

2. The dative of cause denotes the motive or cause. So esp. with verbs denoting emotion. See 150.

εὐνοίᾳ, ὕβρει, φθόνῳ, φόβῳ ποιεῖν τι out of kindness etc.

Ἀβουλίᾳ τὰ πολλὰ βλάπτονται βροτοί suffer harm because of.

Χαλεπῶς ἔφερον οἱ στρατιῶται τοῖς παροῦσι πράγμασιν.

Note. - Ἐπί is often added to this dative in connection with verbs denoting emotion.

θαυμάζειν ἐπὶ ποιήσει, μέγα φρονεῖν ἐπ’ ἀρετῇ etc.

Χαίρειν ἐπ’ αἰσχραῖς ἡδοναῖς οὐ χρὴ ποτε.

3. The dative of manner denotes manner or attendant circumstances. It is generally accompanied by an attribute.

τούτῳ τῷ τρόπῳ, οὐδενὶ τρόπῳ in this way, in no wise,

τῇδε, ταύτῃ, δρόμῳ, βίᾳ, κεραυνῷ, σιγῇ,

δημοσίᾳ publice, ἰδίᾳ privatim, κοινῇ jointly,

τῷ ὄντι, ἔργῳ in deed, in fact, really,

λόγῳ, προφάσει avowedly, professedly, pretendedly (141),

παντὶ σθένει with all one’s might, πάσῃ τέχνῃ καὶ μηχανῇ by every means and device.

Οἱ Λακεδαιμόνιοι κρίνουσι βοῇ καὶ οὐ ψήφῳ.

4. The dative of degree of difference with comparative expressions denotes measure or degree of difference: by how much ...

πολλῷ (μακρῷ) κρεῖττον much or by far better, ὀλίγῳ ἐλάττους τριακοσίων,

πολλοῖς ἔτεσιν ὕστερον many years later, πόλει λογίμῃ ἀσθενέστερος.

ὅσῳ - τοσούτῳ: quo - eo, the - the.

Note. - Besides πολλῷ etc., the adverbial accusative (141) is often used: πολὺ χείρων, ὀλίγον πρότερον, as always οὐδέν, τί and τι (never οὐδενί etc.).

THE LOCATIVE DATIVE.

160. The dative (as locative case), which corresponds to the Latin ablative of place and time, is used

1. as dative of place in answer to the question: “where?” In prose a preposition (ἐν, παρά, ὑπό) is always added - except in the adverbial expressions τῇδε, ταύτῃ, ᾗ - κύκλῳ - and in the locatives Μαραθῶνι, Ἀθήνησιν (51).

2. as dative of time in answer to the question: “when?”

a) without ἐν (dates or names of festivals!):

ταύτῃ τῇ ἡμέρᾳ, τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ, τετάρτῳ ἔτει,

τῷ ἐπιόντι μηνί, Παναθηναίοις, -

b) with ἐν (= during, within the space of, in the course of, see 152, 2):

Ἐν ἔτεσιν ἑβδομήκοντα ἐξῆν σοι ἀπιέναι.

Ἐν νυκτὶ βουλὴ τοῖς σοφοῖσι γίγνεται.

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PREPOSITIONS.

Note. - To be distinguished: τὴν ἡμέραν (140), ἡμέρας (152), τῆς ἡμέρας (152), τῇ ἡμέρᾳ and ἐν τῇ ἡμέρᾳ.

161. The dative is used with verbs one of whose component parts is a preposition that requires the dative:

Preposition	Examples
σύν: 158	σύνειμι am together with, συμμαχέω fight in alliance with, συμπονέω toil together with, συμπράττω work with, concur, help,
ἐν: 160	ἔνειμι am in, at, ἐμμένω abide by, ἐμπίπτω fall into, ἐντυγχάνω come upon, find,
ἐπί: 158	ἐπιβουλεύω plot against, ἐπιδίδωμι give in addition, ἐπιτίθεμαι attack, ἐπιτρέπω give up, commit;

less frequently after verbs compounded with παρά, ὑπό: πάρειμι, ὑπόκειμαι.

PART III.: SYNTAX.

I. AGREEMENT.

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

114. 1. A neuter plural subject generally takes a singular verb.

Καλά ἦν τὰ σφάγια the omens were favorable.

Τὰ μεγάλα δῶρα τῆς τύχης ἔχει φόβον.

2. Two subjects or a dual subject have their predicate sometimes in the dual, sometimes in the plural.

Δύο καλώ τε κἀγαθὼ ἄνδρε τέθνατον or τεθνᾶσιν.

Κριτίας καὶ Ἀλκιβιάδης ἐδυνάσθην τῶν ἐπιθυμιῶν κρατεῖν.

3. Observe the idiomatic agreement between the Greek and the English in cases where a collective noun in the singular may take a plural verb.

Μέρος τι ἀνθρώπων οὐχ ἡγοῦνται θεούς.

Ἀθηναίων τὸ πλῆθος οἴονται Ἵππαρχον τύραννον ὄντα ἀποθανεῖν.

4. A masculine or feminine subject often takes for its predicate the neuter singular of an adjective, which is then used as a noun. Compare Turpe senex miles.[^1]

Ἀθάνατον ἡ ψυχή the soul is (an) immortal (being).

Πονηρὸν ὁ συκοφάντης a sycophant is a scoundrel.

Δεινὸν οἱ πολλοί the mob is a terror.

5. The gender and number of a pronominal subject or object agree with the predicate noun. Compare ea firma amicitia est.

Αὕτη ἄλλη πρόφασις ἦν. Οὗτοι νόμοι εἰσίν.

Καὶ οἶμαι, ἔφη, ἐμὴν ταύτην πατρίδα εἶναι.

But sometimes also: Ἔγωγέ φημι ταῦτα φλυαρίας εἶναι.

Note. - Definitions require the neuter of the pronoun, which is then the predicate, and not the subject, of the sentence.

Τί φῄς ἀρετὴν εἶναι; Quid dicis virtutem esse?

ADJECTIVE. COMPARISON.

115. 1. Adverbial phrases which signify place, situation, time, manner, succession, or a state of mind, are expressed in Greek by adjectives agreeing with the word (subj. or obj.) to which they relate. Compare

Socrates primus hoc docuit. &nbsp;&nbsp; Socrates venenum laetus hausit.

Σκηνοῦμεν ὑπαίθριοι ἐν τῇ τάξει in the open air.

Τριταῖοι ἐκ Σπάρτης ἐγένοντο ἐν τῇ Ἀττικῇ on the third day.

Ἐνταῦθα προτέρα Κύρου εἰς Ταρσοὺς ἀφίκετο before Cyrus.

Ἑκοῦσαι αἱ πόλεις χρήματα συνεβάλλοντο willingly.

Κατέβαινον εἰς τὰς κώμας ἤδη σκοταῖοι it was already dark when ...

2. To denote the highest possible degree of anything, ὡς, ὅτι, ἢ or οἷος may be added to the superlative. E.g. ὡς τάχιστα quam celerrime, as quickly (soon) as possible; ἄνδρας ὅτι πλείστους as many men as possible; χωρίον οἷον χαλεπώτατον almost impregnable.

Δεῖ ὅτι μάλιστα εὐμαθεῖς εἶναι τοὺς νέους.

[^1]: Note the frequent omission of the copula in short statements.

III. PRONOUNS.

125. 1. The reflexive pronouns (62) are used

a) directly, when they refer to the subject of that sentence (or clause) in which they stand [Direct Reflexives], as in: γνῶθι σαυτόν know thyself.

Δίδωμί σοι ἐμαυτὸν δοῦλον καὶ σύμμαχον.

Ὁ σοφὸς ἐν αὐτῷ περιφέρει τὴν οὐσίαν.

b) indirectly, when they stand in subordinate (dependent) clauses and refer to the subject of the principal sentence (or clause) [Indirect Reflexives], as in:

Ὀρέστης φεύγων ἔπεισεν Ἀθηναίους ἑαυτὸν κατάγειν to restore him.

PRONOUNS.

2. Instead of the indirect reflexive of the third person,

a) either the oblique cases of αὐτός may be used, in which case the statement is taken objectively from the point of view of the writer:

Λέγουσι Ξενοφῶντι, ὅτι μεταμέλοι αὐτοῖς (se paenitere).

b) or the forms οἱ (encl. οἱ) and σφίσιν (rarely σφῶι, σφᾶς) are employed:

Κῦρος ἠξίου ἀδελφὸς ὢν βασιλέως δοθῆναι οἱ (sibi) ταύτας τὰς πόλεις. - (ἐρίζονταί οἱ : An. 1, 2, 8).

126. Possessive pronouns. - The relation of property may be expressed by the individualizing article (see 117, 1). But more frequently this is done by means of the possessive pronouns and the possessive genitive of the personal pronouns. See 64, 3.

Σοὶ τοῦτο δίδωμι, ὅτι μου τὴν μητέρα τιμᾷς.

Καὶ ὑμεῖς ἅπαντες τοὺς ὑμετέρους παῖδας ἀγαπᾶτε.

Κἄπὶ τοῖς σαυτῆς κακοῖσι κἀπὶ τοῖς ἐμοῖς γελᾷς.

Ἀστυάγης τὴν ἑαυτοῦ θυγατέρα μετεπέμψατο καὶ τὸν παῖδα αὐτῆς.

Μᾶλλον πιστεύετε τοῖς ὑμετέροις αὐτῶν ὀφθαλμοῖς ἢ τοῖς τούτου λόγοις (cf. vestra ipsorum opera).

127. The intensive pronoun αὐτός admits of a variety of uses:

1. self, ipse, e.g. ὁ υἱὸς αὐτός filius ipse, the son himself.

2. in the oblique cases: of him, of her, of it, etc., eius, etc. It never heads a sentence. ὁ υἱὸς αὐτοῦ filius eius, his son; στέργω αὐτόν I love him. See 61. 63.

3. with the article: the same, idem, ὁ αὐτὸς υἱός.

4. καὶ αὐτός (et ipse) means: himself, himself too, likewise, in turn.

Σοφοῖς ὁμιλῶν καὐτὸς ἐκβήσῃ σοφός.

5. with ordinal numbers αὐτός assigns to a person a prominent place among others:

τρίτος αὐτός himself the third = he with two others.

Στρατηγὸς ἦν Ξενοκλείδης πέμπτος αὐτός.

6. for αὐτοῖς ἀνδράσιν and ὁ αὐτός τινι see 158, 3.

128. Demonstrative pronouns (see 65).

1. ὅδε this one (here or there), points ahead to what is present, what is before and connected with one’s self, or to what follows.

Οὗτος this, that, the said, points back to what has been previously mentioned, to what precedes.

SYNTAX.

Ἐκεῖνος that, yonder, that - yonder, that - over there, points to things absent or remote in reality or only in thought.

ἥδε ἡ ἡμέρα this (the present) day, τόδε τὸ ὄρος the m. before me (or us). ἥδε ἡ χείρ (this) my hand, this hand of mine.

Τεκμήριον δὲ τούτου (i.e. of what was said) καὶ τόδε (the following).

Ταῦτα μὲν δὴ σὺ λέγεις, παρ’ ἡμῶν δὲ ἀπάγγελλε τάδε.

Τοιάδε and τοιοῦτος, τοσόσδε and τοσοῦτος, ὧδε and οὕτως etc. are to be distinguished as ὅδε and οὗτος.

Κλέαρχος μὲν τοσαῦτα εἶπε· Τισσαφέρνης δὲ ὧδε ἀπεκρίνατο.

2. Observe that ὅδε (like hic) points to what concerns and is near (in place, time or thought) the person speaking, οὗτος (like iste) to what concerns the person spoken to, ἐκεῖνος (like ille) to what is remote in some way or other with respect to the person speaking. Moreover, these pronouns must often be rendered by adverbs.

ὅδε ἕστηκα here I am (stand). - Ἡρόμην, ὅπου αὐτὸς εἴη. Οὗτος, ἔφη, ὄπισθεν προσέρχεται there he comes behind you. Νῆες ἐκεῖναι ἐπιπλέουσι ships are coming yonder. (Note the omission of the article in cases such as this.)

Note 1. - “He who,” “that which” are expressed by οὗτος ὅς, as in: οὗτος ὃς λέγει, or ὁ with the participle (201), as in: ὁ λέγων.

Αἱρεῖσθε τὸν ἐροῦντα him, the person, who is to speak.

Note 2. - καὶ οὗτος is sometimes used in the sense of καὶ αὐτός et ipse, ipse quoque (127, 4); so also, though less frequently, καὶ ἐκεῖνος: too, likewise.

Ἀγίας καὶ Σωκράτης καὶ τοῦτο ἀπεθανέτην A. and S. too.

Note 3. - καὶ οὗτος (= et is, atque is) introduces an additional qualification to a noun previously mentioned, καὶ ταῦτα (= idque) adds a supplementary remark to a previous statement: and that too, and besides, and yet, although.

Ἀπόρων ἐστὶ καὶ ἀμηχάνων, καὶ τούτων πονηρῶν, . . . and that too, besides.

Μένωνα οὐκ ἐζήτει, καὶ ταῦτα παρ’ Ἀριαίου ὢν τοῦ Μένωνος ξένου although.

129. Relative pronouns and adverbs (66. 68. 69).

1. ὅς who, that, which, what, and the other simple relatives (οἷος, ὅσος, οὗ, ὅτε, ὡς) point to some definite object (individualizing force: limited signification).

ὅστις whoever, whichever, whatever, and the other compound relatives (ὅπ. . . .) point either to some quality of a person (or thing) or to a whole class (generic force: unlimited signification).

Ἔστιν Δίκης ὀφθαλμός, ὃς τὰ πάνθ’ ὁρᾷ.

Μακάριος, ὅστις οὐσίαν καὶ νοῦν ἔχει.

Note 1. - Therefore ὅστις (not ὅς) is always used after negatives: οὐκ ἔστιν ὅστις, οὐδείς ἐστιν ὅστις, τίς ἐστιν ὅστις; likewise πᾶς ὅστις any person who (plur. πάντες ὅσοι as many as).

Note 2. - Note the following idiomatic expressions:

ἔστιν ὅστις some, ἔστιν ὅτε sometimes, ἔστιν οὗ somewhere, here and there,

ἔστιν ᾧ to some, ἔστιν οἷ and εἰσίν οἵ some, sunt qui, nonnulli.

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PRONOUNS.

Ἔστιν ὅτε καὶ οἷς βέλτιον τεθνάναι ἢ ζῆν sometimes and for some death is better than life.

Note 3. - ὅς has demonstrative force (116) in καὶ ὅς (anti) he, ἦ δ’ ὅς said he.

Οὐδεὶς ἀντέλεγε, καὶ ὅς ἡγεῖτο . . . no one contradicted; whereupon he advanced.

ὅσπερ points to things that are known: qui quidem. An. 3, 2, 10. (See 66, 2.)

ὅσγε adds at once a reason: quippe qui. An. 1, 6, 5.

2. A relative pronoun, whose antecedent is in the genitive or dative case, is often put in the same case instead of in the accusative. This is called assimilation or attraction of the relative pronoun. If the antecedent is a demonstrative, it is dropped; if a noun, it is usually placed, without the article, at the end of the relative clause. For example: οὐδὲν ὧν = οὐδὲν τούτων ἅ.

Ἄξιοι ἔσεσθε τῆς ἐλευθερίας, ἧς κέκτησθε of the liberty you enjoy.

Οἱ χρησμῳδοὶ ἴσασιν οὐδὲν ὧν λέγουσιν nothing of what they say.

Νῦν ἐπαινῶ σε ἐφ’ οἷς λέγεις τε καὶ πράττεις for what you say.

Τούτους ἄρχοντας ἐποίει ἧς κατεστρέφετο χώρας rulers of whatever land he conquered.

Ἡριππίδας ἐπορεύετο σὺν ᾗ εἶχε δυνάμει with what force he had.

Note. - The antecedent (a noun or a pronoun) is sometimes assimilated to the relative. This is called inverted assimilation.

Ἀνεῖλεν αὐτῷ ὁ Ἀπόλλων θεοῖς οἷς ἔδει θύειν.

3. When two (or several) relative clauses follow in succession, and the case of the second relative pronoun differs from that of the first, it is either dropped or replaced by αὐτός (less frequently by οὗτος or ἐκεῖνος) or a personal pronoun is used.

Ἀριαῖος, ὃν ἡμεῖς ἠθέλομεν βασιλέα καθιστάναι, καὶ (sc. ᾧ) ἐδώκαμεν καὶ (sc. παρ’ οὗ) ἐλάβομεν πιστά, ἡμᾶς κακῶς ποιεῖν πειρᾶται.

Ποῦ δὴ ἐκεῖνός ἐστιν ὁ ἀνήρ, ὃς συνεθήρα ἡμῖν, καὶ σὺ μάλ᾽ ἐθαύμαζες αὐτόν;

Καὶ νῦν τί χρὴ δρᾶν; ὅστις ἐμφανῶς θεοῖς ἐχθαίρομαι, μισεῖ δέ μ’ Ἑλλήνων στρατός.

130. Interrogative pronouns and adverbs (67; 69).

τίς, ποῖος, πόσος, ποῦ, πότε, πῶς are used directly and indirectly.

ὅστις, ὁποῖος, ὁπόσος, ὅπου, ὁπότε, ὅπως are used in indirect questions only.

Τίς τε καὶ πόθεν πάρει;

Μάθε πρῶτον, τίνες εἰσίν. Οὐκ ἴστε ὅ,τι ποιεῖτε.

Note. - Ὅς, ἥ, ὅ may take the place of the indirect interrogative pronoun. Ἀκούσατε, ᾧ τρόπῳ ὑμῖν ἡ δημοκρατία κατελύθη. - Compare 179, 1.

THE TENSES IN GENERAL.

167. 1. The forms of the Greek verb simultaneously denote an action

a) as either past, present or future:

they express the period of the action;

b) as either momentary, continuous or completed:

they express the stage of the action.

Every form of the verb is capable of denoting the stage of the action. An action is therefore described by the forms

a) of the aorist stem:

as simply taking place (no qualification being implied), as commencing (entrance upon a state), as being (successfully) accomplished, in a word as attained.

b) of the present stem:

as going on and (still, as yet) in progress, as stopping short before its accomplishment (the conative tenses!), as repeated or customary, as qualified (modality!), as continued.

c) of the perfect stem:

as fully accomplished and resulting in a certain state, as still felt in its consequences, as lasting in its result, as completed.

φυγ- (e.g. εἶν): to flee [169, 4 to have fled] as a simple occurrence - to take to flight [inceptive] - to flee [successfully] = escape; Xen. An. 1, 2, 20.

φευγ- (e.g. ειν): to flee = to be [still, as yet] fleeing - to attempt etc. fleeing - to flee [repeatedly] - to be under accusation; to be a fugitive, live in exile. An. 3, 2, 19.

πεφευγ- (e.g. έναι): to have fled = to have [already and fully] accomplished the flight; - to be in safety, out of reach. An. 1, 4, 8.

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SYNTAX.

Thus:

Aorist / perfect group	Meaning	Present / aorist / perfect group	Meaning
ἀποθνῄσκειν	to be dying	θαυμάζειν	to be wondering
ἀποθανεῖν	to die	θαυμάσαι	to (be struck with) wonder
τεθνάναι	to be dead	τεθαυμακέναι	to be full of wonder
κτᾶσθαι	to be acquiring	πίπτειν	to be (in the act of) falling
κτήσασθαι	to obtain possession of	πεσεῖν	to fall, commence falling
κεκτῆσθαι	to be in possession of, own	πεπτωκέναι	to have fallen, iacêre

The period of the action is expressed solely by the indicatives:

the present by the present and perfect, the past by the aor., impf. and plupf. (augment! 73, 1), the future by the future and fut. perfect.

Note. - For the infinitive and the dependent moods (subj., opt., imper.), see 169; for the participle, see 170.

Table in Illustration of the Meanings of the Tenses:

Stage of action	Past	Present	Future	Stems
Attainment: a) simple occurrence (histor. sense)	Indic. Aor. ἀπέθανεν	-	Future ἀποθανεῖται	Aorist Stem (including the future and inchoative verbs)
b) entrance upon state (ingress. sense)	ἐβασίλευσεν	γηράσκει	βασιλεύσει	Aorist Stem (including the future and inchoative verbs)
Continuance: progress of action (durative sense)	Imperfect ἀπέθνῃσκεν	Present ἀποθνῄσκει	Future βασιλεύσει	Present Stem (including the future)
Completion: lasting results (perfect sense)	Pluperfect ἐτεθνήκει	Perfect τέθνηκεν	Fut. Perfect τεθνήξει	Perfect Stem

Note. - There is no sequence of tenses in Greek, because the tense of the leading verb never affects that of the dependent verb.

THE INDICATIVES.

168. 1. The present indicative and the imperfect, which represent action as going on (Durative Present - Durative Imperfect),

a) describe conditions, situations, customs, manners, characters, express repeated or customary action; denote general truths, detail attendant circumstances.

Πλοῖον ἐς Δῆλον Ἀθηναῖοι πέμπουσιν (every year). Ξενίας ὁ Ἀρκὰς τὰ Λύκαια ἔθυσε καὶ ἀγῶνα ἔθηκε· ἐθεώρει δὲ τὸν ἀγῶνα καὶ Κῦρος.

b) denote action that is prepared, intended, expected, attempted, started, but not accomplished (Conative Present - Conative Imperfect).

Ἔπειθον αὐτούς, καὶ οὓς ἔπεισα, τούτους ἔχων ἐπορευόμην tried to p.

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THE INDICATIVES.

Note 1. - There is, also, an Historical Present for lively narration.

Ἐπεὶ ἐτελεύτησε Δαρεῖος, Τισσαφέρνης διαβάλλει τὸν Κῦρον.

Note 2. - A number of present tenses, besides denoting an action, at once involve persistence of result, and may in consequence be rendered by the perfect, and their imperfects by the pluperfect. Examples are

Greek	Meaning
νικῶ conquer	have conquered = am victorious
ἡττῶμαι am conquered	have been conquered = am inferior
ἀδικῶ do wrong	have done wrong = am to blame
μανθάνω learn	have learned = know (novi)

Note 3. - The indicative of ἥκω am come, here and of οἴχομαι am gone, off has always perfect force, the other moods have perfect as well as aorist force.

The aorist indicative presents the following peculiarities (167).

a) Historical Aorist. - Being the tense of narration, it merely chronicles events that once came to pass. It corresponds to the historical perfect in Latin:

Ἦλθον, εἶδον, ἐνίκησα veni, vidi, vici.

b) Gnomic Aorist. - It denotes a general truth gathered from experience.

Οὐδεὶς ἔπαινον ἡδονὰς ἐκτήσατο.

Compare Omne tulit punctum, qui miscuit utile dulci.

c) The Pluperfect Aorist denotes an action as prior to another past action, especially in temporal and relative clauses. It is therefore rendered by a pluperfect.

Ἐπεὶ ἐσάλπιγξε, προβαλόμενοι τὰ ὅπλα ἔστησαν. Δαρεῖος Κῦρον μεταπέμπεται ἀπὸ τῆς ἀρχῆς, ἧς αὐτὸν σατράπην ἐποίησεν.

Note. - Sometimes the imperfect is thus used. It then brings out more forcibly continued or repeated action.

Κῦρος εἶδε τὰς σκηνάς, οὗ οἱ Κίλικες ἐφύλαττον had been watching. Οἵπερ πρόσθεν προσεκύνουν, καὶ τότε προσεκύνησαν.

d) The Ingressive Aorist expresses the entrance upon a state or condition.

Greek	Meaning	Greek	Meaning
ἐβασίλευσα	became king	ἠράσθην	took a fancy to
ἐνόσησα	fell sick, was taken ill	ἐθάρρησα	took heart
ἐδάκρυσα	burst into tears	ἐσίγησα	became silent

Διὰ μικρὸν ἐπολεμήσατε started a war. Πεισιστράτου τελευτήσαντος Ἱππίας ἔσχε τὴν ἀρχήν.

Note. - All these aorists may, of course, be used also in the historical (2. a) sense:

ἐβασίλευσα was (once) king, ἐνόσησα was (once) sick.

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SYNTAX.

The future indicative denotes both the attainment (ingressive sense) and the continuance (durative sense) of a future action. Hence ἄρξω means both: I shall obtain power (ingress.), and: I shall have power (durat.).

Σκεπτέόν μοι δοκεῖ εἶναι, ὅπως τὰ ἐπιτήδεια ἕξομεν. Ὁ δίκαιος ἀνὴρ εὖ βιώσεται, κακῶς δὲ ὁ ἄδικος.

Note. - Μέλλω with the fut., pres. or aor. inf. means (see 111, 5):

a) am about, willing to: μέλλω ὑμᾶς διδάξειν. b) am likely, expected to: ἄγοραν οὐδεὶς ἔτι παρέξειν ἔμελλεν.

The perfect, pluperfect and future perfect indicative express action already completed, as well as the state resulting from it.

In the Present	Past	Future
ἕστηκα stand (100, 2)	εἱστήκειν stood	ἑστήξω shall stand
τέθνηκα am dead	ἐτεθνήκειν was dead	τεθνήξω shall be dead
μέμνημαι am mindful	ἐμεμνήμην was m.	μεμνήσομαι shall be m.

Ἀπολελοίπασιν (are gone) ἡμᾶς Ξενίας καὶ Πασίων, ἀλλ' οὐκ ἀποπεφεύγασιν (out of reach). Φράζε καὶ πεπράξεται.

Οὐ βουλεύεσθαι ἔτι ὥρα, ἀλλὰ βεβουλεῦσθαι (plans should be ready).

Note. - In Greek, therefore, the perfect is never historical perfect; the pluperfect does not describe an action merely as prior to another past action, 2 c; the future perfect corresponds to the fut. perfect in Latin in independent sentences only; for the dependent clauses, see 187, 2, I.

INFINITIVES AND DEPENDENT MOODS (Subj., Opt., Imp.).

169. 1. According to 167, 3, these forms of the verb do not imply the period of an action. They merely describe the stage of action, as explained in 167, 2. Thus, εἴπωμεν ἢ σιγῶμεν; means almost as much as: shall we break, or continue in, our silence?

The time of the action in this case is expressed by the tense of the principal verb; e.g.

Principal verb	Dependent mood	Meaning
λέγω ταῦτα	ἵνα πεισθῆτε	in order that you may now obey
εἶπον ταῦτα	ἵνα πεισθῆτε	in order that you might (at that time) obey
ἐρῶ ταῦτα	ἵνα πεισθῆτε	in order that you may obey at some future time

Accordingly, the imperative of the

aorist: expresses one single instance of a command to be obeyed then and there;

present: expresses either one single command - which is then viewed in its continuance - or a command to be obeyed continually or at least repeatedly; hence also general rules and maxims of life.

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THE PARTICIPLES.

Μείνον παρ' ἡμῖν καὶ συνέστιος γενοῦ.

Τοὺς μὲν θεοὺς φοβοῦ (make it a rule ever to fear), τοὺς δὲ γονέας τίμα, τοῖς δὲ νόμοις πείθου.

It is only in indirect discourse that the opt. and the infin. express the period of the action, as they then represent the corresponding indicatives of the direct discourse. In indirect discourse, therefore

the aor. opt. and inf. denote a past action, the fut. opt. and inf. denote a future action, the pres. opt. and inf. denote either a present or (accdg. to 177, note) a past action.

Indirect form	Meaning
ἔλεγον, ὅτι δοίη (αὐτὸν δοῦναι)	that he had given (ἔδωκε)
ἔλεγον, ὅτι δώσοι (αὐτὸν δώσειν)	that he would give (δώσει)
ἔλεγον, ὅτι διδοίη (αὐτὸν διδόναι)	that he gave (δίδωσιν), or that he had given (ἐδίδου)

Note. - The fut. opt. is never found except in indirect discourse and, consequently, always has a future meaning.

THE PARTICIPLES.

170. 1. The participles denote "relative time," i.e. they represent the secondary action as either contemporaneous with or antecedent or subsequent to the principal action expressed by the leading finite verb. Accordingly, the secondary action is marked by

a) the present as contemporaneous with the principal action.

Σοφοῖς ὁμιλῶν καὐτὸς ἐκβήσῃ σοφός.

b) the aorist as prior to the principal action.

Δίκαια δράσας συμμάχους ἕξεις θεούς.

c) the perfect as finished and still lasting in its results at the time when the principal action takes place.

Διαβεβηκόσι τοῖς Ἕλλησι (the Greeks had already reached the other bank of the river, when) φαίνεται ὁ Μιθραδάτης.

Ἐσκεμμένα καὶ παρεσκευασμένα πάντα λέγω.

d) the future as subsequent to the principal action.

Ὁ βάρβαρος ἐπὶ τὴν Ἑλλάδα δουλωσόμενος ἦλθεν (in order) to subjugate it.

The participles depend, therefore, for their time on the principal finite verb;

e.g. ταῦτα λέγων ἀκούει while saying (while he says) this, he hears, ταῦτα λέγων ἤκουσε while saying (while he said) this, he heard, ταῦτα λέγων ἀκούσεται while saying (while he shall be saying) this, he will hear, or ταῦτ' εἰπὼν ἀποβαίνει (ἀπέβη, ἀποβήσεται).

THE ARTICLE.

in Greek by adjectives agreeing with the word (subj. or obj.) to which they relate. Compare

Socrates primus hoc docuit. &nbsp;&nbsp; Socrates venenum laetus hausit.

Σκηνοῦμεν ὑπαίθριοι ἐν τῇ τάξει in the open air.

Τριταῖοι ἐκ Σπάρτης ἐγένοντο ἐν τῇ Ἀττικῇ on the third day.

Ἐνταῦθα προτέρα Κύρου εἰς Ταρσοὺς ἀφίκετο before Cyrus.

Ἑκοῦσαι αἱ πόλεις χρήματα συνεβάλλοντο willingly.

Κατέβαινον εἰς τὰς κώμας ἤδη σκοταῖοι it was already dark when ...

2. To denote the highest possible degree of anything, ὡς, ὅτι, ἢ or οἷος may be added to the superlative. E.g. ὡς τάχιστα quam celerrime, as quickly (soon) as possible; ἄνδρας ὅτι πλείστους as many men as possible; χωρίον οἷον χαλεπώτατον almost impregnable.

Δεῖ ὅτι μάλιστα εὐμαθεῖς εἶναι τοὺς νέους.

II. THE ARTICLE.

116. The originally (Homer!) demonstrative force of the article ὁ, ἡ, τό the is still apparent

1. in ὁ μέν - ὁ δέ (the) one - the other (through all cases);

in τὸ μέν - τὸ δέ adverbially: partly - partly,

τὰ μέν - τὰ δέ sometimes - sometimes.

in πρὸ τοῦ before this, erenow, formerly.

2. in ὁ δέ, ἡ δέ, τὸ δέ but (and) he, but (and) she, etc.

in the acc. with inf. τὸν δέ, τὴν δέ, τοὺς δέ but (and) he, she, etc.

and καὶ τόν, καὶ τήν, καὶ τούς and he, and she, and they (nom. καὶ ὅς 129, 1. note 3).

Οἱ μὲν ἐτόξευον, οἱ δ’ ἐσφενδόνων.

Ἐπορεύθησαν τὰ μέν τι μαχόμενοι, τὰ δὲ καὶ ἀναπαυόμενοι.

Κῦρος δίδωσι Κλεάρχῳ μυρίους δαρεικούς· ὁ δὲ λαβὼν τὸ χρυσίον στράτευμα συνέλεξεν.

Τὸν δὲ γελάσαι whereupon (it is said) he laughed.

Note 1. - The article in the above meaning has of late begun to be orthotoned: ὅ, ἥ, οἵ, αἵ.

Note 2. - For other proofs of the dem. force of the art., see 117, 1; 119, notes 1 and 2.

USE OF THE ARTICLE.

117. The Greek article sometimes corresponds to the English, sometimes differs from it. Thus it may have

1. an individualizing force, when it points to one particular person or thing in order to distinguish it from others (limited signification):

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SYNTAX.

Τῶν ἑπτὰ σοφῶν σοφώτατος ἦν Σόλων.

Ὁ σοφὸς ἐν αὐτῷ περιφέρει τὴν οὐσίαν his property.

Τὴν δίκην ἐπιθεῖναί τινι to inflict due, condign punishment upon.

Ξέρξης ἡττηθεὶς τῇ μάχῃ ἐκ τῆς Ἑλλάδος ἀπεχώρει in the well-known battle.

Κῦρος ὑπισχνεῖτο δώσειν τρία ἡμιδαρεικὰ τοῦ μηνὸς τῷ στρατιώτῃ

(distributive force: singulis militibus singulis mensibus: a (each) soldier a (per) month).

2. a generic force, when it points to a particular person or thing in order to make it the representative of a whole class. Here the English often prefers the indefinite article.

Ἀλλ’ εὖ φέρειν χρὴ συμφορὰς τὸν εὐγενῆ (a [the] noble-minded man).

Δεῖ τὸν στρατιώτην φοβεῖσθαι μᾶλλον τὸν ἄρχοντα ἢ τοὺς πολεμίους

(a soldier ought to fear his commander).

Νικᾷ ὁ μείων τὸν μέγαν δίκαι’ ἔχων.

Note 1. - There is therefore a difference between

πολλοί many, and οἱ πολλοί the most, most people (the majority, multitude),

ὀλίγοι (a) few, “οἱ ὀλίγοι (the few =) the oligarchs,

πλείονες (still) more, a greater number,

and οἱ πλείονες the majority, generality,

πλεῖστοι very many, “οἱ πλεῖστοι the greatest number, most,

ἄλλοι alii, “οἱ ἄλλοι ceteri,

ἐμὸς φίλος a (some) friend of mine, and ὁ ἐμὸς φίλος (this) my friend,

τοιοῦτος ἀνήρ such a man = a (some) man of such qualities,

ὁ τοιοῦτος ἀνήρ such a man = the (this, that) man of such qualities.

Note 2. - ὁ βουλόμενος whoso will, any person who wishes,

ὁ τυχών “the first one meets,” a chance comer, any one,

ὁ τολμήσων such a one as will, or as is able to, venture (Quality!).

118. The article is used in the following cases, in which it refers to a definite object. Here the English often omits it.

1. With the apposition after the personal pronoun (expressed or understood):

ἡμεῖς οἱ Ἕλληνες we Greeks, ἐγὼ ὁ τλήμων I wretched man.

Εἰ βούλεσθέ μοι οἵ τε στρατηγοὶ καὶ οἱ λοχαγοὶ ἐλθεῖν, λέξω.

2. With cardinal numbers, esp. when they denote a definite portion of a whole number which is either expressed or otherwise known, hence also with fractions.

Τὰ δύο μέρη two thirds.

Ἀπῆσαν τῶν λόχων δώδεκα ὄντων οἱ τρεῖς three twelfths.

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USE OF THE ARTICLE.

3. With ἄμφω, ἀμφότερος and ἑκάτερος (uterque), often also with ἕκαστος:

τὼ παῖδε ἀμφοτέρω both (the) sons, ἐπὶ τῶν πλευρῶν ἑκατέρων,

ἕκαστον (τὸ) ἔθνος, ἑκάστης (τῆς) ἡμέρας, ἑκάστου ἔτους.

4. With the possessive genitives οὗ, ἧς, ὧν whose, of whom, of which:

Ἀπέθανε ὁ φίλος, οὗ τὸν υἱὸν παιδεύω whose son.

Αἰσχύνθητε Δία, ἐν οὗ τῷ ἱερῷ ἐσμεν.

Likewise with the posses. pron. 64; 126; with the demonstr. 65; 128; with πᾶς, 123.

5. Note. - Poets frequently omit the article where it cannot be dispensed with in prose.

119. The article is omitted in the following cases - though referring to a definite object. Its omission partly agrees with, and is partly contrary to, English usage.

1. With the predicate noun or adjective:

Ἀεὶ κράτιστόν ἐστι τἀληθῆ λέγειν.

Αἱ δεύτεραί πως φροντίδες σοφώτεραι.

Κάλλιστόν ἐστι κτῆμα παιδεία βροτοῖς.

Χαιρεφῶν ἐμὸς ἑταῖρος ἦν ἐκ νέου.

2. With words that denote persons (as θεός, ἄνθρωπος, στρατηγός, etc.), when they are used as appellatives in a generic sense, 117, 2.

Πάντων μέτρον ἄνθρωπός ἐστιν man (in general).

3. With certain appellatives, which are then used almost with the force of proper names:

βασιλεύς the king of Persia, μέγας βασιλεύς the Great King,

ἐν ἄστει in the city (of Athens), ἐπὶ θάνατον to execution, ἥλιος, οὐρανός, etc.

Ἦν ἥλιος ἐπὶ δυσμαῖς. Ἦν ἤδη ἀμφὶ ἡλίου δυσμάς.

Note 1. - The uses of the article may thus be illustrated in the word ἄνθρωπος:

ὁ ἄνθρωπος = a) the (i.e. this particular) man, the man (mentioned before); each man (117, 1). - b) man (in general, with all the constituent elements of human nature, mankind, the human race), e.g. θνητός ἐστιν (= οἱ ἄνθρωποι θνητοί εἰσιν) (117, 2).

ἄνθρωπος = a) a man (some man, any one individual of the human race), e.g. ἔλεξεν αὐτῷ told him (117, note 1). - b) man (in general, one man serving as the representative of mankind), e.g. πάντων μέτρον ἄνθρωπός ἐστιν (119, 2).

Note 2. - However, the predicate noun takes the article, whenever it is to be emphasized as quite definite, as previously mentioned or generally known, hence esp. with participles that are used as nouns, with ὁ αὐτός the same, τοὐναντίον, θάτερον (= τὸ ἕτερον), etc.

Page 106

SYNTAX.

Αὐτὴ ἡ πολιτεία ἔκειτο τὰ ἆθλα the prize (belonging to a contest).

Οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ σώφρων, οὗτος ὁ ἀνδρεῖος the truly wise man, the very type of a wise man.

Οἱ ἄνδρες εἰσὶν οἱ ποιοῦντες, ὅ, τι ἂν ἐν ταῖς μάχαις γένηται are precisely those, who perform.

Ἐγὼ μέν ὁ αὐτός εἰμι, ὑμεῖς δὲ μεταβάλλετε.

Note 3. - Proper names do not require the article. When the person spoken of is to be marked as identical with one that has been previously mentioned, or as one that is well known, the article is generally added to the person’s name or to its apposition, if there be one.

E.g. ὁ Σωκράτης or Σωκράτης ὁ Ἀθηναῖος.

the (well-known) Athenian Socrates.

Note 4. - Names of countries, originally adjectives, as a rule, take the article.

ἡ Ἀσία, ἡ Εὐρώπη, ἡ Ἑλλάς, ἡ Ἀττική (sc. γῆ).

Note 5. - Names of rivers stand between the article and ποταμός; e.g. ὁ Εὐφράτης ποταμός the (river) Euphrates. Other geographical names also have the attributive position (120), if their gender coincides with that of their respective appellatives (ὄρος, πόλις), as τὸ Πήλιον ὄρος, but ἡ Αἴτνη τὸ ὄρος.

Note 6. - Words that signify parts of the body, virtues, vices, faculties, arts, size, descent, length, width, name, etc., are more frequently without than with the article.

The article is also omitted in very many familiar expressions: κατὰ γῆν καὶ κατὰ θάλατταν, ἐκ νέου, ἐκ παιδός (παίδων), κατ’ ἀγρούς ruri, ἐν δεξιᾷ, etc. etc.

120. A word has the attributive position, when it stands between the article and the noun, or after the noun with the article repeated.

ὁ ἀγαθὸς ἀνήρ the good man,

or ὁ ἀνὴρ ὁ ἀγαθός the man (and more particularly) the good man.

Thus ἡ τῶν Περσῶν ἀρχή, ὁ δῆμος ὁ τῶν Ἀθηναίων,

ὁ παρὼν καιρός, κατὰ τοὺς νόμους τοὺς κειμένους.

Δέδοικα μὴ ἐπιλαθώμεθα τῆς οἴκαδε ὁδοῦ.

Ὁ τόπος οὗτος ἐκαλεῖτο Ἀρμενία ἡ πρὸς ἑσπέραν.

By means of the attributive position adverbs and adverbial phrases are used as adjectives. E.g.

τὴν ἄνω ὁδόν (cf. “the above remark”), οἱ τότε ἄνθρωποι (cf. “the then president”), ἡ οἴκαδε ὁδός, ἡ πρόσθεν φιλία, -

τοὺς οἴκοι στασιώτας - τὸ ἐν Πλαταιαῖς ἔργον.

Note. - Dependent genitives (for partitives, see 145, 1) are not confined to the attributive position. Thus besides ἡ τῶν Περσῶν ἀρχή, τῶν Περσῶν ἡ ἀρχή and ἡ ἀρχὴ τῶν Περσῶν are equally good.

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USE OF THE ARTICLE.

121. A word has the predicate position, when it stands before the article, or follows the noun without an additional article. See 145, 1.

ἀγαθός ὁ ἀνήρ or ὁ ἀνὴρ ἀγαθός (sc. ἐστίν or ὤν),

the man is good or the man, who (when, etc. . . . he) is good.

Εἶχον πάντες τὰς ἀσπίδας ἐκκεκαλυμμένας.

Note. - Compare in English: The law makes a difference between things stolen and things found.

122. A change of position sometimes changes the meaning. Hence:

1. ὁ αὐτὸς βασιλεύς the same king, idem rex,

ὁ βασιλεὺς αὐτός / αὐτὸς ὁ βασιλεύς the king himself, rex ipse; 127.

2. ἡ μέση πόλις the middle city (between two others),

ἡ πόλις μέση / μέση ἡ πόλις the middle (center) of the city.

3. τὸ ἄκρον ὄρος the high, peaked mountain,

τὸ ὄρος ἄκρον / ἄκρον τὸ ὄρος the top, brow of the mountain.

4. ἡ ἐσχάτη νῆσος the farthest, most distant of several islands,

ἡ νῆσος ἐσχάτη / ἐσχάτη ἡ νῆσος the end, extremity, edge of the island.

123. Πᾶς (ἅπας, σύμπας, ὅλος) mean:

1. when qualifying a noun with the article - in which case a definite object is referred to -

a) in predicate position: all.

πᾶσα ἡ πόλις / ἡ πόλις πᾶσα all the city, the (this) whole city.

πᾶσαι αἱ πόλεις / αἱ πόλεις πᾶσαι all the (these) cities (individually, severally).

b) in attributive position: whole, entire, total, complete.

ὁ πᾶς ἀριθμός the sum total, the whole number.

ἡ πᾶσα πόλις the entire city, the whole of the city (the city in its totality, opp. the various parts of the city).

αἱ πᾶσαι πόλεις the union (confederation) of cities, the United Cities (all the cities collectively).

hence οἱ πάντες, τὰ σύμπαντα (with numbers): in all, all told.

2. when qualifying a noun without the article - here an indefinite object is referred to -

every, any, all, whole, nothing but, extreme, absolute, utter, sheer.

Page 108

SYNTAX.

πᾶσα πόλις / πόλις πᾶσα a whole city; every (any) city.

πᾶσαι πόλεις whole cities; any (number of) cities imaginable, all the cities imaginable.

Πᾶσαν ὑμῖν τὴν ἀλήθειαν ἐρῶ. - Οὐδὲ οἱ πάντες ἄνθρωποι.

Εἰς πάντας τοὺς θεοὺς καὶ εἰς ἅπασαν τὴν πόλιν ἡμαρτήκασιν.

Εἴ που διακοπείη ἡμῶν ἡ φάλαγξ, τῇ ὅλῃ φάλαγγι κακὸν ἔσται.

Ναῦς διέφθειραν τὰς πάσας ἐς διακοσίας in all.

Τῷ γὰρ καλῶς πράσσοντι πᾶσα γῆ πατρίς. See An. 2, 5, 9.

Πάσῃ τέχνῃ καὶ μηχανῇ by every means and device.

παντὶ σθένει with all might, at full speed.

πάντες ἄνθρωποι “everything human,” everybody, all the world.

πᾶν ἀγαθόν nothing but what is good.

ἐν πάσῃ ἀπορίᾳ in sheer want of everything, in utter want.

124. By prefixing the article any word (adj., part., adv., inf.), even parts of sentences or entire sentences can be used as nouns. Thus the neuter of an adjective may supply an abstract noun.

τὸ ἀγαθόν, οἱ πολλοί, οἱ πλείονες, οἱ παρόντες,

οἱ νῦν, οἱ πάλαι, τὸ ὅπως, τὸ γνῶθι σαυτόν,

τὸ δίκαιον justice, τἀληθῆ truth, τὸ ἀναγκαῖον what is (was, etc.) necessary.

Νέοις τὸ σιγᾶν κρεῖττόν ἐστι τοῦ λαλεῖν.

Note. - Here belong expressions like the following:

τὰ οἴκοι the state of affairs at home, in one’s country; home life.

τὰ τῶν φίλων κοινά the property of friends is common.

τὰ πρὸς τὸν πόλεμον what belongs to war; military matters.

οἱ περὶ Κῦρον, οἱ ἀμφὶ Ἀριαῖον Cyrus, Ariaeus and his men, followers, etc.

τὸ τοῦ Δημοσθένους, illud Demosthenis, that (word) saying of Dem.

PREPOSITIONS.

Note. - To be distinguished: τὴν ἡμέραν (140), ἡμέρας (152), τῆς ἡμέρας (152), τῇ ἡμέρᾳ and ἐν τῇ ἡμέρᾳ.

161. The dative is used with verbs one of whose component parts is a preposition that requires the dative:

Preposition	Examples
σύν	σύνειμι am together with, συμμαχέω fight in alliance with
158	συμπονέω toil together with, συμπράττω work with, concur, help
ἐν	ἔνειμι am in, at, ἐμμένω abide by
160	ἐμπίπτω fall into, ἐντυγχάνω come upon, find
ἐπί	ἐπιβουλεύω plot against, ἐπιδίδωμι give in addition
158	ἐπιτίθεμαι attack, ἐπιτρέπω give up, commit;

less frequently after verbs compounded with παρά, ὑπό: πάρειμι, ὑπόκειμαι.

V. PREPOSITIONS.

162. 1. All prepositions were originally adverbs. Homer, Herodotus and the Attic poets still regard them as such, whilst in standard prose only πρός (besides, in addition, in: πρὸς δὲ and πρὸς δὲ καί) is used adverbially.

As adverbial locative particles, the prepositions are frequently joined to the oblique cases in order to bring out more clearly, and define more plainly, their local meaning. Broadly speaking, prepositions

Construction	Answer the question
with the genitive	whence? whereof?
with the dative	where? wherewith?
with the accusative	whither? how far?

In many cases, however, the Greeks took a different view of things from ours and, in consequence, expressed the same thought by means of different prepositions. Compare: στρατεύμα συνέλεξεν ἀπὸ τούτων τῶν χρημάτων with this money - δεῖν ἐκ δένδρων to tie up to trees - ἐξ ἀριστερᾶς on the left.

USES AND MEANINGS OF THE PREPOSITIONS.

		Genitive	Dative	Accusative
with one case	ἀντί	instead of, for		
	ἀπό	from, away (down) from		
	ἐκ, ἐξ	out of, from, in consequence of		
	πρό	before, in behalf of		
	ἐν		in, at, during	
	σύν		together with	
	εἰς			to, into, against
	ἀνά			up along, over, through

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SYNTAX.

USES AND MEANINGS OF THE PREPOSITIONS. - Concluded.

		Genitive	Dative	Accusative
with two cases	διά	through		owing to, thanks to, on account of
	κατά	down from; down upon, against		down along, over, according to
	μετά	with		after, post
	ὑπέρ	above, super, for, pro		beyond
with three cases	ἀμφί	about, de	about, on account of	about
	ἐπί	upon	upon, because of, for the purpose of	up to, against, towards, in quest of
	παρά	from beside, on the part of	by the side, near, at	alongside of, by and beyond, against, during
	περί	on, concerning, de	about, around	about
	πρός	by, from, on the part of	at, near, besides	towards, against
	ὑπό	from beneath, under, by (agent?), through	under, sub w. abl.	to a place and under, sub w. acc.

The prepositional adverbs take the genitive:

Greek	English	Latin
ἄνευ	without	sine
ἐκτός	outside	extra
ἐντός	inside	intra
μεταξύ	between	inter
πλήν	except	praeter
πέραν	on the other side	trans
ἔμπροσθεν	in front of, before	
ὄπισθεν	behind, after	
ἑκατέρωθεν, ἀμφοτέρωθεν, ἔνθεν καὶ ἔνθεν	from both sides, etc.	
ἄχρι and μέχρι	as far as, until	
ἔξω	out of, without	
εἴσω	into, within	
ἐγγύς and πλησίον	near	prope
πόρρω and πρόσω	far from	
πέρα	beyond	ultra
ἕνεκα (ἕνεκεν)	for the sake of	causa
ἐναντίον	opposite, in presence of	coram

163. USES AND MEANINGS OF THE PREPOSITIONS.

Ἀμφί with the Accusative (Gen., Dat.) = περί with the acc., about.

a) of Place: οἱ ἀμφὶ Ἀριαῖον, 124 note. b) of Time: ἀμφὶ μέσας νύκτας about midnight. c) Figuratively: ἀμφὶ τὰ πεντήκοντα ἔτη about, circiter.

Ἀνά with the Accusative: up, up along, over (opp. to κατά).

a) of Place: ἀνὰ τὸν ποταμόν, ῥοῦν up the river. ἀνὰ τὸ πεδίον, τὰ ὄρη over, through, upon.

b) of Time: ἀνὰ πᾶσαν τὴν ἡμέραν all day long.

c) Figuratively: ἀνὰ κράτος to the extent of one's power, ἀνὰ λόγον in due proportion.

d) Distributively: ἀνὰ πέντε five each, ἀνὰ πᾶσαν ἡμέραν every day.

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PREPOSITIONS.

Ἀντί with the Genitive: instead of, for, in return for.

αἱρεῖσθαι τὸ χεῖρον ἀντὶ τοῦ βελτίονος. τιμωρώμεθα τοὺς ἄνδρας ἀνθ' ὧν ὑβρίσθημεν.

Ἀπό with the Genitive: from, away from, off from.

a) of Place: ἀφ' ἵππου from the horse, on horseback, ἀπὸ Σάρδεων. b) of Time: ἀπὸ τούτου τοῦ χρόνου from (ever since) this time. c) Figuratively: καλεῖσθαι ἀπό τινος to be named after one. means: στράτευμα συλλέγειν ἀπὸ τῶν χρημάτων with. cause: ἀπὸ τούτου τοῦ τολμήματος for, in consequence of.

Διά with the Genitive: through (the midst of).

a) of Place: per, διὰ μέσης τῆς πόλεως through the center of the city. inter, διὰ χειρῶν ἔχειν in hand, to be working at. b) of Interval: διὰ πέντε σταδίων at a distance of. διὰ πολλοῦ (ὀλίγου) longo interiecto tempore. c) of Medium: per, δι' ἑρμηνέως through (the medium of) an interpreter.

Διά with the Accusative: on account of, owing to, by the help of.

mostly of Cause and Agency: διὰ ταῦτα on this account, for this reason, διὰ προδοσίαν, διὰ ἡμᾶς owing to us (whether merit or demerit).

Εἰς (ἐς) with the Accusative: into, against = in c. acc.

a) of Place: εἰς τὴν πόλιν into the city, εἰς πολεμίους ἰέναι against. b) of Time, limit: εἰς τὴν ἑσπέραν "into eventide" = until (on, at, for, toward) the evening. or extension: εἰς τὸ λοιπὸν for (in) the future. c) Figuratively, purpose: διδόναι, χρῆσθαι εἰς τι for. w. numerals: εἰς (τοὺς) ἑκατόν about (to the number of) a hundred.

Ἐκ, ἐξ with the Genitive: out of, from within, ex (opp. to εἰς).

a) of Place: ἐκ τῆς πόλεως φεύγειν, ἐκ τῆς γῆς φύεσθαι. b) of Time: ἐκ παίδων from childhood, ἐκ παλαιοῦ from ancient times. ἐκ τούτου from (after) that time, thereupon, ἐξ οὗ ex quo, since. c) Figuratively, congruity: ἐκ τῶν παρόντων as the state of things would require. consequence: ἐκ τούτων in consequence of this. manner: ἐκ παντὸς τρόπου in every possible manner.

Ἐν with the Dative: in, within, at, on, in c. abl.

a) of Place: ἐν Ἀθήναις, ἐν τοῖς Ἕλλησιν among. πεφευγέναι ἐν τοῖς ὀχυροῖς. ἄτιμος ἐν τοῖς στρατιώταις, ἐν τῷ Εὐξείνῳ Πόντῳ, on (by) the shore of. b) of Time: ἐν νυκτί, ἐν ταῖς σπονδαῖς during, 160, 2. c) Figuratively: ἐν φόβῳ εἶναι, ἐλπίδας ἔχειν ἔν τινι.

Ἐπί with the Genitive: upon.

a) of Place, where?: ἐφ' ἅρματος ὀχεῖσθαι, - ἐπὶ τοῦ ὄρους on top of. whither?: ἐπ' Ἰωνίας, ἐπ' οἴκου ἀπιέναι in the direction of, towards.

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SYNTAX.

b) of Time: ἐπὶ Κροίσου βασιλεύοντος during (in) the reign. ἐπ' ἐμοῦ me vivente, οἱ ἐφ' ἡμῶν our contemporaries.

c) Figuratively: ἐφ' ἑαυτοῦ by himself, alone, ἐπὶ καιροῦ as circumstances suggested.

d) Distributively: ἐπὶ τεττάρων πορεύεσθαι four men deep.

Ἐπί with the Dative: upon.

a) of Place, where?: ἐπὶ ναυσίν, πόλις ἐπὶ τῇ θαλάττῃ οἰκουμένη situated by the seaside. b) of Time, "immediately after": ἐπὶ τῷ τρίτῳ σημείῳ, ἐπὶ τούτοις. c) Figuratively, charge: οἱ ἐπὶ τῷ στρατεύματι, οἱ ἐπὶ τῇ πόλει. dependency: ἐφ' ὑμῖν ἐστι penes vos, ἐπὶ βασιλεῖ γίγνεσθαι to fall into the hands of. cause (with verbs denoting emotion 159, 2): χαίρειν ἐπ' αἰσχραῖς ἡδοναῖς. condition: ἐπὶ τούτοις on such terms, ἐφ' ᾧ τε on condition that, 180, 2. d. object: ἐπὶ θανάτῳ ἄγειν, ἐπὶ βλάβῃ, ἐπὶ τῷ κερδαίνειν with a view to. in honor of: ἐπὶ Πατρόκλῳ, ἐπὶ Λεωνίδᾳ.

Ἐπί with the Accusative: towards, against.

a) of Place: ἐφ' ἵππον ἀναβαίνειν, ὁδὸς ἐπὶ Σοῦσα φέρουσα, ἰέναι, πορεύεσθαι ἐπί τινα, in both a friendly and a hostile sense. b) of Time: ἐπὶ τρεῖς ἡμέρας, ἐπὶ πολὺν χρόνον for the space of. c) Figuratively, object (in quest of): ἐπὶ λείαν (praedatum) ἐξιέναι, ἐφ' ὕδωρ πέμπειν to fetch.

Κατά with the Genitive: down from, down upon = against.

a) of Place: κατ' οὐρανοῦ, κατὰ τῶν ὀρῶν, τειχῶν ῥίπτεσθαι - οἰκεῖν κατὰ γῆς beneath (where?), δῦναι κατὰ γῆς beneath (whither?). b) Figuratively: down upon = against: λέγειν κατά τινος, cf. 153.

Κατά with the Accusative: down along, over (extension), according.

a) of Place: κατὰ τὸν ποταμόν down the river, κατ' ἀγρούς ruri, κατὰ γῆν καὶ κατὰ θάλατταν. τοὺς καθ' αὑτούς opposite. b) of Time: κατ' ἐκεῖνον τὸν χρόνον in (at, during) that time. c) Figuratively, reference: τὰ κατὰ τὸν πόλεμον. congruity: κατὰ δύναμιν to the extent of one's power; κατὰ τοὺς νόμους according. manner: κατὰ τάχος - καθ' ἡσυχίαν at leisure. κατὰ μικρόν little by little, into small pieces. with numbers: ἀπέθανον κατὰ ἑξακισχιλίους ἄνδρας about. d) Distributively, by: καθ' ἕνα one at a time, κατ' ἄνδρα viritim, καθ' ἡμέραν day by day, κατ' ἔτος, κατ' ἐνιαυτόν every year.

Μετά with the Genitive: (in company) with, amid.

attendance, company, alliance: εἶναι μετά τινος to side with, μάχεσθαι μετά τινος in alliance with, οἱ μετὰ Κύρου C. and his followers. manner, attendant circumstances: μετὰ δακρύων, κινδύνων amid tears, dangers.

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PREPOSITIONS.

Μετά with the Accusative: after, next to, post, secundum.

a) of Time: μετὰ τὴν μάχην, μετὰ ταῦτα, μεθ' ἡμέραν at daybreak. b) of Rank, Succession: θειότατον μετὰ θεοὺς ἡ ψυχή.

Παρά with the Genitive: from (beside).

of Place: ἥκειν παρὰ βασιλέως, αἰτεῖν, μανθάνειν παρὰ φίλων.

Παρά with the Dative: by (the side of), with.

of Place, esp. with names of persons: παρὰ Κλεάρχῳ εἶναι, παρὰ τοῖς Μήδοις καὶ ἐν τοῖς Πέρσαις. - παρὰ τῇ πόλει ὁρμίζεσθαι, παρὰ τῷ βωμῷ θύειν.

Παρά with the Accusative: to or towards, alongside.

a) of Place: πέμπειν πρέσβεις παρὰ Φίλιππον. παρὰ τὴν θάλατταν πορεύεσθαι, οἰκεῖν alongside, on the shore of. b) of Time: παρ' ὅλον τὸν βίον per totam vitam. c) Figuratively: going by and beyond: παρὰ τοὺς νόμους, ὅρκους (opp. κατά) against. difference, by: παρὰ πολύ by far, παρὰ τοσοῦτον, παρ' ὀλίγον. compared with: παρὰ τοὺς ἄλλους εὔτακτος. in proportion to: παρὰ τὴν ἑαυτοῦ ῥώμην on account of.

Περί with the Genitive: about, on, concerning, de.

λέγειν περὶ τῆς εἰρήνης, ἐρίζειν, φοβεῖσθαι περὶ τῆς ἀρχῆς. περὶ πολλοῦ, οὐδενός, παντός ποιεῖσθαι: 151.

Περί with the Dative: about (rare in prose).

a) of Place: στρεπτοὺς περὶ τοῖς τραχήλοις ἔχειν. b) Figuratively: δεδιέναι περὶ πάσῃ τῇ πόλει for.

Περί with the Accusative: about, around, near.

a) of Place: οἱ περὶ Κῦρον, περὶ τὰ ὄρμα, περὶ τὴν πόλιν. b) of Time: περὶ μέσας νύκτας, περὶ πληθοῦσαν ἀγοράν. c) Figuratively: in respect to, against: ἁμαρτάνουσι περὶ ἡμᾶς.

Πρό with the Genitive: before, ante, and for, in behalf of, pro.

a) of Place: πρὸ τῶν πυλῶν, τὰ πρὸ ποδῶν. b) of Time: πρὸ τῆς μάχης, πρὸ ἡμέρας, οἱ πρὸ ἡμῶν. c) Figuratively, preference: πρὸ πολλῶν αἱρεῖσθαι, τιμᾶσθαι. in defence of: πρὸ τῆς πατρίδος μάχεσθαι for (see ὑπέρ).

Πρός with the Genitive: from, on the part of.

a) of Place: ἔπαινον πρὸς ὑμῶν ἔχω, τὸ πρὸς ἑσπέρας τεῖχος, ἑστάναι πρὸς τοῦ ποταμοῦ so as to face the river. b) Figuratively: πρός τινος εἶναι to side with (stare ab aliquo), see 15. in swearing: ὀμνύναι πρὸς θεῶν by the gods, see 133.

Πρός with the Dative: at, by, near.

a) of Place: πρὸς Βαβυλῶνι, πρὸς ταῖς πηγαῖς, τῇ ἀγορᾷ at Babylon, etc. b) Figuratively: besides, in addition to (cf. 162, 1): πρὸς τῷ ὑπάρχοντα πόνοις, πρὸς τούτοις besides this.

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SYNTAX.

Πρός with the Accusative: towards, against.

a) of Place: πρὸς μεσημβρίαν, ἰέναι πρὸς βασιλέα as friend or as enemy. σπονδὰς ποιεῖσθαι πρός τινα with. b) of Time: πρὸς ἑσπέραν towards evening. c) Figuratively: in regard to: ἄθυμος πρὸς τὴν ἀνάβασιν, πρὸς ταῦτα εἶπε by way of answer. compared with: οὐδὲν τὰ χρήματα πρὸς τὴν σοφίαν nihil ad. end, purpose: παιδεύεσθαι πρὸς ἀρετήν, λέγειν πρὸς χάριν.

Σύν, ξύν with the Dative: with, cum.

union, accompaniment; attendant circumstances: οἱ σὺν Φαλίνῳ the followers of Ph., σὺν τοῖς ὅπλοις. σὺν κραυγῇ - σὺν τῷ δικαίῳ. aid: σὺν τοῖς θεοῖς with the help, by the blessing of.

Ὑπέρ with the Genitive: over, super; in behalf of, pro.

a) of Place: ὑπὲρ τῆς γῆς, γήλοφος ὑπὲρ τῆς κώμης ἦν. b) Figuratively, in behalf of: στρατηγεῖν ὑπὲρ Φιλίππου. in defence of: μάχεσθαι ὑπὲρ τῆς πατρίδος. cause: ὀργίζεσθαι ὑπὲρ τῶν γεγενημένων. (In the sense of περί with the Genitive only since Demosthenes.)

Ὑπέρ with the Accusative: beyond, supra, ultra.

a) of Place: ὑπὲρ τὸν Ἑλλήσποντον οἰκεῖν. b) of Time: ὑπὲρ τὰ πεντήκοντα ἔτη γεγονώς amplius annos 50 natus. c) Figuratively: ὑπὲρ δύναμιν supra vires.

Ὑπό with the Genitive: under, beneath.

a) of Place, from beneath: ὑπὸ γῆς ἦλθεν εἰς φῶς. under: ὑπὸ γῆς οἰκεῖν, οὔτ' ἐπὶ γῆς οὔθ' ὑπὸ γῆς.

b) Figuratively ("under the influence of"), in consequence, on account of: = ab with the passive: νικᾶσθαι ὑπὸ τῶν Ἑλλήνων, ἀποθνῄσκειν ὑπὸ φονέως at the hand of, κακὰ πάσχειν ὑφ' ὧν οὐκ ἔδει. cause: ὑπὸ λύπης through grief, ὑπὸ λιμοῦ ἀπόλλυσθαι to die of hunger. accompaniment: ὑπὸ σάλπιγγος to the sound of trumpet.

Ὑπό with the Dative: under, sub with the Abl.

a) of Place: ὑπὸ τῷ οὐρανῷ, ὑπὸ τῇ ἀκροπόλει at the base of. b) Figuratively: ὑπὸ τυράννοις εἶναι, γίγνεσθαι in the power of. ὑφ' ἑαυτῷ ποιεῖσθαι to bring under one's control.

Ὑπό with the Accusative: to a place and under, sub with the Acc.

a) of Place: ὑπὸ τὰ δένδρα ἀπῆλθον, ὑπὸ τὸν λόφον sub collem. b) of Time: ὑπὸ νύκτα sub noctem, ὑπὸ τοὺς αὐτοὺς χρόνους.

Ὡς with the Accusative: to, towards (with personal objects).

πρέσβεις ὡς βασιλέα πέπομφεν.

THE VERBAL NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

PRELIMINARY NOTE.

195. Infinitives and participles may be inflected by means of the article; they are therefore used as nouns. However, they do not hereby lose their character as verbs. For a) they are qualified by adverbs, not by adjectives; b) they take their objects in the same cases respectively as the other forms of the verb (τὸ ἀκριβῶς τοῖς νόμοις πείθεσθαι); c) they have the properties of voice and express the stage of action (see 167: λιπεῖν, λείπεσθαι, λειφθῆναι - φεύγειν, φεύγειν, πεφευγέναι); d) they may be modified by ἄν.

A. THE INFINITIVE.

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE OF INFINITIVE.

197. 1. The subject of the infinitive is omitted when it is the same as that of the leading verb:

Ἀδικεῖσθαι ὑφ' ἡμῶν νομίζει Κῦρος: se esse injuria affectum. Ὁμολογῶ ἁμαρτεῖν confiteor me peccasse.

The subject of the infinitive is put in the accusative when it is not the same as the subject of the leading verb and not already contained in a genitive or dative depending on the main verb. There is therefore an Accusative-with-Infinitive construction in Greek, as well as in English. E.g. Σωκράτης ἡγεῖτο θεοὺς πάντα εἰδέναι.

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THE INFINITIVE.

Note. - The indefinite subject "one, a person, [we, you]" (= τινά, τινάς) is omitted: Γράμματα μαθεῖν δεῖ καὶ μαθόντα νοῦν ἔχειν.

Predicate qualifications (nouns or adjectives) agree with the word (whether expressed or understood) to which they relate.

Ἐρωτώμενος, ποδαπὸς εἴη, Πέρσης ἔφη εἶναι. Νομίζω ὑμᾶς ἐμοὶ εἶναι καὶ φίλους καὶ συμμάχους. Δίκαιον εὖ πράττοντα μεμνῆσθαι θεοῦ (sc. τινά). Ἔξεστιν ὑμῖν εὐδαίμοσι γενέσθαι, or (ὑμᾶς) εὐδαίμονας γενέσθαι. Ὠρέγοντο τοῦ (198) πρῶτος ἕκαστος γίγνεσθαι. Κῦρος παραγγέλλει Ξενίᾳ ἥκειν λαβόντι τοὺς ἄλλους, or (αὐτὸν) ἥκειν λαβόντα τοὺς ἄλλους.

INFINITIVE WITH THE ARTICLE.

198. 1. By prefixing the article, the infinitive becomes a noun (124) or is used substantively without losing its character as a verb. See 195.

The infinitive may take the article when it is the subject or the object accusative. It must have the article when it is in the genitive or the dative, or when it depends on a preposition.

Νέοις τὸ σιγᾶν κρεῖττόν ἐστι τοῦ λαλεῖν silence . . . prating. Νίκησον ὀργὴν τῷ λογίζεσθαι καλῶς by sound reasoning. Ἐκ τοῦ πρότερος (197, 3) λέγειν ὁ διώκων ἰσχύει because he speaks first. Τὸ πολλὰ τολμᾶν πολλ' ἁμαρτάνειν ποιεῖ daring . . . blundering.

INFINITIVE WITHOUT THE ARTICLE.

199. 1. The supplementary infinitive (or acc. with inf.) is used to complete the idea

a) conveyed by impersonal verbs and expressions, such as:

δεῖ, χρή, δοκεῖ, ἔξεστιν, οἷόν τέ ἐστιν, προσήκει, συμβαίνει, ἄξιον, δίκαιον, δυνατόν, καλόν - ὥρα, καιρός, νόμος ἐστίν.

Ἀλλὰ γὰρ ἤδη ὥρα ἀπιέναι. Ἀγαθοῖς ὑμῖν προσήκει εἶναι. An. 3, 2, 11.

Note. - Some of the above expressions are often used personally.

E.g. δοκῶ videor, it seems that I, I seem, ἄξιός εἰμι, δίκαιός εἰμι I have a right, am entitled to, it is right that I, it is right for me (to do).

b) of verbs that signify:

to say and to declare, to believe and to hope, to desire and to wish, to forbid and to hinder, to teach and to learn, to understand and to know.

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SYNTAX.

Πρωταγόρας ἔλεγε πάντων χρημάτων μέτρον εἶναι ἄνθρωπον. Ὅ,τι ἂν ποιῇς, νόμιζ' ὁρᾶν θεούς τινας. Ἔλπιζε τιμῶν τὸν θεὸν πράξειν καλῶς. Καλῶς ἀκούειν μᾶλλον ἢ πλουτεῖν θέλε. Τί κωλύσει αὐτὸν βαδίζειν ὅποι βούλεται; Τὴν τῶν κρατούντων μάθε φέρειν ἐξουσίαν. Εἴκειν δ' οὐκ ἐπίσταται κακοῖς.

The limiting (or epexegetic) infinitive (generally in the active voice) is used to limit the application of such adjectives as: able, capable, worthy, clever, skilled, easy, agreeable and their opposites. E.g.

Greek	Meaning	Greek	Meaning
χαλεπὸς εὑρεῖν	difficilis inventu	ἄξιος ἐπαινέσαι	dignus qui laudetur
ἱκανοὶ φυλάττειν	sufficient to -	οἷος ἄρχειν	fit for ruling -
δεινὸς λέγειν	clever at speaking	οἷος ζῆν	enough to live upon
ἀμήχανος εἰσελθεῖν	difficult to -	οἷός τέ εἰμι	am able

Ῥᾴδια πάντα θεῷ τελέσαι easy to accomplish. Γνῶναι πάντων ὑμεῖς ὀξύτατοι τὰ ῥηθέντα. Κῦρος πάντων ἦν ἄρχειν ἀξιώτατος.

The final infinitive denotes a purpose with verbs that signify to give, deliver, allow; to choose, appoint and the like.

Τὰς κώμας διαρπάσαι τοῖς Ἕλλησιν ἐπέτρεψεν . . . diripiendas tradidit. Εἵλοντο Δρακόντιον δρόμου ἐπιμεληθῆναι.

An infinitive absolute (with or without the article) is used in:

ὀλίγου, μικροῦ δεῖν "little being wanting" = almost. ὡς (ἔπος) εἰπεῖν so to speak; ἑκὼν εἶναι willing(ly), voluntarily. ὡς συνελόντι εἰπεῖν to be brief, in short, to sum up. See 157, 3. ὡς ἐμοὶ δοκεῖν as it seems to me; τὸ νῦν εἶναι at present, just now. τὸ κατὰ τοῦτον (ἐπὶ τούτῳ) εἶναι so far as he is concerned.

Μικροῦ δεῖν ὅμοιόν ἐστι τῷ ὀνειδίζειν. Ἀληθές γε ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν οὐδὲν εἰρήκασιν. Τὸ ἐπ' ἐκείνοις εἶναι ἀπολώλατε.

B. THE PARTICIPLE.

INTRODUCTORY NOTE.

200. The participle is a verbal adjective and is, therefore, used as an adjective. Its double character as adjective and as verb is explained in 195.

The Participle as Attribute and Substantive.

201. As an attribute the participle is like an adjective.

Οἱ παρόντες ἡγεμόνες - οἱ νῦν ὄντες ἄνθρωποι the present generation - ἡ Μίδου καλουμένη κρήνη the so-called fountain of Midas -

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THE PARTICIPLE.

τοῖς Θρᾳξὶ τοῖς ὑπὲρ Ἑλλήσποντον οἰκοῦσι to those Thracians who - (128, note 1).

As a substantive with the article (117, 1. 2) it has two uses:

individualizing (οὐ): ὁ γράψαμενος τὸν Σωκράτη the accuser of, or generalizing (μή): ὁ τυχών, ὁ βουλόμενος any one who wishes, ὁ μὴ πιστεύων si quis non credit (203, 3, d).

The Participle as Predicate.

202. It completes the action of the finite verb.

It belongs to the subject of the verb, when it is used with verbs

a) that express some particular mode of being (in such or such a state). E.g.

τυγχάνω am by chance, happen or chance (to be) - adv. by chance. λανθάνω am hidden, escape notice - secretly, without (his) knowing. διάγω, διατελῶ, διαγίγνομαι continue (doing) - constantly. δῆλος, φανερός εἰμι, φαίνομαι it is evident that I - evidently. φθάνω anticipate, am beforehand - before, sooner, first. οἴχομαι am gone - adv. away, off.

Ἡ ψυχὴ ἀθάνατος φαίνεται οὖσα. Ἔτυχον παραγενόμενος ἵππον ἔχων. Ἑπτὰ ἡμέρας πάσας μαχόμενοι διετέλεσαν. Ἔλαθον ἐξελθόντες. Ἔφθησαν τοὺς Πέρσας ἀφικόμενοι εἰς τὴν πόλιν.

b) that signify to begin and to cease, to persevere and to grow weary.

E.g. ἄρχομαι begin (by), at first; παύομαι, λήγω cease (from). ἀνέχομαι endure, can bear; ἀπαγορεύω, κάμνω grow weary (of).

Οὔποτε ἐπαυόμην ὑμᾶς οἰκτίρων. Οὐκ ἀνέξομαι ζῶσα. Μὴ κάμῃς φίλον ἄνδρα εὐεργετῶν. Παῦσαι λέγων. Παύω τοὺς ἐχθροὺς γελῶντας I make the enemy stop laughing.

c) that signify to be right and to do wrong, to be superior and to be inferior to one, e.g.

καλῶς ποιῶ do well (to or in) - ἀδικῶ do wrong (to or in) - χαρίζομαι τινί, χάριν φέρω τινί do one a favor, oblige one (by) - νικῶ, κρατῶ outdo (in) - ἡττῶμαι, λείπομαι am inferior (in); wanting (in) -

Καλῶς ἐποίησας προειπών. Ἔστε νικῶν ἀλεξόμενος. Ἀδικεῖτε πολέμου ἄρχοντες καὶ σπονδὰς λύοντες. Μῆδον καταλιπὼν Κυαξάρῃ ἐχαρίσατο.

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SYNTAX.

d) that denote mental states, as

χαίρω, ἥδομαι delight (in), am delighted (to) - ἄχθομαι, ἀγανακτῶ am displeased, vexed, angry (at) - αἰσχύνομαι am ashamed (to do), (do) with a sense of shame - μεταμέλομαι repent (of), am sorry (for).

Ἥδομαι ἀκούων σου φρονίμους λόγους. Τιμώμενοι χαίρουσιν. Οὐκ ἂν ἀχθοίμην μανθάνων. Τοῦτο οὐκ αἰσχύνομαι λέγων.

It belongs either to the subject or the object of the verb, when it is used with verbs

a) that signify a (mental or sensitive) perception. E.g.

ὁρῶ, περιορῶ (overlook, allow), ἀκούω, αἰσθάνομαι, καταλαμβάνω, οἶδα, ἐπίσταμαι, μέμνημαι, γιγνώσκω, εὑρίσκω and the like.

Compare: Catonem vidi sedentem, Socratem audio dicentem.

Ὁρῶμεν πάντα ἀληθῆ ὄντα, ἃ λέγετε omnia vera esse. Οὐκ ᾔδεσαν αὐτὸν τεθνηκότα. Ἐὰν ἁλῷς τοῦτο πράττων, ἀποθανεῖ. Μείζω τὸν ἄνθρωπον γιγνόμενον περιορῶμεν.

b) that denote the cause or occasion of such a perception.

E.g. δείκνυμι, δηλόω, (ἀπο)φαίνω, ἀγγέλλω, (ἐξ)ελέγχω.

Κῦρον ἐπιστρατεύοντα πρῶτος ἤγγειλα. Πάνθ' ἕνεκα ἑαυτοῦ ποιῶν Φίλιππος ἐξελεγχθήσεται.

Note 1. - The above mentioned verbs expressive of thought or emotion may also take ὅτι with a finite form of the verb.

Note 2. - Observe the difference of idiom in:

ἴσθι (μέμνησο) θνητὸς ὤν scito te esse mortalem. Ὁρῶμεν ἡμεῖς ἀδύνατοι ὄντες περιγενέσθαι.

Note 3. - Σύνοιδα ἐμαυτῷ am conscious of takes the participle now in the nominative, now in the dative, - μεταμέλει μοι repent, am sorry takes it only in the dative.

Ἐγὼ οὐ ξύνοιδα ἐμαυτῷ σοφὸς ὤν or σοφῷ ὄντι.

Note 4. - Ἀκούω, αἰσθάνομαι and πυνθάνομαι are construed as follows:

ἀκούω w. gen. part.: hear [myself, in person] that - (see 147, 4, note). ἀκούω w. acc. part.: hear [through others] (as a fact) that - = ὅτι. ἀκούω w. acc. and inf.: hear (as a rumor) that -.

Note 5. - In like manner several of the above verbs take sometimes the participle, sometimes the infinitive, in order to imply a different shade of meaning. E.g.

Verb	with the Participle	with the Infinitive
ἄρχομαι	am at the beginning (of an action), begin by (doing something), at first	begin, undertake, set or go about (doing), proceed (to do)
φαίνομαι	it is evident that I, I am evidently, apparent	it seems that I, videor
αἰδέομαι, αἰσχύνομαι	am ashamed of (doing), i.e. do with a sense of shame	am ashamed to (do), i.e. omit (doing) from shame

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THE PARTICIPLE.

Verb	with a finite clause	with the infinitive
γιγνώσκω	(learn to) know	determine, resolve
ἐπίσταμαι	understand	understand, know how
οἶδα, μανθάνω	know, learn	know, learn how
ἐπιλανθάνομαι	forget	forget
μέμνημαι	remember	am careful, remember

The first construction means "that" (follows an assertion) (ὅτι, ὡς); the second means "to do something." See 199, 1. b.

μέμνημαι (οἶδα, ἀκούω), ὅτε with indic. memini cum, remember (the time) when.

Note 6. - Accordingly:

The Circumstantial Participle.

203. 1. The circumstantial participle is equivalent to a variety of conjunctional clauses. In English we sometimes retain the participle, sometimes employ a subordinate clause. This participle is either appositive or absolute.

a) An appositive participle may be used only when its subject occurs in some case or other in the main sentence.

b) An absolute participle may be used only when its subject does not occur in any form in the main sentence.

The Greek has a genitive absolute corresponding to the ablative absolute in Latin.

Θεοῦ διδόντος οὐδὲν ἰσχύει φθόνος, καὶ μὴ διδόντος οὐδὲν ἰσχύει πόνος.

Note. - Differently from the Latin, the Greek

a) allows the participle to be without a subject whenever the latter is easily understood from the context: οὕτως ἐχόντων quae cum ita sint.

b) does not allow the participle to be replaced by either a noun or an adjective (Cicerone consule, Hannibale vivo?), but ὤν must always be added. Therefore, Pericle duce = Περικλέους ἡγεμόνος ὄντος. - Ἑκών and ἄκων are considered as participles: me invito = ἐμοῦ οὐχ ἑκόντος.

Either participial construction may correspond

a) to a causal clause, which, for greater clearness, often commences with

ἅτε, οἷον, οἷα (the author's reason): since, as, because, inasmuch as. ὡς (reason of the subject of the leading verb): since, as though, on the ground, plea, under the pretence, saying, thinking that, as if to signify etc. See 178.

Λέγω δὲ τοῦδ' ἕνεκα, βουλόμενος δόξαι σοι ὅπερ ἐμοί. Ἅτε ἐξαίφνης ἐπιπεσόντες πολλὰ ἀνδράποδα ἔλαβον. Ἀνεθορύβησαν ὡς εὖ εἰπόντος τοῦ Ἀγασίου.

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SYNTAX.

b) to a final clause. The part. must be in the future and is often preceded by ὡς: in order to, with the intention, avowed object of (neg. μή).

Ὁ ἡγησόμενος οὐδεὶς ἔσται. Οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι παρεσκευάζοντο ὡς πολεμήσοντες.

c) to a temporal clause. The part. is often emphasized by such adverbs as

ἅμα while, αὐτίκα, εὐθύς immediately, forthwith, μεταξύ while, etc. ἅμα πορευόμενοι during (on) their march, or: while marching, εὐθὺς παῖδες ὄντες a pueris, from (earliest, their very) boyhood.

Πολλαχοῦ με ἐπέσχε λέγοντα μεταξύ. Ταῦτ' ἐπράχθη Κόνωνος στρατηγοῦντος.

d) to a conditional clause (neg. μή).

Δίκαια δράσας συμμάχους ἕξεις θεούς. Γευόμενος καὶ σὺ γνώσει ὅτι ἡδέα ἐστίν if you taste, you will find . . . Οὐκ ἂν δύναιο μὴ καμὼν εὐδαιμονεῖν.

e) to a concessive or adversative clause. For the purpose of clearness, καί or καίπερ (neg. οὐ) may be added. See 189, note.

Ἔρχεται τἀληθὲς εἰς φῶς ἐνίοτ' οὐ ζητούμενον. Εἰσήλθετε ὑμεῖς καίπερ οὐ διδόντος τοῦ νόμου.

The participle (often with ὡς, ὥσπερ) is used absolutely (Accusative Absolute) with such impersonal expressions as:

δέον, προσῆκον since (when, although) it is or was necessary, proper, ὄν, ἐξόν, παρόν since (when, although) it is or was possible, δόξαν, δεδογμένον since (if, although) it is or was resolved, ἄδηλον ὄν, αἰσχρὸν ὄν since (if, although) it is or was unknown, shameful.

Κατακείμεθα, ὥσπερ ἐξὸν ἡσυχίαν ἄγειν. Οἱ δ' οὐ βοηθήσαντες δέον ὑγιεῖς ἀπῆλθον; Βουλῆς ἄξιοι τυχεῖν Φίλων, οὐ μετὸν αὐτῷ.

Infinitive or Participle with ἄν.

204. Both the infinitive and the participle require the modal suffix ἄν, if the finite verb for which they stand would be either the optative with ἄν, or the ind. of an historical tense with ἄν.

Consequently, infinitives or participles with ἄν always denote either potentiality or unreality.

Σὺν ὑμῖν ἂν οἶμαι τίμιος εἶναι, ὅπου ἂν ὦ. Ἀρίστιππος αἰτεῖ Κῦρον εἰς δισχιλίους ξένους καὶ μισθόν, ὡς οὕτως περιγενόμενος ἂν τῶν ἀντιστασιωτῶν.

C. THE VERBAL ADJECTIVES.

205. 1. Verbal adjectives in -τός, -τή, -τόν denote (79, 9) either

what has been done: λυτός (that has been) loosed, ἄκρατος unmixed, or what may be done: βρωτός that may be eaten, eatable, ἀόρατος invisible.

Verbal adjectives in -τέος, -τέα, -τέον denote necessity.

E.g. λυτέος solvendus, πειστέον oboediendum, ἰτέον it is necessary to go, one must go.

The personal construction emphasizes the person (or thing) that must be acted upon.

The impersonal construction emphasizes the kind of action that is to be done.

The person who must do something is put in the dative (157, 2).

Οἱ συμμαχεῖν ἐθέλοντες εὖ ποιητέοι. Οἰστέον πᾶσι τὴν τύχην. Τῷ ἀδικοῦντι δοτέον δίκην.

C. THE VERBAL ADJECTIVES.

205. 1. Verbal adjectives in -τός, -τή, -τόν denote (79, 9) either

what has been done: λυτός (that has been) loosed, ἄκρατος unmixed, or what may be done: βρωτός that may be eaten, eatable, ἀόρατος invisible.

Verbal adjectives in -τέος, -τέα, -τέον denote necessity.

E.g. λυτέος solvendus, πειστέον oboediendum, ἰτέον it is necessary to go, one must go.

The personal construction emphasizes the person (or thing) that must be acted upon.

The impersonal construction emphasizes the kind of action that is to be done.

The person who must do something is put in the dative (157, 2).

Οἱ συμμαχεῖν ἐθέλοντες εὖ ποιητέοι. Οἰστέον πᾶσι τὴν τύχην. Τῷ ἀδικοῦντι δοτέον δίκην.

X. THE PARTICLES.

THE NEGATIVE PARTICLES.

206. 1. There are two negative adverbs: οὐ and μή.

By οὐ (οὔτε, etc.) we deny (the truth of) a statement, by μή (μήτε, etc.) we desire that something feared may not happen.

Ἐγὼ θρασὺς καὶ ἀναιδὴς οὔτ' εἰμὶ μήτε γενοίμην.

Accordingly, οὐ stands in all statements,

i.e. in independent and dependent declarations, in questions and causal sentences, as well as in ordinary relative and temporal clauses.

Οὐ δυνατόν ἐστιν - ἔλεγεν, ὅτι οὐ δυνατόν εἴη - τί οὐκ ἤλθετε; - ἐπεὶ ταῦτ' οὐκ ἐγένετο - ὅθεν οὐκ ἔστιν ἐξελθεῖν.

μή is required in all sentences that express a desire,

i.e. in independent and dependent wishes and prohibitions, as well as in dependent final clauses.

Μή μοι γένοιθ' ἃ βούλομ' ἀλλ' ἃ συμφέρει. Μὴ φθόνει τοῖς εὐτυχοῦσι, μὴ δοκῇς εἶναι κακός. Δέδοικα, μὴ ἐπιλαθώμεθα τῆς οἴκαδε ὁδοῦ.

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SYNTAX.

Again, μή is used

a) in conditions and in all such phrases or clauses as are equivalent in sense to a condition.

Εἰ μὴ καθέξεις γλῶσσαν, ἔσται σοι κακά. Ἃ μὴ οἶδα, οὐδὲ οἴομαι εἰδέναι. Ὁ μὴ δαρεὶς ἄνθρωπος οὐ παιδεύεται.

b) with the infinitive, with which, however, after verbs of saying οὐ may also be used:

Ὑπισχνοῦντο μηδὲν χαλεπὸν αὐτοὺς πείσεσθαι. Τολμῶσι λέγειν οὐδεμίαν μάχην γεγονέναι.

Note 1. - After the verbs of controverting, denying, doubting, and the like, which convey a negative idea, the dependent assertion receives an additional οὐ, which must not be rendered in English.

Οὐκ ἂν ἀρνηθείην εἶναι, ὡς οὐκ εἰσὶ τοιαῦτα.

Note 2. - In like manner, after verbs of hindering, refraining, avoiding, refusing, declining, denying, escaping, and the like, μή is often added to the infinitive, or μὴ οὐ, when the main verb itself is negatived (also τὸ μή and τὸ μὴ οὐ respectively).

Μικροῦ ἐξέφυγε μὴ καταπετρωθῆναι narrowly escaped being stoned. Ὁ φόβος τὸν νοῦν ἀπείργει μὴ λέγειν, ἃ βούλεται hinders from saying. Οὐδεὶς πώποτε ἀντεῖπε μὴ οὐ καλῶς ἔχειν τοὺς νόμους denied that the laws are good. Καὶ φημὶ δρᾶσαι κοὐκ ἀπαρνοῦμαι τὸ μὴ οὐ I do not deny it.

Μή is always added after verbs of forbidding:

e.g. Ἀπηγόρευε μηδένα βάλλειν πρὶν Κῦρος ἐμπλησθείη θηρῶν.

Accumulation of Negatives of the same kind. A negative or several negatives following another negative of the same kind emphasize the negation, if they are compounded, but neutralize it, if they are simple.

Οὐκ ἐρεῖ οὐδεὶς οὐδέν no one will say anything. Οὐδεὶς οὐκ ἀποθανεῖται every one will die.

Combination of Negatives of a different kind.

a) οὐ μή with the aor. subj. or fut. indic. is used in cautious or ironical assertions: "hardly, not likely, certainly not" (181, 3. note 1).

Τοὺς πονηροὺς οὐ μὴ ποτε βελτίους ποιήσετε.

b) μὴ οὐ with the subj. (or indirect optat. 193, 2, b) after verbs of fearing means: ne non, that not (181, 2; compare 3, note 1, "perhaps not, I rather think ... not").

Ἐφοβεῖτο, μὴ οὐ δύνατο ἐκ τῆς χώρας ἐξελθεῖν.

c) μὴ οὐ with the inf. after a negative main verb (or after negative expressions) = not to (206, 4. note 2).

Οὐχ ὅσιόν σοί ἐστι μὴ οὐ βοηθεῖν δικαιοσύνῃ. Πᾶσιν αἰσχύνη ἦν μὴ οὐ συσπουδάζειν.

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THE INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES.

207. In independent questions, the Greeks expressed

Latin	Greek
1. the Latin -nē?	by ἦ and ἆρα
2. the Latin nonne?	by οὐ, ἆρ' οὐ - οὐκοῦν nonne igitur?
	ἦ γάρ and ἄλλο τι ἤ does or is he (she, it) not?
3. the Latin num?	by μή, ἆρα μή, μῶν (= μὴ οὖν), "indeed?" implying a neg. answer
4. the Latin utrum - an?	by πότερον (πότερα) - ἤ
the Latin - an?	by - ἤ

Note. - For dependent questions, see 179.

THE REMAINING PARTICLES.

Their Most Common Meanings and Usages.

208. Note 1. - Such particles as cannot begin a sentence are called postpositive. In the subjoined list, they are marked by an asterisk. The references are to Xenophon's Anabasis.

Note 2. - It should be remembered that the meanings of the Greek particles which are given below are in many instances merely approximate. The Greeks were able by them to express the finest shades of meaning. In English, the stress of voice, a change of tone, or even a gesture, will sometimes serve the same purpose.

Ἀλλά adversative: on the other hand, but, yet, still, however, on the contrary, rather, sed, at; especially after negatives.

with imper. and subjunctives: well then, come now, come then. in replies: well, well but, but mind, for my own part. in transitions to some new topic: but enough of this, be this as it may.

ἀλλ' οὐ, ἀλλὰ μή: ac non, not, and not, but not, instead of; = καὶ οὐ. 2, 1, 10. ἀλλ' οὖν (γε): yet certainly, yet at least, yet at any rate. εἰ μή - ἀλλά γε: si non - at tamen. οὐ μὴν (μέντοι) ἀλλά: verum tamen, however, still.

ἄλλως: in another way, otherwise, differently; at random.

ἄλλως τε καί: (both in other respects and) = especially, above all, particularly. τὴν ἄλλως: to no purpose, fruitlessly, in vain, illy (cf. τὴν ταχίστην 141).

ἅμα: at the same time, together with, at once. With dat. 158, 1. With part. 203, 3. c.

ἅμα μέν - ἅμα δέ: and at the same time, at once - and, both - and; partly - partly. ἅμα (τε) - καί: both - and (καὶ ἅμα: and at the same time), as soon as - at once, scarce - when, no sooner - than.

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SYNTAX.

ἄρα inferential: therefore, then, consequently, accordingly, intimating that, what is said, is obvious, a matter of course: obviously, evidently, naturally, apparently, as one may conclude, as may be expected, as is known, videlicet. Sometimes epexegetic: to wit, namely. Introducing something that follows: next, immediately, forthwith.

εἰ ἄρα, ἐὰν ἄρα: if perhaps; to wit, if; if indeed, if forsooth. εἰ μὴ ἄρα with the indic.: that is to say, if not; unless perhaps, unless forsooth, nisi forte, nisi vero. 188, 2. d. ὡς (ὅτι) ἄρα: to wit, that; namely, that. οὐκ ἄρα: consequently not; then after all not (with imperfect).

ἆρα; interrogative = -nē? ἆρ' οὐ; = nonne? - ἆρα μή; = num? 207, 2. 3.

ἀτάρ (Homer αὐτάρ) adversative: but, yet, but yet, on the other hand, implying emphasis and gradation: but above all, but especially, vero.

αὖ adversative: in turn, on the contrary, on the other hand; likewise, too, again. 1, 6, 7; 1, 10, 11; 1, 1, 7.

γάρ stating a reason, cause or motive: for, enim; - often accounting for a thought which is to be supplied. Explaining and specifying: namely, to wit, - often introducing an announced (or an expected) explanation. In animated questions, denoting impatience, surprise, like nam in quisnam? τίς γάρ; "why, who . . ." or "who, pray, . . ." or "who then."

ἀλλὰ γάρ: at enim, but (a thought to be supplied) for = but of course; however; but since, since however; but alas! καὶ γάρ: etenim, and (I may well say so) for, for truly, and to be sure. nam etiam, for also, for even. nam et, for both (... et, and).

For εἰ γάρ, see 172, 2; 174, 1.

γέ (encl.), like quidem, emphatic and restrictive: indeed, certainly, at all events, at least.

ἐπεί γε: quandoquidem, since indeed; ἀλλὰ - γέ: yet certainly, yet at least, yet at any rate.

For ἔγωγε etc., see 61, 2; for ὅσγε, 129, 1. note 3.

γοῦν (from γε οὖν), emphatic: at least, at any rate, at all events, certe.

δέ adversative: but, however, autem, atqui (by far less emphatic than ἀλλά). See καί and μέν; in replies often: to be sure, certainly.

δέ very frequently simply connects clauses: and, thereupon, etc., or it is not translated at all. But not, and not = ἀλλ' οὐ or οὐ μέντοι. For οὐδέ, see below 31.

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THE PARTICLES.

δή temporal: already, presently, now, just now, immediately, iam; νῦν δή: just now, even now, now at once.

inferential: then, therefore, accordingly.

marking as a matter of course: evidently, as is known, scilicet, of course, you know. καὶ δὴ καί and of course (and therefore) also; see below 19.

with an imperative, strongly urging: λέγε δή now then, go on to say!; pray, tell me!

emphatic and serving to call attention to something: as in ἔνθα δή tum vero, at this juncture, at that crisis, it was then that, on this very occasion, or merely an emphatic then, ὅτε δή just at the time when. τί δή; what in the world? quid tandem?

εἰ δή namely if, if indeed, if really. ὃς δή he who, the very person who, who therefore, who in fact. ὅστις δή whosoever (I do not know who), nescio quis, some one.

δῆθεν implying gradation: above all, especially so (introduces an a fortiori), - as it seems, to all appearances. Restrictive: of course, apparently, as is pretended.

δήπου (less emphatic than δή): expresses confidence that a statement will not be doubted: profecto, of course, you know, surely; often ironically like opinor, credo.

δῆτα (more emphatic than δή): indeed, certainly, to be sure.

οὐ δῆτα: no! indeed not, of course not. τί δῆτα: what then?

εἴτε - εἴτε (sive - sive): be it that - or that; whether - or (i.e. in both cases).

In dependent questions: whether - or; if - or if; 179.

ἦ in asseverations: truly, of a surety, really, verily; still more emphatic is ἦ μήν, see below 25.

For the interrogative particle ἦ, see 207.

ἦ που surely.

ἤ disjunctive: or; often doubled ἤ - ἤ, aut - aut. Comparative: than, after comparatives and comparative expressions (such as ἄλλος, ἕτερος, ἐναντίος).

ἄλλο τι ἤ: is it not so? nonne? 207, 2. ἤτοι (γε) - ἤ (or ἤ - ἤτοι): aut - aut. ἀλλ' ἤ after a negative particle or a question: nisi, but, except.

Note. - With numerals and measures, ἤ is often omitted after the adverbial comparatives πλέον (coll. form πλεῖν), ἔλαττον, μεῖον, as well as after the corresponding adjectives; e.g. πέμπει οὐκ ἔλαττον δέκα ἄνδρας non minus decem; ἔτη γεγονὼς πλέον ἑβδομήκοντα annos natus amplius septuaginta.

καί copulative: and, also, too; emphatic: even; sometimes inferential: and consequently (= itaque); with comparatives: still, yet.

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SYNTAX.

Where more than two words are to be joined, the Greek repeats καί with each one of them (polysyndeton).

καί - καί, both - and, joins things of equal importance. See below 39.

καί after expressions of sameness or likeness: as; ὅμοιος, ὁμοίως, ὁ αὐτός καί = similis, similiter, idem atque.

δέ καί: moreover, also, besides; likewise, (and) - too; 1, 4, 17.

καὶ δέ: (but, and) also, (but, and) even; moreover; here δέ connects, καί emphasizes. 2, 6, 8.

καὶ δὴ καί: and (therefore) evidently also, and especially also.

οὐ μόνον - ἀλλὰ καί: not only - but also.

ἤδη - καί: iam - cum, already - when (cf. cum inversum).

οὔπω - καί: nondum - cum, not yet - when.

καίτοι concessive: and yet, still, though, however. but, atqui (in the minor of a syllogism). See 40.

μά in asseveration; followed by the acc. of the god or thing called upon as witness (see 133).

μὰ τοὺς θεούς: by the gods! ναὶ μὰ Δία: yes, by Zeus. οὐ μὰ Δία: no, by Zeus.

μέν, a weak form of μήν. It is used

a) in asseveration: certainly, truly, indeed, in truth.

καὶ (ἀλλὰ) μὲν δή and (but) certainly, and in fact; even - indeed. οὐ μὲν δή certainly not, indeed not. Compare 32 extr.

b) μέν - δέ are used in general to call attention to any kind of correlation (not only antithetical relations!) of those words (or even parts of sentences) which they follow and which the author wishes to be viewed conjointly, and not singly.

μέν is then mostly not translated, but only marked by the tone; see 1, 1, 1; so in πρῶτον μέν - ἔπειτα δέ in the first place - in the second place.

μέν - δέ are frequently used in forming periods, (Dem. 16, 30); also in the figure anaphora 1, 3, 16: "showing in the first place - in the second place - in the third place"; sometimes to be rendered by: as - so. See ὁ μέν - ὁ δέ 116.

μέν - δέ are often adversative: but, however, on the contrary, whilst, whereas, sometimes concessive: indeed - but; it is true - but.

μέντοι emphatic: indeed, really, certainly, in truth. Adversative (often after μέν): but, yet, however; - for all that, nevertheless, all the same. In questions: οὐ μέντοι -; is it not so? nonne?

For οὐ μέντοι ἀλλά, see 1.

μή: not, the negative adverb in expressions of desire. 206, 3; apparently heading an independent sentence, 181, 3, note 1; in questions = num, 207, 3.

οὐ μή and μὴ οὐ 206, 6; μηδέ, see οὐδέ below 31.

μὴ ὅτι (= μὴ εἴπω, εἴπῃς, ὑπολάβῃς, ὅτι): not only. μὴ ὅτι and μὴ ὅπως (like οὐχ ὅπως): not only not, less (more). μὴ ὅτι and μή τι γε δή (sc. εἴπῃς): not to mention, to say nothing of, much less (more). ὅτι μή (like εἰ μή 188, 2. a): except, but, nisi.

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THE PARTICLES.

μήν, in asseveration: vero, verily, in truth, certainly, often preceded by ἦ: upon my sacred honor (see above 17).

Adversative: but, however, nevertheless, yet, for all that.

ἀλλὰ μήν: at vero, but certainly, but still. καὶ μήν: et vero, and yet, and in fact.

Both ἀλλὰ μήν and καὶ μήν are also used in transitions to some new (and more important) topic: furthermore: also in the minor of a syllogism: but, now, but now. For οὐ μήν ἀλλά, see 1.

μῶν, interrogative = μὴ οὖν: num . . . ? implying a negative answer. 207, 3.

ναί, in replies: yes. ναὶ μὰ Δία: yes, by Zeus; compare 21.

νή, in asseveration; νὴ Δία: yes, by Zeus. 133.

νῦν (encl.), illative: then, therefore. See 40.

οὐ: not, the negative adverb in statements. 206, 2.

In direct questions: ἆρ' οὐ, οὐκοῦν: nonne, 207, 2.

οὔ τι: not a whit, not at all, by no means, not in the least. οὐχ ὅτι (οὐκ ἐρῶ ὅτι): not only; also: although. οὐ μόνον ὅτι and οὐχ ὅτι μόνον: not only. οὐχ ὅπως (οὐκ ἐρῶ ὅπως): ἀλλὰ καί (οὐδέ): not only not - but even (not even); after negative expressions: not to mention, much less. μόνον οὐ (οὐχί), ὅσον οὐ: tantum non, almost, all but. Dem. 1, 2. ὅσον οὔπω, ὅσον οὐκ ἤδη: almost already.

οὐδέ (μηδέ), copulative:

a) and not, nor, neque where some negative particle precedes (otherwise and not = καὶ οὐ).

b) also not, likewise not, neither; not even, ne - quidem.

οὐδ' εἰ: not even if. Compare 189. οὐδέ - οὐδέ: not even - nor. οὐδέ - δέ: but . . . neither (likewise not), nor yet.

οὖν, confirmative: indeed, certainly, the fact is, at any rate. Inferential: then, therefore, consequently, accordingly.

It also introduces a promised or expected explanation, e.g. in the transition from the exordium to the subject-matter of a speech: then often not translated.

ἆρ' οὖν; (affirmative inference): really? indeed? ἀλλ' οὖν (γε): yet surely, yet certainly, yet at least, but at any rate. δ' οὖν: now, but now (in the minor of a syllogism); but certain it is that, yet at any rate, but at all events. καὶ γὰρ οὖν: wherefore then, and consequently also, and on that account, for at any rate, for the fact is. μὲν οὖν: a) confirmative: (πάνυ, κομιδῇ, οὐ) μὲν οὖν to be sure, certainly. b) introducing a correction: nay rather, immo vero. c) when corresponding to a following δέ, each particle has its original force.

joined to relatives: ὅστισοῦν (ὁντιναοῦν, ἡντινοσοῦν etc.): quicunque, whosoever.

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SYNTAX.

οὐκοῦν (a strengthened οὖν) is:

a) inferential and confirmative: therefore, then, accordingly; b) interrogative: = nonne igitur? 207, 2.

οὔκουν (a strengthened οὐκ) is:

a) inferential and confirmative: therefore not, at any rate not. b) interrogative: therefore not? so then not?

οὔτε - οὔτε (μήτε - μήτε): neque - neque, neither - nor.

οὔτε (μήτε) - τέ: neque - et, on the one hand not - and (but) on the other hand, not only not - but even. οὔτε - οὐ (poet.): = οὔτε - οὔτε. οὔτε - οὐδέ: neither - nor even; neque - et ne - quidem.

πέρ (encl., from περί): just, even, indeed, very, very much; w. part. often = καίπερ. Compare Homer Od. α 6 with α 315.

ὅσπερ the very person who; ἐπείπερ seeing that, because precisely. ὥσπερ just as, even as; ὅτεπερ just (at the very time, even) when; εἴπερ if indeed, 188, 2. c.

πλήν: except, save, but, is:

a) a prepositional adverb with genit., 162, 5. b) a conjunction: except that, save that, only; it stands with the indic. or with the verb understood.

πώ (encl.) yet, as yet; mostly joined to negatives:

οὔπω nondum, not yet (οὐκέτι iam non, no longer!)

τε (encl., Lat. = -que), copulative: and; in prose

τε - τε: both - and (= καί - καί) generally connects sentences of equal importance, whereas

τε - καί: as well as, not only - but also, connects single words that supplement each other and of which the second is of greater importance.

τοί (encl.) in asseveration: verily, in truth, surely. In this sense it is often joined to other particles:

καίτοι above 20; μέντοι above 23; οὔτοι indeed not. τοίγαρ inferential: therefore, then, consequently, accordingly; strengthened forms are τοιγαροῦν and τοιγάρτοι: for this very reason, precisely on that account. τοίνυν: inferential (esp. in the conclusion of a syllogism): therefore, consequently; introducing a minor proposition: but, atqui; sometimes synonymous with δέ: besides, moreover, again, furthermore (esp. ἔτι τοίνυν).

THE VOICES OF THE VERB.

VI. THE VOICES OF THE VERB.

ACTIVE VOICE.

164. 1. Some verbs are both transitive and intransitive:

Greek	Transitive	Intransitive
ἄγειν	lead	march
αἴρειν	lift up	set out, set sail
ἐλαύνειν	drive	drive, march
καταλύειν	unyoke	halt, take up quarters
ὁρμᾶν	urge on	set out
τελευτᾶν	bring to an end	die
εἰς-, ἐμβάλλειν	throw into	invade; empty
ἐξιέναι (-ιέναι)	send out	empty, have an outlet
διαφέρειν	carry across	differ
ἔχειν	have, hold	with adv.: be (in a certain condition)
πράττειν	do	be, do, fare

Note. - For transitive and intransitive tenses of the same verb, see 93.

Some active verbs serve as passives of other verbs.

Active	Passive equivalent
ἀποκτείνειν to kill	ἀποθνῄσκειν (ὑπό τινος) to be killed
ἑλεῖν or λαβεῖν take	ἁλῶναι to be taken
ἐκβάλλειν banish	ἐκπίπτειν or φεύγειν to be banished
εὖ λέγειν speak well of	εὖ ἀκούειν to enjoy a good repute
εὖ, κακῶς ποιεῖν τινα to treat well, etc.	εὖ, κακῶς πάσχειν (ὑπό τινος) to be treated well

The active voice sometimes has a causative meaning:

Κῦρος ἐξέκοψε τὸν παράδεισον καὶ τὰ βασίλεια κατέκαυσεν Cyrus had the park cut down and the palace burnt. Comp. Caesar pontem fecit.

MIDDLE VOICE.

165. 1. The middle voice denotes that the agent is acting with reference to himself. As this reference may have either an accusative - or a dative - or a dynamic signification, there are three kinds of the middle voice:

a) the accusative middle: the agent acts on himself, being at once the subject and the direct (i.e. accusative) object of the action. The Direct (Reflexive) Middle:

Active	Middle
λούω wash	λούομαι wash myself, take a bath
γυμνάζω train	γυμνάζομαι train myself
ἐνδύω clothe	ἐνδύομαι clothe myself, etc.

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SYNTAX.

Some direct middles assume an intransitive meaning;

Active	Middle
ἵστημι place	ἵσταμαι place myself = stand
παύω stop	παύομαι stop myself = cease
φαίνω show	φαίνομαι show myself = appear

For the so-called Middle-Passives (M. P.'s), see 95, 3.

b) the dative middle: the agent acts for himself, for his own sake, his own advantage. The Indirect Middle or the Middle of Advantage. See 156.

αἱροῦμαι take for myself, make my choice, choose, ἀμύνομαι τινα ward one off to my own adv., defend myself agt., μεταπέμπομαι send for one sc. to come to me, summon to my presence, φυλάττομαι watch one sc. lest he should harm me, am on my guard agt., παρέχομαι μάρτυρας sc. to give evidence in my own favor, λυώμεθα μώνυχας ἵππους let us unyoke our horses, ἄρχω begin what others continue, ἄρχομαι begin my own work. Ὁ νομοθέτης νόμους τίθησιν, ὁ δῆμος νόμους τίθεται the people make their own laws.

c) the dynamic middle: the agent effects some result by his own means (δυνάμει). Here the action involves some exertion, activity, effort on the part of the agent.

παρέχομαι supply from my own means, furnish what is my own, σκοποῦμαι look at closely, examine, search, πολιτεύω am a citizen; πολιτεύομαι take part in the government, πόλεμον ποιῶ bring about a war, bellum moveo, but ποιοῦμαι make, wage war, bellum gero, ἐπαγγέλλομαι announce something done by myself, offer, profess.

The middle too has often a causative meaning:

δανείζομαι cause one to lend to myself, borrow, μισθοῦμαι cause to be let to myself, hire, bribe, ποιοῦμαι ὅπλα have arms made for myself, παρατίθεμαι δεῖπνον have a meal served to myself, δικάζομαι have my case tried, go to law.

Note. - One verb may, of course, at the same time express several of the relations which belong to the middle voice.

PASSIVE VOICE.

166. 1. Also intransitive verbs form a personal passive.

Active	Passive
ἄρχω τινός rule (over) one	ἄρχομαι am ruled (over)
καταφρονέω τινός despise	καταφρονοῦμαι am despised
ἐπιβουλεύω τινί plot against	ἐπιβουλεύομαι am plotted against

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THE TENSES IN GENERAL.

Active	Passive
πιστεύω τινί trust	πιστεύομαι am trusted
φθονέω τινί invideo alicui	φθονοῦμαι mihi invidetur

Note. - The only impersonal passive of an intransitive verb (compare itur, perventum est) is δέδοκται visum est, it has been agreed upon.

With the passive, the agent is put in the genitive with ὑπό = ab c. abl., 163, 30. b.

Note. - Occasionally ἀπό, ἐκ, παρά and πρός with the gen. are used instead of ὑπό. For the dative of the agent in connection with the verbal adjective or the perf. passive, see 157, 2.

ON THE SOUNDS.

209. 1. Vowels:

η for α: φίλη, νεηνίης, πρήσσω - ἀληθείη. ει for ε: ξεῖνος, εἵνεκα, χρύσειος. ου for ο: μοῦνος, οὔνομα, πουλύς etc.

Metathesis:

κάρτος, καρτερός, ἔδρακον, ἔπραθον. θρώσκω: ἔθορον - βλώσκω: ἔμολον.

Metathesis of Quantity: Ἀτρείδεω and Ἀτρείδαο.

στέωμεν and στήομεν. ἕως, τέως and ἧος, τῆος.

Contraction: γήραος, τέραα, τεράων, τεράεσσι, μένεα, τέγεος, φίλεον, ἀοιδιάει, ἀοιδιάουσα etc. Ἑρμῆς, ἠοῦς, ἠῶ, σέλας, τιμᾷ, ἐφορμᾶται - εο and εου to ευ: θέρευς, φιλεῦντες, σεῦ - νεικεῦσι. εεα to εια or εα: εὐκλείας, δυσκλέα. εεαι to εαι or εαι: μυθέαι or μυθέαι.

Synizesis: Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος - ἀλλ' ὅτε δὴ ἕβδομον ἦμαρ. χρυσέοισιν ἐπὶ κλισμοῖσι - εἰλαπίνη ἠὲ γάμος. ἀλλ' ἔωμέν μιν πρῶτα - ἢ οὐκ ἀίεις etc.

Apocope: in ἄρ (for ἄρα), in ἄν (for ἀνά), κάτ, πάρ, ἄπ, ὕπ;

with assimilation: κάλ-λιπε, κάβ-βαλε, κάτ-θεμεν, κατ-θέμεν, κὰρ ῥόον, κὰπ πεδίον, κὰκ κεφαλῆς, κὰδ δὲ παρειῶν, ἀλ-λέξαι, ἀμ-μείξας, ἀμ-πνεῦσαι, ἀγ-κρεμάσας, ἀν-στήσας, ἀμ πεδίον.

A digamma was originally in the following words:

ϝ-form	Word	ϝ-form	Word	ϝ-form	Word
ϝέαρ	ver	ϝίς	vis	ϝέλ-δομαι	vel-le
ϝεσθής	vestis	ϝοῖκος	vicus	ϝερ-	ver-bum
ϝέσπερος	vesper	ϝοῖνος	vinum	ϝειδ-, ϝε-ιδον	vid-êre
ϝείκοσι	viginti	ϝέπος, ϝοψ	vox	ϝοῖδα, ϝεῖδος	vid-êre

ϝώνιος, ὁ (hence ἐωνούμην 89, 1. note) ϝάλισκομαι hence (ἑάλων, ἑάλωκα) ϝοράω (hence ἑόρων 89, 2) ϝεκών (hence ἀέκων, i.e. ἀ-ϝεκων) ϝέλπομαι (hence ἔολπα, i.e. ϝέ-ϝολπα) ϝεργάζομαι (hence ϝέϝοργα and εἴργ.)

There was an initial σϝ in ὅς (σϝός) = suus, ἕ = se, ἑκυρός = socer, ἁνδάνω, aor. εὕαδον (= ἔσϝαδον), ἡδύς (suavis) etc.

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HOMERIC DIALECT.

Doubling of Consonants:

ποσσίν, δικάσσατε - ἔσσομαι, ἐτέλεσσα. ὅττι, ὅππως, ὁππότε - ἔδδεισεν, ἀδδήσειεν. τόσσος, ἔμμορε, ἔννεοι, ἔλλαβε, ἔσσυτο.

Auxiliary Consonants (ἀνδρός, γαμβρός, μεσημβρία):

ἤμβροτον of ἁμαρτάνω, μέμβλεται of μέλει.

INFLECTION OF NOUNS.

210. 1. A-Decl.: ἱππότα. Ἀτρείδαο, Ἀτρείδεω, ἐϋμμελίω.

διὰ θεάων, πυλέων ἐξέσσυτο, κὰδ δὲ παρειῶν. ἀθανάτῃσι θεῇς - ἀκταῖς, πάσαις.

O-Decl.: ἀργυρέοιο βιοῖο - ὄο κράτος, Αἰόλοο κλυτὰ δώματα.

θεοῖσιν ἐπουρανίοισιν - τοῖιν ὤμοιιν.

Conson. Decl.: ποσ-σί, ποσῖ, πόδ-εσσι - βέλεσ-σι, βέλεσι, βελέ-εσσιν.

ἔριν and ἔριδα. γούνατος and γουνός. οὔατος, οὔασιν and ὠσίν. πατέρος and πατρός, θυγατέρα and θύγατρα. ἀνέρος and ἀνδρός, ἀνδρεσσι and ἀνδράσιν. γήραος, οὔδεος, μένεος, θέρευς, μένεα. κλέα, ἀγακλεές (see 209, 4). - Ἡρακλῆος, -κλῆι, -κλῆα. ἠώς, -οῦς, -οῖ, -ῶ. - σπείους, σπῆι, σπέσσι, σπήεσσι. πόλις: πόλιος and πόληος, πόλει and πόληι. ἡδύς: εὐρὺν and εὐρέα. ὠκεῖα Ἶρις, βαθείης ὕλης. βασιλῆος etc., βασιλεῦσι. Ὀδυσ(σ)ῆος and -σ(σ)έος.

Irreg. nouns: Ἀΐδης: Ἀΐδαο and Ἀΐδεω and Ἀΐδος. Ἄρης: Ἄρηος and Ἄρεος, voc. Ἄρες and Ἄρες. Ζεύς: Διός and Ζηνός, Ζῆνα and Ζῆν. κάρη, τό: καρήατος, κάρητος, κράατος and κρατός, κράτων, κρασίν. - κάρηνα, καρήνων. νηῦς: νηός and νεός, νήεσσι, νέεσσι and νηυσί. υἱός: υἱέος and υἱός. ἀλκή: ἀλκῇ and ἀλκί. μάστιγι, μάστιγα and μάστι, μάστιν.

Suffixes. -φι: ἐξ εὐνῆφι - κρατερῆφι βίηφι (sing.), διὰ στήθεσφιν - σὺν ὄχεσφιν (plur.). -θεν and -θι: ἐξ ἁλόθεν, ἐμέθεν - ἠῶθι πρό.

Adjectives: ἰφθίμους ψυχάς, ἀθανάτῃ ψυχῇ.

πο(υ)λύς, πολύ, G. πολέος, A. πο(υ)λύν (masc. and fem.). Plur. πολέες, πολέων, πολέεσσι, πολέσι and πολέσι, and πολλός, πολλή, πολλόν reg.

Page 167

HOMERIC DIALECT.

Comparison: γλυκίων, φιλίων - ὤκιστος - πλέες (= πλέονες),

Comp. ἀρείων, βέλτερος, φέρτερος, λώϊον, λώτερον, κακώτερος, χειρότερος, χερείων, χερείοτερος - μάσσων, ἆσσον.

Sup. κάρτιστος, φέριστος, φέρτατος - μήκιστος, ἄγχιστα.

PRONOUNS.

211. 1. Personal: ἐγών, ἐμεῖο, ἐμέο, ἐμεῦ, ἐμέθεν. ἄμμες, ἄμμι, ἄμμε.

τύνη, σεῖο, σέο, σεῦ, σέθεν - τεῖν. ὔμμες, ὔμμι, ὔμμε. εἷο, ἕο, εὗ, ἕθεν - ἑοῖ - ἕ, ἑ, μίν. σφεῖς, σφείων, σφίσιν and σφίν, σφέας, σφάς and σφέ.

Dual: νῶϊ, νῶϊν - σφῶϊ, σφῶϊν - σφωέ, σφωῖν.

Possess.: ἐμός, τεός, ἑός and ὅς. ἀμός, ὑμός, σφός and σφέτερος.

Dual: νωΐτερος. σφωΐτερος.

Demonstr.: the article with τοί, ταί besides οἱ, αἱ, and ὅς or ὅ (both masc.: he who), ἥ, ὅ (116, note).

Relative: ὅ = ὅς and ἕης = ἧς, as also those forms of ὁ, ἡ, τό, which begin with τ.

Interrog.: τέο and τεῦ, τέω and τῷ, τέων, τέοισι; the same, when used as indefinite pronouns, are enclitic.

Generalizing Relatives: ὅτις besides ὅστις, ὅπτεο and ὅτ(τ)ευ, ὅτεω, ὅτινα besides ὅντινα, - ὅτινας, ἄσσα.

CONJUGATION.

212. 1. Modal suffixes, subj.: ἐγείρο-μεν, ποιήσε-ται, εὔξεαι, ἴομεν.

opt.: δύη (for δύιη), φθίμην, φθῖτο, δῦμεν, δαινῦτο, δαινύατο, λῦτο, λελύτο.

Augment: ἔλυσε and λῦσε, ἔβη and βῆ, ἔχεν - κάθεμεν, ἄνεσαν.

Personal endings: ἐθέλωμι, ἐθέλησθα, ἐθέλησι - τίθησθα.

πεποίθεα, -εας, -εεν, - φόβηθεν, ἴεν, ἔφαν, βάν. ὀδύρεαι, ἐλύσαο - βέβληαι - φραζώμεσθα. βεβλήαται, -ατο, ἰδοίατο - δίδωθι, ὄμνυθι.

Infinitive: ἀμύνειν, ἀμυνέμεν and ἀμυνέμεναι - ἰδέ-ειν.

Contract Verbs in -άω, uncontr.: ἀοιδιάει, πεινάων, μενοίνεον.

assimilated: γελάωντες and γελώοντες, ὁράας. contr.: τιμᾷ, τιμῶσι, τιμῶν, ἐφορμᾶται. in -έω: φιλέες, φίλεον, φιλέωμεν, φιλεῦντες. in -όω: ἀρόωσι, ὑπνώοντας, δηιόφεν, χολούνται.

Page 168

HOMERIC DIALECT.

Verbs in -μι: τιθεῖ, τιθεῖσι, διδοῖσθα, διδοῖ, διδοῦσιν.

θήω (θείω), θήης, θήομεν (θείομεν), θέω-μεν. γνώω, γνώης, δώο-μεν, βήω (βείω), στήο-μεν (στείομεν), στέωμεν, στήε-τε, στήωσι. δαμήω (δαμείω), δαήω, μιγήης, φανήῃ, τραπήομεν (from ἐτάρπην), δαμήετε, μιγήωσι.

εἰμί: εἴσθα, ἦα, ἴσαν, ἴμεν(αι), εἴσομαι, εἴσατο. εἰμί: ἔασι, ἔα and ἔον, ἦην, ἔ(μ)μεν(αι), ἔσσεται, ἔσσεῖται. οἶδα: ᾔδης, εἴδομεν, ἴδεω, ἴδμεν(αι), ἰδυῖα, εἰδήσω.

Like forms (of different verbs): ἴσαν (εἰμί, οἶδα), εἴσομαι (εἰμί, οἶδα, εἴδομαι), εἰσάμην (εἰμί, εἴδομαι).

Presents with the force of futures: καλέω, τελέω, ἀνύω, ἐρύω, ἀντιάω, δήω, κείω, κακκείοντες, νέoμαι, βείομαι.

Aorists without σ: ἔκηα, ἔσσευα, ἔχευα, ἠλεύατο and ἀλέασθαι.

Aorists of Liquids with σ: ἔκελσα, ἆρσα, ἔκερσα, ὦρσα.

Mixed Aorists: ἷζον, δύσετο, βήσετο, λέξεο, ὄρσεο, οἰσέμεν(αι).

Reduplicated Second Aorists:

ἤραρον, ὤρορον, ἐπέφραδε, τεταρπώμεσθα, ἀμπεπάλών. πεπιθεῖν, πεφιδέσθαι (fut. πεπιθήσω, πεφιδήσεται). ἔπέπληγον, πεπλήγοντο, κέκλυθι, ἐνένιπε and ἠνίπαπον. With syncope: κέκλετο, ἔτετμε, ἔπεφνε, ἄλαλκε. In a causative sense: λελάχωσι, ἐκλέλαθον.

Primitive or Root-Aorists Act. and Mid.

(the aor. mid. mostly in an intr. or pass. sense):

ἔγηρα, ἔκταν (1. p. sg. and 3. p. pl.), κτάμεναι, κτάς, ἔκτατο, κτίαθαι, βλῆτο, λῦτο, ἔφθιτο, φθίμενος, Subj. κτέωμεν, βλήεται, φθίεται, φθίμεσθα. Opt. βλῆο (βλεῖο), φθίμην, φθῖτο 212, 1. ἐδεγμήν, δέξο, δέκτο, μεῖκτο, ἆλτο, πάλτο, πέρθαι, ἄρμενος, λέκτο (of λέγω and λεχ-), πλῆτο (of πελάζω and πίμπλημι).

Aorists of different formation:

ἄειρα and ἀέρθην (of ἀείρω, αἴρω), ἠράμην and ἀρόμην, ἀρέσθαι of ἄρνυμαι. ἦρσα, ἤραρον, ἄρμενος, ἄρθην of ἀραρίσκω. of ὄρνυμι: ὦρσα (212, 10); ὤρορον (212, 12). ὦρετο (with ὄρηται, ὄροιτο 86). ὦρτο (with ὄρσαι, ὄρθαι, ὄρμενος, 212, 13). and ὄρσεο, ὄρσεν (accdg. to 212, 11).

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HOMERIC DIALECT.

Perf. and Plupft.: κεκοπώς, πεφύασι, τεθνηώς.

With Attic redupl.: ἄρηρα, ὄρωρα, ἀλάλημαι, ἐρέριπτο. With change of vowel: λέλασται (besides λήθομαι), ἔοικα and ἔικτον, εἰδώς and ἰδυῖα, πέφευγα and πεφυγμένος, τετεύχατο and τέτυκτο, τετύχθαι, τετυγμένος - ἄωρτο of ἀείρω. With irreg. accent: ἀκάχησθαι, ἀκαχήμενος, ἐσσύμενος, ἀλάλησθαι, ἀλαλήμενος.

Iterative forms: ἔχεσκον, ἔλεσκε, μνησάσκετο, στάσκον, κέσκετο.

ON SYNTAX.

Cases and Prepositions.

213. 1. The cases without a preposition are used in a local sense (cf. 162, 2).

Accus.: whither: ἔρχεσθον κλισίην. Gen.: where: ἔρχονται πεδίοιο. Gen.: whence: ἀνέβη πολλῆς ἁλός - πίθων ῥήξαστο οἶνος. Dat.: where: αἰθέρι μαίη - ἀκροτάτῃ κορυφῇ. Dat.: whither: χεῖρα πεδίῳ πέσε - θάλασση ἔλασαι Ἀχαιούς.

Prepositions: εἰνί, ἐνί and εἰς, παραί and ὑπαί, προτί and ποτί, ἀμφίς and ὑπείρ.

Prep. as adverbs: ἐν δέ, σὺν δέ, πρὸς δέ, μετὰ δέ, περὶ δέ. περὶ μὲν θείειν ταχώς, περὶ δ' ἱρὰ θεοῖσιν ἔδωκε.

Tmesis: ἐκ δ' ἔβαν αὐτοί - ἐξ ἔρον ἔντο - ἐπὶ κνέφας ἦλθε. νήπιοι, οἳ κατὰ βοῦς Ὑπερίονος ἠελίοιο ἤσθιον.

Anastrophe: Κικόνων ὕπο δηωθέντες - φυγὼν ὕπο νηλεὲς ἦμαρ.

Ἀνά w. the dat.: upon: χρυσέῳ ἀνὰ σκήπτρῳ.

Μετά w. the dat.: among: μετὰ τοῖσιν ἀνέστη. between, in, with: e.g. μετὰ χερσὶν ἔχειν.

Ἔν (for ἔνεστιν, ἔνεισιν), ἔπι, μέτα, πάρα - ἄνα.

Moods. - Infinitive.

214. 1. In independent sentences, the subjunctive (with or without ἄν), being the mood of anticipation, borders on the meaning of the future indicative.

Καί ποτέ τις εἴπῃσι, cf. ὥς ποτέ τις ἐρέει. Οὐ γάρ πω τοίους ἴδον ἀνέρας οὐδὲ ἴδωμαι.

Ἄν (κέ(ν)) may be used (contrary to Attic usage, 194):

with the fut. ind.: Καί κέ τις ὧδ' ἐρέει. in the protasis of conditional sentences of the third type:

Εἰ τοῦτω κε λάβοιμεν, ἀροίμεθά κε κλέος ἐσθλόν.

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HOMERIC DIALECT.

frequently in final clauses:

Ἀλλ' ἴθι, μή μ' ἐρέθιζε, σαώτερος ὥς κε νέμαι.

rarely with the optative in wishes: ὡς κέ οἱ αὖθι γαῖα χάνοι.

Ἄν (κέ(ν)) may be omitted, contrary to Attic usage,

with the potential optative:

Ῥεῖα θεός γ' ἐθέλων καὶ τηλόθεν ἄνδρα σαώσαι.

with the iterative hypothetical subjunctive in conditional, as well as hypoth.-relative and -temporal sentences:

Εἴ δ' αὖ τις ῥαίψῃ θεῶν ἐνὶ οἴνοπι πόντῳ, πλησόμεθα. Ζεὺς ἀνθρώπους ἐφορᾷ καὶ τίνυται, ὅς τις ἁμάρτῃ. Ὦ φίλοι, οὐ γάρ πω καταδυσόμεθ' ἀχνύμενοί περ εἰς Ἀΐδαο δόμους, πρὶν μόρσιμον ἦμαρ ἐπέλθῃ.

frequently also in comparisons:

Ὡς δ' ὅτε καπνὸς ἰὼν ἐξ ἄστεος αἰθέρ' ἵκηται τηλόθεν ἐκ νήσου, τὴν δήιοι ἀμφιμάχονται, ὡς ἀπ' Ἀχιλλῆος κεφαλῆς σέλας αἰθέρ' ἵκανε.

with the indicative implying unreality:

ἔνθα με κῦμ' ἀπέερσε might have swept away.

The infinitive with the force of an optative:

Ζεῦ ἄνα, Τηλέμαχόν μοι ἐν ἀνδράσιν ὄλβιον εἶναι, καί οἱ πάντα γένοιτο, ὅσα φρεσὶν ᾗσι μενοινᾷ.

The infinitive with the force of an imperative:

Νοστήσας δὴ ἔπειτα φίλην ἐς πατρίδα γαῖαν σῆμά τέ οἱ χεῦαι καὶ ἐπὶ κτέρεα κτερίξαι πολλὰ μάλ', ὅσσα ἔοικε, καὶ ἀνέρι μητέρα δοῦναι.

Introductory Notes.

171. 1. There are two main divisions of sentences:

a) such as contain a simple statement or assertion: (neg. οὐ). b) such as express a wish, desire, command: (neg. μή).

The modal particle ἄν, which is often approximately rendered by: "possibly, perhaps, if the opportunity should present itself" (see 174, 2), is of frequent occurrence in statements, but rarely found in sentences of the second kind.

Note. - Position of ἄν. Ἄν is, as a rule, placed after its verb. Often, however, it is attached to some prominent word in the sentence, esp. to interrogatives, negatives, and adverbs. In relative and conjunctional clauses which require the verb to be in the subjunctive ἄν stands next to the relative or to the conjunction, with which it often forms one word (ἐάν, ὅταν, ἐπάν, ἐπειδάν).

A. MOODS IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES.

172. The indicative mood expresses in general the relation of reality and, in consequence, has its proper place in declaratory sentences. In this the Greek is not at variance with our idiom. However, there are some uses of the indicative peculiar to Greek.

The imperfect without ἄν stands in certain impersonal expressions which imply ability, possibility, necessity, duty, propriety. In English we employ, as a rule, a different mood.

ἔδει, ἐχρῆν, προσῆκεν oportet, decet or oportebat, decebat, it would be necessary etc.; you (one) should or ought - it would have been necessary etc.; you (one) should or ought to have -

ἐξῆν, εἰκός, δίκαιον, ἀναγκαῖον ἦν aequum est, erat, it would be possible, proper - it would have been proper - you (one) might, you (one) might have -

προαιρετέον, παιδευτέον ἦν praeferendum est, erat, you (one) ought to educate - you (one) ought to have educated.

The thought implied here (not so in 172, 3!) is this:

you ought etc. to do, but you do not, you ought to have done, but you did not.

Τί σιγᾷς; οὐκ ἐχρῆν σιγᾶν, τέκνον you ought not. Αἰσχρῶς κακὰ εἰργάσω τούτους, οὓς ἥκιστα ἔδει.

Note. - Ἔδει etc. may, of course, also denote reality (it was necessary). It has, therefore, three meanings: it was necessary, it would be n., it would have been n.

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THE INDICATIVE MOOD.

To denote a true case of unreality, ἄν must be added, according to 172, 3: ἔδει ἄν it would be or would have been necessary.

The indicative of the historical tenses without ἄν expresses an unattainable wish. It is preceded by εἴθε, εἰ γάρ, ὡς. The negative is μή.

a) The imperfect refers to the present. b) The aorist refers to the past.

Εἴθε ἦσθα δυνατὸς δρᾶν, ὅσον πρόθυμος εἶ O that you were able. Εἴθ' εὕρομέν σ' Ἄδμητε μὴ λυπούμενον Would that we had found you.

Note. - A hopeless wish may also be expressed by ὤφελον, -ες, -εν etc. with the present or aorist infinitive.

Ἀλλ' ὤφελε μὲν Κῦρος ζῆν Would that Cyrus were alive. Ὡς ὤφελον πάροιθεν ἐκλιπεῖν βίον O that I had departed life before.

The indicative of the historical tenses with ἄν may express unreality. The negative is μή.

a) The imperfect with ἄν refers to the present:

ἔλεγον ἄν dicerem I should say (but now I do not say).

b) The aorist with ἄν refers to the past:

ἔλεξα ἄν } dixissem I should have said εἶπον ἄν } (but I did not say).

Examples are given in 185.

Again, the indicative of the historical tenses with ἄν may express past potentiality. "The Potential Indicative."

ἔλεγεν (εἶπεν) ἄν τις diceres one (you) might have said; θᾶττον ἢ ὡς τις ἂν ᾤετο faster than you would have believed. Εἴ τις Κλεάρχῳ δοκοίη βλακεύειν, ἔπαισεν ἄν he would sometimes apply the cane: iterative ἄν.

Note. - Accordingly, the indicatives of the historical tenses are capable of expressing three different relations:

a) past reality, 167, 3; b) unreality, 172, 3; c) past potentiality, 172, 4.

173. The subjunctive is the mood of anticipation, inasmuch as it expresses that the speaker anticipates something to happen or to be done.

The hortatory subjunctive is used in exhortations. It is almost confined to the 1. person plural. The negative is μή.

Ἴωμεν eamus let us go. Καὶ δὴ λέγωμεν. Ἃ ψέγωμεν ἡμεῖς μὴ μιμώμεθα.

Note. - To the 2. and 3. persons commands are given in the imperative, 175.

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SYNTAX.

The deliberative subjunctive is used in questions of appeal. It stands almost only in the 1. person. The negative is μή.

Τί ποιῶμεν; quid faciamus? what shall we do? Εἴπωμεν ἢ σιγῶμεν; ἢ τί δράσομεν; see 169, 1. Πότερον βίαν φῶμεν ἢ μὴ φῶμεν εἶναι;

The prohibitive subjunctive is used in prohibitions. The 2. and 3. persons of the aor. subj. are used instead of the neg. aor. imperative. The negative is μή.

Μὴ ποιήσῃς ne feceris: do not do! Μηδὲν ἀθυμήσητε ἕνεκα τῶν γεγενημένων.

174. The optative is the mood of thought or supposition, inasmuch as it expresses that the speaker fancies something to be possible. It is used

without ἄν to denote an attainable wish. It may take in addition the particles:

εἴθε, εἰ γάρ, ὡς O that, O if, Would that. The negative is μή.

Ὦ παῖ, γένοιο πατρὸς εὐτυχέστερος. Μή μοι γένοιθ' ἃ βούλομ', ἀλλ' ἃ συμφέρει.

Note. - For the method of expressing a hopeless wish, see 172, 2.

with ἄν to express possibility (may might, can could, will shall, possibly, perhaps, peradventure). It is apt to render a command less imperative or a statement less positive. The negative is οὐ. The Potential Optative.

Ἴσως ἄν τις εἴποι forsitan dixerit quispiam, perhaps somebody may say. Ὥρα ἂν εἴη συσκευάζεσθαι it may be time, - I believe, it is time.

Ὦ παῖ, γένοιο πατρὸς εὐτυχέστερος, τὰ δ' ἄλλ' ὅμοιος, καὶ γένοι' ἂν οὐ κακός.

Note. - For the potential indicative (past potentiality), see 172, 4. Notice the difference

between εἴποι (λέγοι) ἄν τις dixerit quispiam and εἶπεν (ἔλεγεν) ἄν τις diceres.

175. The imperative denotes a positive demand. The negative is μή. See the examples in 169, 3.

A prohibition is expressed by the present imperative or aorist subjunctive with μή:

μὴ ποίει or μὴ ποιήσῃς, μὴ ποιείτω or μὴ ποιήσῃ,

in the third person more frequently μὴ ποιησάτω.

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MOODS IN DEPENDENT SENTENCES.

B. MOODS IN DEPENDENT SENTENCES.

SEQUENCE OF MOOD.

176. 1. Greek has no sequence of tenses, but a sequence of mood, which presupposes the distinction of principal and historical tenses.

Principal tenses are all such verbal forms as refer either to the present or to the future: the present, perfect, and future tenses of the indicative; the potential optative; all subjunctives and imperatives.

Historical tenses are all such verbal forms as refer to the past: the aorist indicative, the imperfect, the pluperfect, the historical present, the potential indicative.

The construction of dependent sentences varies, of course, and accordingly the verb is sometimes required to be in the indicative, sometimes in the subjunctive, and sometimes in the optative. Now the sequence of mood briefly stated is this: When the construction of a sentence would require the verb to be in the subjunctive with or without ἄν, or in the indicative without ἄν, the writer may employ the optative without ἄν (called the Indirect Optative from its frequent occurrence in the Indirect Discourse; see 177, 193). However, these subjunctives or indicatives can be changed to the optative only when they depend upon an historical tense. On the contrary, the indicative with ἄν (172, 3 unreality, or 172, 4 past potentiality), or the optative with ἄν (174, 2 present potentiality) are never changed to the Indirect Optative, but remain unaltered.

The subject of a dependent sentence is often "anticipated," i.e. placed for emphasis in the principal sentence, and made the object of the principal verb (Anticipation or prolepsis). For example:

Οἶον ἔφασαν εἶναι ἣν κατωρυγμένος. Ἐξήγγειλε τοῖς φίλοις τὴν κρίσιν τοῦ Ὀρόντα ὡς ἐγένετο.

SIMPLE SENTENCES IN INDIR. DISCOURSE.

177. They are introduced by ὅτι, ὡς that, and take

after a princ. tense the indic. (potent., unreal.), after an hist. tense the opt. (potent., unreal.), rarely the indicative.

For other cases of indirect discourse, see 193, 1 and 202, 2, n. 1. The negative is οὐ.

Λέγει ὁ κατήγορος, ὡς ὑβριστής εἰμι καὶ βίαιος. Κῦρος ἔλεγεν, ὅτι ἡ ὁδὸς ἔσοιτο πρὸς βασιλέα μέγαν. Ἔλεγον, ὅτι Κῦρος μὲν τέθνηκεν, Ἀριαῖος δὲ πεφευγὼς ἐν τῷ σταθμῷ εἴη.

Note. - The sentence ἔλεγεν, ὅτι ἀδικοίην (present opt.) may mean: both: he said [that] I was doing wrong (direct: ἀδικεῖς), and: he said [that] I had been doing wrong (direct: ἠδίκεις), 169, 4.

1 (potent., unreal.) = "unless the expression of potentiality or unreality should require a different mood." See 176, 4.

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SYNTAX.

DEPENDENT CAUSAL CLAUSES.

178. They are introduced by

ὅτι, διότι, ὡς because, as, quod, ἐπεί since, because, ἐπειδή inasmuch as, quoniam, ὅτε, ὁπότε since then, quando,

and take after a princ. tense the indic.; after an hist. tense the indic. (point of view of writer) or the opt. (view of leading subject) (potent. or unreal.) The negative is οὐ.

Ἀθηναῖοι ἐνόμισαν ἡττᾶσθαι ὅτι οὐ πολὺ ἐνίκων (reason assigned by writer). Οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι Περικλέα ἐκάκιζον, ὅτι στρατηγὸς ὢν οὐκ ἐπεξάγοι (reason ass. by the κακίζοντες). Ἐθαύμαζον οἱ Ἕλληνες, ὅτι οὐδαμοῦ Κῦρος φαίνοιτο οὐδ' ἄλλος ἀπ' αὐτοῦ οὐδεὶς παρείη. Δέομαί σου παραμεῖναι ἡμῖν, ὡς ἐγὼ οὐδ' ἂν ἑνὸς ἥδιον ἀκούσαιμι ἢ σοῦ.

DEPENDENT OR INDIRECT QUESTIONS.

179. 1. They are introduced by interrogative or relative pronouns and adverbs (130), or by the interrogative particles:

εἰ if, whether, num, πότερον - ἤ, εἰ - ἤ whether - or, πότερα - ἤ, εἴτε - εἴτε utrum - an.

They take after a princ. tense the indic.; after an hist. tense the opt. (rarely the indic.) (pot. or unreal.) The negative is οὐ.

Συμβουλευόμεθά σοι, τί χρὴ ποιεῖν. Ἐπήρετο τὸν Μηδοσάδην, εἰ ἀληθῆ ταῦτ' εἴη. Οἷων ἂν ἐλπίδων ἐμαυτὸν στερήσαιμι, ταῦτα λέξω. Ξενοφῶν οὐ τοῦτο πρῶτον ἠρώτα, πότερον λαβὼν εἴη αὐτῷ πορεύεσθαι ἢ μένειν, ἀλλὰ τοῦτ' ἐπυνθάνετο, ὅπως ἂν κάλλιστα πορευθείη.

Note 1. - Observe that εἰ has not the same limitations as si in Latin.

Note 2. - Ordinarily the negative is οὐ. But μή is not unfrequently found, esp. in the second part of alternative indirect questions.

Dependent questions implying doubt (173, 2) take

after a princ. tense the subjunctive, after an hist. tense the optative or subjunctive.

The negative is always μή.

Ὁρῶ σε ἀποροῦντα, ποίαν ὁδὸν ἐπὶ τὸν βίον τράπῃ which road to take. Ὁ Θηβαῖος ἠπόρει, ὅ,τι χρήσαιτο τῷ πράγματι what to make of it.

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CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES.

CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES.

180. 1. They are introduced by ὥστε (ὡς) so that, so (such ...) as.

An actual result (histor. fact) requires ὥστε with the indic. (pot., unreal.), neg. οὐ,

a merely conceivable (expected, possible) result or tendency shading over into purpose requires ὥστε (ὡς) with the inf., neg. μή.

Ἦν ψῦχος δεινόν, ὥστε τὸ ὕδωρ ἐπήγνυτο. Ἔχω τριήρεις ὥστε ἑλεῖν τὸ ἐκείνων πλοῖον so as to be able. Κραυγὴν πολλὴν ἐποίουν οἱ στρατιῶται καλοῦντες ἀλλήλους, ὥστε καὶ τοὺς πολεμίους ἀκούειν could hear or could not help hearing it.

The infinitive is regularly used in the following cases:

a) to denote an intended result:

Πᾶν ποιοῦσιν ὥστε δίκην μὴ διδόναι. Πάντας οὕτω διατιθεὶς ἀπεπέμπετο ὥστε αὐτῷ μᾶλλον φίλους εἶναι ἢ βασιλεῖ.

b) after such expressions as: to be able, qualified; to bring about, effect; to be such as; e.g.

Τὸ θεῖον τοιοῦτόν ἐστιν ὥστε πανταχοῦ παρεῖναι. Τίς οὕτω δεινός ἐστι λέγειν ὥστε σε πεῖσαι;

c) after a comparative with ἤ, or after a negative; e.g.

Βραχύτερα ἠκόντιζον ἢ ὡς ἐξικνεῖσθαι ἡμῶν. Ταῦτα οὐ πάλαι ἐστὶ γεγενημένα, ὥστε ἀγνοεῖν ὑμᾶς.

d) when ὥστε means on condition that (= provided that, dummodo) and takes the place of the more frequent ἐφ' ᾧ, ἐφ' ᾧτε with inf. (or fut. indic. 191, 3. c).

Πολλὰ Τιμασίωνι οἱ Ἡρακλεῶται ὑπισχνοῦντο ὥστε ἐκπλεῖν. Ἔφασαν ἀποδώσειν τοὺς νεκρούς, ἐφ' ᾧ μὴ καίειν τὰς οἰκίας.

Note 1. - Ὥστε, with the force wherefore, consequently, itaque, sometimes introduces independent clauses.

Εἰς τὴν ὑστεραίαν οὐχ ἧκε Τισσαφέρνης· ὥσθ' οἱ Ἕλληνες ἐφρόντιζον.

Note 2. - For the subject (nom. or acc.) of the infinitive, see 197.

FINAL CLAUSES.

181. 1. Final clauses are introduced by

ἵνα, ὡς, ὅπως, ut, in order that, negatived ἵνα μή, ὡς μή, ὅπως μή or μή, ne, lest, in order that - not.

After a princ. tense they always take the subj. (pres. or aor.), after an hist. tense they generally take the opt. (pres. or aor.), less frequently the subjunctive.

Page 142

SYNTAX.

Μὴ φθόνει τοῖς εὐτυχοῦσι, μὴ δοκῇς εἶναι κακός. Ταῦτ' εἰπὼν εὐθὺς ἀνέστη, ἵνα περαίνοιτο τὰ δέοντα. Τὰ πλοῖα Ἀβροκόμας κατέκαυσεν, ἵνα μὴ Κῦρος διαβῇ.

In like manner, final object clauses after verbs of fearing and other expressions that imply apprehension, anxiety, alarm,

introduced by μή, ne, that, lest, negatived μὴ οὐ, ne non, that - not,

always take after a princ. tense the subj., after an hist. tense the opt., less frequently the subjunctive.

Δέδοικα, μὴ ἐπιλαθώμεθα τῆς οἴκαδε ὁδοῦ. Ἐφοβεῖτο, μὴ οὐ δύνατο ἐκ τῆς χώρας ἐξελθεῖν.

Note. - When these verbs signify: to scruple, hesitate, be reluctant, shrink from, like vereor, metuo, dubito in Latin, they require the infinitive. See An. 1, 3, 17.

Final object clauses after verbs of caring and other expressions that imply care, anxiety, concern, endeavor,

as ἐπιμέλομαι, φροντίζω take care, am concerned, σκοπῶ, σκοποῦμαι see, consider, μέλει μοι it is an object of care, thought to me, I mind, σκεπτέον (ἐστίν) (you, we) must see to it that, - examine, βουλεύομαι deliberate, παρασκευάζομαι get ready, prepare myself,

introduced by ὅπως, ὡς how, that, negatived ὅπως μή, ὡς μή that - not, how - not,

take either the subj. or the opt. (see 181, 1) or generally the future indicative (according to 191, 3 c). Ὅπως in this case is a relative and the clauses are final rel. clauses.

Σκεπτέόν μοι δοκεῖ, ὅπως ὡς ἀσφαλέστατα μενοῦμεν. Κῦρος βουλεύεται, ὅπως μήποτε ἔσται ἐπὶ τῷ ἀδελφῷ.

Compare An. 3, 1, 38 with 3, 1, 13. 16; 4, 6, 10 (bis) with 1, 3, 11.

Note 1. - In independent sentences expressing apprehension, warning, a cautious or ironical assertion,

μή or ὅπως μή with the subj. means: I wish that - not; I am afraid that, μὴ οὐ with the subj. means: I rather think that - not; not ... I dare say, οὐ μή with the aor. subj. or fut. indic. means: hardly, very improbably, not at all likely, surely not.

Μὴ λίαν πικρὸν εἰπεῖν ᾖ. Ὅπως μὴ ποιήσητε, ὃ πολλάκις ὑμᾶς ἔβλαψεν. Ἀλλὰ μὴ οὐ τοῦτ' ᾖ χαλεπόν, θάνατον ἐκφυγεῖν, ἀλλὰ πονηρίαν. Τὸν ἄνδρ' ἐκεῖνον οὔ τι μὴ λίπω ποτέ. Τοὺς πονηροὺς οὐ μή ποτε βελτίους ποιήσετε.

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CONDITIONAL CLAUSES.

Note 2. - Μή with the indicative after verbs of fearing or caring has interrogative force (if not, whether not), and often represents the thing feared as positively taking or having taken place:

Φοβούμεθα, μὴ ἄμα ἀμφοτέρων ἡμαρτήκαμεν we fear we have missed. Ὅρα μή with the ind.: (see if not) perhaps, beware lest; e.g. ὅρα μὴ σκῆψιν οὐκ οὖσαν τιθῇς. with the subj.: take care not to, beware lest: μὴ γῆμα νῦν σαυτῷ τιθῇς.

HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITIONS.

182. 1. Hypothetical propositions are introduced by

εἰ, ἐάν (= εἰ ἄν, also ἄν, ἤν) if, in case that, if perchance.

The negative of the condition is always μή; that of the conclusion either οὐ or μή, according to its character as a statement or a wish. See 171, 1.

Note. - The condition is also called protasis, the conclusion apodosis.

Classification.

183. 1. There are four types of hypothetical sentences:

I. The First Type (expressing conditioned reality): Asserts merely the nexus between protasis and apodosis.

II. The Second Type (expressing unreality): Represents the unreality of both protasis and apodosis.

III. The Third Type (expressing potentiality): Represents both protasis and apodosis as conceivable.

IV. The Fourth Type (expressing a single future or repeated occurrence): Represents the protasis as possible or even as expected in a certain contingency.

Note. - The choice of any one of the four forms depends on the point of view of the writer, which is, of course, somewhat free to shift.

The conditional clauses admit of the following variety of construction:

Type	In the Protasis	In the Apodosis
I. First Type	εἰ with ind.	indicative
II. Second Type	εἰ with hist. tense ind.	ἄν with hist. tense ind.
a) present	εἰ with impf.	ἄν with impf.
b) past	εἰ with aor. ind. (plup.)	ἄν with aor. ind. (plup.)
III. Third Type	εἰ with opt.	ἄν with opt.
IV. Fourth Type a) fut., pres.	ἐάν with subj.	princ. tense ind.
IV. Fourth Type b) past	εἰ with opt.	hist. tense ind.
The negative is	μή	οὐ, μή (182, 2).

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SYNTAX.

Conditional Sentences of the First Type.

184. This form merely sets forth the nexus between the conclusion and the condition; in other words: it sets forth the conclusion as real, if the condition be real - but implies nothing as to the latter.

Εἰ with ind. of any tense - indic. of any tense.

Εἰ βούλει - δύνασαι. If you wish, you can: Si vis, potes.

Εἰ θεοί τι δρῶσιν αἰσχρόν, οὐκ εἰσὶν θεοί. Εἰ δειν' ἔδρασας, δεινὰ καὶ παθεῖν σὲ χρή. Εἰ μὴ καθέξεις γλῶσσαν, ἔσται σοι κακά.

Conditional Sentences of the Second Type.

185. Both the condition and the conclusion are represented as unreal or contrary to fact.

Εἰ w. hist. tense indic., ἄν w. hist. tense indic.; for the present: impf., ἄν w. impf., for the past: aor. (plupf.), ἄν w. aor. (plupf.).

a) Present time:

Εἰ ἐβούλου, ἐδύνασο ἄν. Si velles, posses (sed non vis). If you wished, you could (but you do not wish).

Φῶς εἰ μὴ εἴχομεν, ὅμοιοι τοῖς τυφλοῖς ἂν ἦμεν. Εἰ μὴ γὰρ ἦν Χρύσιππος, οὐκ ἂν ἦν στοά.

b) Past time:

Εἰ ἐβουλήθης, ἐδυνήθης ἄν. Si voluisses, potuisses (sed non voluisti), If you had wished, you could have (but you did not wish).

Οὐκ ἂν ἐποίησεν Ἀγασίας, εἰ μὴ ἐγὼ ἐκέλευσα. Εἰ τριάκοντα μόναι μετέπεσον τῶν ψήφων, ἀπεπεφεύγη ἄν.

c) Mixed Forms:

Εἰ μὴ ὑμεῖς ἤλθετε, ἐπορευόμεθα ἂν ἐπὶ βασιλέα. Εἰ γάρ σὺ μὲν παῖς ἦσθ', ἐγὼ δὲ σὸς πατήρ, ἔκτεινά τοί σ' ἂν κοὐ φυγαῖς ἐζημίουν.

Note. - In conditional sentences of the second type, the imperfect occasionally expresses continuance of a past, and the aor. ind. instantaneous occurrence of a present action.

Οὐκ ἂν Ἀγαμέμνων νήσων ἠπειρώτης ὧν ἐκράτει, εἰ μή τι καὶ ναυτικὸν εἶχεν. A. would not have been master, had he not had... Εἰ μὴ πατὴρ ἦσθα, εἶπον ἄν σ' οὐκ εὖ φρονεῖν.

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CONDITIONAL CLAUSES.

Conditional Sentences of the Third Type.

186. Both the condition and the conclusion are set forth as purely imaginable, or as mere thoughts or suppositions that are gratuitously assumed by the speaker.

Εἰ with optative - ἄν with optative.

Εἰ βούλοιο, δύναιο ἄν: Si velis, possis. If you should wish (= Suppose you were to wish), you would be able.

Εἴ τις ξυνελὼν ταῦτα φαίη, ὀρθῶς ἂν εἴποι. Εἰ ἀναγκαῖον εἴη ἀδικεῖν ἢ ἀδικεῖσθαι, ἑλοίμην ἂν μᾶλλον ἀδικεῖσθαι ἢ ἀδικεῖν.

Note. - Suppositions that are contrary to fact may evidently also be expressed by the speaker, if he chooses, in this potential form. See 183, 1. note.

Καὶ ἔγωγ' ἄν, εἰ σύ εἴην (which is contrary to fact!), εὑροίην ἂν ποταμὸν ὥσπερ Ἀργεῖος.

Conditional Sentences of the Fourth Type.

187. 1. The condition is represented as objectively possible, or even as anticipated under certain circumstances. The conclusion is set forth as positively certain. This form of hypothetical proposition is especially employed to express thoughts or truths of universal application and is, therefore, of constant occurrence in legal phraseology.

Sentences of this type admit of a double construction.

I. The condition refers to a single future occurrence (if).

Ἐάν with subj. (pres. or aor.) - fut. indic. or imperative.

Ἐὰν βούλῃ (βουληθῇς), δυνήσῃ. Si voles (volueris), poteris. If you wish, you will be able.

Ἥξω παρὰ σὲ αὔριον, ἐὰν θεὸς ἐθέλῃ. Νέος ἂν πονήσῃς, γῆρας ἕξεις εὐθαλές. Ἐὰν δ' ἔχωμεν χρήματα, ἕξομεν φίλους.

Compare Donec eris felix, multos numerabis amicos.

Here the pres. subj. stands in the sense of the Latin future, the aor. subj. stands in the sense of the Latin fut. perfect.

II. The condition implies repeated occurrence (as often as).

a) in the present:

Ἐάν with subj. (pres. or aor.) - present indicative.

Ἐὰν βούλῃ (βουληθῇς), δύνασαι. Cum vis (voluisti), potes. If (= whenever) you wish, you (always) can.

Ἅπας λόγος, ἂν ἀπῇ τὰ πράγματα, μάταιος φαίνεται. Ἄν ἐγγὺς ἔλθῃ θάνατος, οὐδεὶς βούλεται θνῄσκειν.

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SYNTAX.

b) in the past:

Εἰ with opt. (pres. or aor.) - hist. tense ind. (esp. impf.).

Εἰ βούλοιο (βουληθείης), ἐδύνασο. Cum volebas (volueras), poteras. If (= as often as) you (had) wished, you (always) could.

Ξενοφῶν εἴ πού τι ὁρῴη βρωτόν, διεδίδου. Εἴ τίς γέ τι Κύρῳ προστάξαντι καλῶς ὑπηρετήσειεν, οὐδενὶ πώποτε ἀχάριστον εἴασε τὴν προθυμίαν. - (See Anab. 2, 3, 11; 1, 9, 19. cf. 172, 4.)

Here the pres. opt. stands in the sense of the Lat. imperfect, the aor. opt. stands in the sense of the Lat. pluperfect.

Note. - These hypothetical forms account for the construction of those temporal and relative clauses (190, 3. and 4. b; 191, 4. d) in which

ὅταν, ἕως ἄν, πρὶν ἄν - ὅς ἄν, ὅπως ἄν, ᾗ ἄν take the subj. after a princ. tense, or ὅτε, ἕως, πρίν - ὅς, ὅπως, ᾗ take the opt. after an hist. tense.

All these clauses are equivalent in meaning to hypothetical propositions.

188. 1. The protasis of one type is sometimes followed by the apodosis of another. In particular, a potential apodosis (as a more polite and less peremptory mode of expression, 174, 2) is often joined to a protasis of the first or the fourth type.

Δείξαιμι ἂν ταῦτα, εἴ μοί τινα βούλεσθε συμπέμψαι. Οὐδέ, ἂν πολλαὶ γέφυραι ὦσι, ἔχοιμεν ἄν, ὅποι σωθῶμεν.

Besides the simple particles εἰ and ἐάν, the following combinations are worthy of note:

a) εἰ μή after a negative means (like nisi): save, except, unless. b) εἰ δὲ μή, when used without a verb after εἰ μέν (μή), ἐάν μέν (μή), is the regular expression for the English: otherwise, or else. c) εἴπερ with the indic. means: si quidem, if indeed, if really, if it be true that. Sometimes it is equivalent to: since indeed, etc. d) εἰ μὴ ἄρα with the indic. is (like nisi forte, nisi vero) used chiefly in irony: unless perhaps, unless indeed, unless of course, unless forsooth. e) ὥσπερ ἂν εἰ with the opt. (denoting potentiality) or with hist. tense ind. (denoting unreality): (just) as if, as though.

CONCESSIVE AND ADVERSATIVE CLAUSES.

189. Being introduced by εἰ καί, ἐὰν καί granting that, although, καὶ εἰ (κεί), καὶ ἐάν (κἄν) even if, even supposing, even though, although, they perfectly agree in construction with conditional sentences. Their negative is μή.

Κεί μὴ πέποιθα, τοὔργον ἔστ' ἐργαστέον. Γελᾷ δ' ὁ μωρός, κἂν τι μὴ γελοῖον ᾖ.

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TEMPORAL CLAUSES.

Note. - Sentences introduced by "although, even though," may also be expressed by the participle with καί or καίπερ prefixed, the negative being οὐ. See 203, 3. e.

TEMPORAL CLAUSES.

190. 1. They are introduced by the temporal particles

ὅτε, ὁπότε, ἡνίκα, ὡς when, cum with the indic., ἐπεί, ἐπειδή when, after, cum with the subj., ἐπεὶ (ἐπειδή) πρῶτον (τάχιστα) as soon as, no sooner ... than, cum primum, ἀφ' οὗ, ἐξ οὗ from the time that, since, ex quo, ἐν ᾧ during the time that, while, dum, ἕως, ἔστε, μέχρι (οὗ) while, so long as, until, dum, quoad, πρίν before, until, priusquam.

An actual (present or past) event is referred to by the indicative. The neg. is οὐ.

Ἐπεὶ πάντες συνῆλθον, ἐκαθέζοντο· ὅτε δὲ ταῦτα ἦν, ἦσαν μέσαι νύκτες.

An event may, however, be represented as possible only or as anticipated (and occasionally as intended). And here too, as in hypothetical clauses (187 with note), it may be referred to as occurring only once at some future time or as one that may repeatedly take place. Then

a) the subjunctive with ἄν (neg. μή) must be used after a princ. tense, b) the optative without ἄν (neg. μή) is generally used after an hist. tense. For assimilation of mood in temporal clauses, see 192.

Note. - Ἄν (171, 2. note) attaches itself to the temporal particle, with which, if possible, it forms one word.

Τάφος δὲ ποῖος δέξεταί μ', ὅταν θάνω; Ἐπειδὰν ἅπαντα ἀκούσητε, κρίνατε. Μαινόμεθα πάντες, ὁπόταν ὀργιζώμεθα. Κῦρος ἐν τῷ παραδείσῳ ἐθήρευεν, ὁπότε γυμνάσαι βούλοιτο ἑαυτόν τε καὶ τοὺς ἵππους whenever. Μὴ ἀναμείνωμεν, ἕως ἂν (until) πλείους ἡμῶν οἱ πολέμιοι γένωνται, ἀλλ' ἴωμεν, ἕως (while) ἔτι οἰόμεθα εὐπετῶς ἂν (204) αὐτῶν κρατῆσαι.

Πρίν may always be followed by the infinitive (nom. or acc. with inf.: 197). Generally, however, it takes

a) After an affirmative principal sentence: the infinitive.

Διέβησαν πρὶν τοὺς ἄλλους ἀποκρίνασθαι. Πολλοὶ ἄνθρωποι ἀποθνῄσκουσι πρὶν δῆλοι (197, 3) γίγνεσθαι, οἷοι ἦσαν.

b) After a negative principal sentence:

the indicative, if an (historical) fact is referred to:

Οὐκ ἀπέπλευσαν, πρὶν ἐξεπολιόρκησαν τὴν πόλιν.

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SYNTAX.

the subjunctive with ἄν, if an expected (or intended) event is referred to:

Μὴ ἀπέλθητε, πρὶν ἂν ἀκούσητε τὸ πρᾶγμα. Οὐκ ἤθελον συμπλεῖν οἱ Κορίνθιοι, πρὶν ἂν τὰ Ἴσθμια ἑορτάσωσιν.

Note. - Πρίν never takes the optative except in indirect discourse (193, 2. b) or by way of mood assimilation (192).

RELATIVE CLAUSES.

191. 1. They are introduced by relative pronouns or adverbs.

Explanatory relative clauses, which merely serve to explain some single word, retain the mood and the negative of the corresponding independent sentences.

Πρᾶγμα, ὃ οὐκ ἐγένετο - ὃ οὐ γενήσεται - ὃ οὐκ ἂν γένοιτο - ὃ οὐκ ἂν ἐγένετο - ὃ μὴ γένοιτο - ὃ μήποτε ποιῶμεν - ὃ μὴ ποιεῖτε (ποιήσητε).

Contrary to Latin usage, we find in Greek

a) in causal rel.-clauses the indicative (neg. οὐ).

Θαυμαστόν ποιεῖς, ὃς (ὅτι) ἡμῖν οὐδὲν δίδως qui des.

b) in consecutive rel.-clauses the indicative, mostly the future (neg. οὐ).

Παῖδές μοι οὔπω εἰσίν, οἵ με θεραπεύσουσι qui me colant: to take care. Τίς οὕτω μαίνεται, ὅστις οὐ βούλεταί σοι φίλος εἶναι; as not to desire. Οὐκ ἔστιν ὅπως ἥβην κτήσῃ πάλιν αὖθις.

c) in final rel.-clauses regularly (even after a leading histor. tense) the fut. indic. (neg. μή).

Ἡγεμόνα αἰτήσομεν Κῦρον, ὅστις ἡμᾶς ἀπάξει qui abducat. Ἔδοξε τῷ δήμῳ τριάκοντα ἄνδρας ἑλέσθαι, οἳ τοὺς πατρίους νόμους συγγράψουσι, καθ' οὓς πολιτεύσουσι conscriberent, viverent.

Hypothetical rel.-clauses, i.e. such as are equivalent to (and may be resolved into) hypothetical ones, require the moods of the hypothetical protases: 183 (neg. μή). See however 192.

ὅς (ὅστις) = εἴ τις, ὃς ἄν (ὅστις ἄν) = ἐάν τις.

a) First Type (184): Ἃ μὴ οἶδα, οὐδὲ οἴομαι εἰδέναι. Ἃ μὴ προσήκει, μήτ' ἄκουε μήθ' ὅρα.

b) Second Type (185): Οὐκ ἂν ἐπεχειροῦμεν πράττειν ἃ (εἴ τινα) μὴ ἠπιστάμεθα.

c) Third Type (186): Ἐγὼ μὲν ὀκνοίην ἂν εἰς τὰ πλοῖα ἐμβαίνειν, ἃ ἡμῖν Κῦρος δοίη (εἴ τινα δοίη).

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INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

d) Fourth Type (187):

A single future occurrence: Ἀπόκριναι ὅ,τι ἂν σε ἐρωτῶ. Τῷ ἀνδρί, ὃν ἂν ἕλησθε, πείσομαι.

Repeated occurrence, pres.: Νέος δ' ἀπόλλυθ', ὅντιν' ἂν φιλῇ θεός. past: Οὗ ἅψαιτο Μίδας, ἐγίγνετο χρυσός.

Note. - Here belongs: Ἥξω ἔχων ἱππέας ὡς ἂν δύναμαι πλείστους. 187, n.

192. The verbs of final, temporal and relative clauses are occasionally "assimilated to" (made to agree in mood with) that of the main sentence. This assimilation of mood is of two kinds:

An optative without ἄν may follow an opt. with or without ἄν:

Εἴθε ἥκοις, ἵνα γνοίης. Ἔροιτό τις, ἣν ἕκαστος εἰδείη τέχνην. Οὐκ ἂν εἴη πᾶν ἄθλον βασιλεύς, ὡς πᾶσι φόβον παράσχοι.

The indicative of some hist. tense without ἄν may be used after an expression of unreality (172, 2. 3, whether statement or wish) in the main sentence.

Εἰ γὰρ ὤφελον οἷοί τ' εἶναι οἱ πολλοὶ τὰ μέγιστα κακὰ ἐργάζεσθαι, ἵνα οἷοί τ' ἦσαν καὶ ἀγαθὰ τὰ μέγιστα. Εἰ τῷ ὄντι ξένος ἐτύγχανον ὤν, συνεγινώσκετε ἄν μοι, εἰ ἐν ἐκείνῃ τῇ φωνῇ τε καὶ τῷ τρόπῳ ἔλεγον, ἐν οἷσπερ ἐτεθράμμην.

A Summary of the Rules for Indirect Discourse.

193. 1. When independent sentences, whether statements or wishes, are indirectly quoted, i.e. are made to depend upon a verb of saying or thinking,

a) statements require the infinitive (for whose subject, see 197), or the participle (202, 2, n. 1) or a finite verb with ὡς or ὅτι.

E.g. Directly quoted: Σωκράτης ἔλεγεν· "οἱ θεοὶ πάντα ἴσασιν." Indirectly: Σωκράτης ἔλεγεν ὅτι οἱ θεοὶ πάντα ἴσασιν or εἰδείεν, or τοὺς θεοὺς πάντα εἰδέναι.

b) wishes require the infinitive (for whose subject, see 197).

E.g. Directly: Μὴ παραχωρεῖτε (παραχωρήσητε) τῆς τάξεως. Indirectly: Ἀξιῶ ὑμᾶς μὴ παραχωρεῖν (-ρῆσαι) τῆς τάξεως.

When dependent sentences are to be quoted indirectly:

a) After a principal tense, both the mood and the tense of the direct discourse remain unchanged. b) After an historical tense, the potential and the unreal moods remain unchanged, while indicatives, as well as subjunctives with or without ἄν, may be retained or changed to the indirect optative without ἄν. (See 176, 4.)

Not unfrequently the indirect turns abruptly into the direct discourse. See An. 1, 3, 14. 16. 20; 1, 9, 25.

Indirect discourse, introduced by ὅτι or ὡς, is occasionally changed to an infinitive construction; an indirect quotation with ὅτι (ὡς) or in the infinitive is sometimes continued by the indirect optative.

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SYNTAX.

SUMMING UP OF THE USES OF THE PARTICLE ἄν.

194. The modal particle ἄν can be used only:

With the indicative of the hist. tenses to denote unreality, 172, 3.

With the indicative of the hist. tenses to denote past potentiality (including the ἄν iterativum), 172, 4.

With the subjunctive in hypothetical clauses of the fourth type (both in the purely hypothetical and in the hyp.-temporal or hyp.-relative clauses), 187; 190, 3. 4; 191, 4.

With the optative to denote potentiality, 174, 2.

With the infinitive and the participle to denote potentiality or unreality, 204.

Rarely with the final particles ὡς, ὅπως (never with the final ἵνα; ἵν' ἄν is always relative = ubicunque). Ὡς ἂν μάθῃς αὐτάκουσον.

Note. - Ἄν sometimes occurs twice (πῶς ἂν οὐκ ἂν πάσχομεν;), or it is occasionally omitted (by the poets, Thucydides and Herodotus) where the above rules would require it. For the position of ἄν, see 171, note.

THE MOST COMMON GRECIAN MEASURES, WEIGHTS AND COINS.

MEASURES OF LENGTH.

στάδιον	πλέθρα	ὀργυιαί	πήχεις	πόδες	Meters	Feet
1	5	100	333 1/3	500	164	540
-	1 πλέθρον	20	66 2/3	100	32.8	108
-	-	1 ὀργυιά	3 1/3	5	1.64	5.4
-	-	-	1 πῆχυς	1 1/2	.492	1.6
-	-	-	-	1 πούς	.328	1.08

The above stadium was the itinerary stadium which was somewhat shorter than other stadia.

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MEASURES, WEIGHTS AND COINS.

The Olympic stadium = 600 ft., reckoning .32 m to the foot, = 192 m = 629 ft.

The Greek-Roman stadium = 600 ft., reckoning .29 m to the foot, = 178 m = 584 ft.

1 Parasang = 30 stadia = 4.92 km = 3.05 miles = an hour's march.

MEASURES OF CAPACITY.

Dry Measures.

μέδιμνος	χοῖνικες	Approximate gallons	Approximate pints
1	48	12	-
-	1 χοῖνιξ	-	2

Liquid Measures.

μετρητής	χόες	κοτύλαι	Approximate gallons	Approximate pints
1	12	144	9	-
-	1 χοῦς	12	-	6
-	-	1 κοτύλη	-	1/2

WEIGHTS AND COINS.

τάλαντον	μναῖ	δραχμαί	ὀβολοί	Grammes	Grains	Dollars	Cents
1	60	6000	36,000	26,400 =	405,000	1080	-
-	1 μνᾶ	100	600	440 =	6750	18	-
-	-	1 δραχμή	6	4.40 =	67.5	-	18
-	-	-	1 ὀβολός	.73 =	11.2	-	3

The ratio of gold to silver was 10 or (in commerce) 12 to 1.

The Persian Δαρεικός (στατήρ) was exactly one Attic gold stater = about $5.40.

Besides the above weights and coins of the Solonian coinage, the ancient Aeginetan commercial weights were in vogue still at the early Roman period. Of the latter, a talent = 36,156 grammes, a mina = 602.6 gr., a drachma = 6.03 gr.

§189

Concessive and Adversative Clauses

Concessive and Adversative Clauses

189. Being introduced by εἰ καί, ἐὰν καί granting that, although, καὶ εἰ (κεί), καὶ ἐάν (κἄν) even if, even supposing, even though, although, they perfectly agree in construction with conditional sentences. Their negative is μή.

Κεί μὴ πέποιθα, τοὔργον ἔστ' ἐργαστέον. Γελᾷ δ' ὁ μωρός, κἂν τι μὴ γελοῖον ᾖ.

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TEMPORAL CLAUSES.

Note. - Sentences introduced by "although, even though," may also be expressed by the participle with καί or καίπερ prefixed, the negative being οὐ. See 203, 3. e.

189. Being introduced by εἰ καί, ἐὰν καί granting that, although, καὶ εἰ (κεί), καὶ ἐάν (κἄν) even if, even supposing, even though, although, they perfectly agree in construction with conditional sentences. Their negative is μή.

Κεί μὴ πέποιθα, τοὔργον ἔστ' ἐργαστέον. Γελᾷ δ' ὁ μωρός, κἂν τι μὴ γελοῖον ᾖ.

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TEMPORAL CLAUSES.

Note. - Sentences introduced by "although, even though," may also be expressed by the participle with καί or καίπερ prefixed, the negative being οὐ. See 203, 3. e.

§190

Temporal Clauses

Temporal Clauses

190. 1. They are introduced by the temporal particles

ὅτε, ὁπότε, ἡνίκα, ὡς when, cum with the indic., ἐπεί, ἐπειδή when, after, cum with the subj., ἐπεὶ (ἐπειδή) πρῶτον (τάχιστα) as soon as, no sooner ... than, cum primum, ἀφ' οὗ, ἐξ οὗ from the time that, since, ex quo, ἐν ᾧ during the time that, while, dum, ἕως, ἔστε, μέχρι (οὗ) while, so long as, until, dum, quoad, πρίν before, until, priusquam.

An actual (present or past) event is referred to by the indicative. The neg. is οὐ.

Ἐπεὶ πάντες συνῆλθον, ἐκαθέζοντο· ὅτε δὲ ταῦτα ἦν, ἦσαν μέσαι νύκτες.

An event may, however, be represented as possible only or as anticipated (and occasionally as intended). And here too, as in hypothetical clauses (187 with note), it may be referred to as occurring only once at some future time or as one that may repeatedly take place. Then

a) the subjunctive with ἄν (neg. μή) must be used after a princ. tense, b) the optative without ἄν (neg. μή) is generally used after an hist. tense. For assimilation of mood in temporal clauses, see 192.

Note. - Ἄν (171, 2. note) attaches itself to the temporal particle, with which, if possible, it forms one word.

Τάφος δὲ ποῖος δέξεταί μ', ὅταν θάνω; Ἐπειδὰν ἅπαντα ἀκούσητε, κρίνατε. Μαινόμεθα πάντες, ὁπόταν ὀργιζώμεθα. Κῦρος ἐν τῷ παραδείσῳ ἐθήρευεν, ὁπότε γυμνάσαι βούλοιτο ἑαυτόν τε καὶ τοὺς ἵππους whenever. Μὴ ἀναμείνωμεν, ἕως ἂν (until) πλείους ἡμῶν οἱ πολέμιοι γένωνται, ἀλλ' ἴωμεν, ἕως (while) ἔτι οἰόμεθα εὐπετῶς ἂν (204) αὐτῶν κρατῆσαι.

Πρίν may always be followed by the infinitive (nom. or acc. with inf.: 197). Generally, however, it takes

a) After an affirmative principal sentence: the infinitive.

Διέβησαν πρὶν τοὺς ἄλλους ἀποκρίνασθαι. Πολλοὶ ἄνθρωποι ἀποθνῄσκουσι πρὶν δῆλοι (197, 3) γίγνεσθαι, οἷοι ἦσαν.

b) After a negative principal sentence:

the indicative, if an (historical) fact is referred to:

Οὐκ ἀπέπλευσαν, πρὶν ἐξεπολιόρκησαν τὴν πόλιν.

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SYNTAX.

the subjunctive with ἄν, if an expected (or intended) event is referred to:

Μὴ ἀπέλθητε, πρὶν ἂν ἀκούσητε τὸ πρᾶγμα. Οὐκ ἤθελον συμπλεῖν οἱ Κορίνθιοι, πρὶν ἂν τὰ Ἴσθμια ἑορτάσωσιν.

Note. - Πρίν never takes the optative except in indirect discourse (193, 2. b) or by way of mood assimilation (192).

190. 1. They are introduced by the temporal particles

ὅτε, ὁπότε, ἡνίκα, ὡς when, cum with the indic., ἐπεί, ἐπειδή when, after, cum with the subj., ἐπεὶ (ἐπειδή) πρῶτον (τάχιστα) as soon as, no sooner ... than, cum primum, ἀφ' οὗ, ἐξ οὗ from the time that, since, ex quo, ἐν ᾧ during the time that, while, dum, ἕως, ἔστε, μέχρι (οὗ) while, so long as, until, dum, quoad, πρίν before, until, priusquam.

An actual (present or past) event is referred to by the indicative. The neg. is οὐ.

Ἐπεὶ πάντες συνῆλθον, ἐκαθέζοντο· ὅτε δὲ ταῦτα ἦν, ἦσαν μέσαι νύκτες.

An event may, however, be represented as possible only or as anticipated (and occasionally as intended). And here too, as in hypothetical clauses (187 with note), it may be referred to as occurring only once at some future time or as one that may repeatedly take place. Then

a) the subjunctive with ἄν (neg. μή) must be used after a princ. tense, b) the optative without ἄν (neg. μή) is generally used after an hist. tense. For assimilation of mood in temporal clauses, see 192.

Note. - Ἄν (171, 2. note) attaches itself to the temporal particle, with which, if possible, it forms one word.

Τάφος δὲ ποῖος δέξεταί μ', ὅταν θάνω; Ἐπειδὰν ἅπαντα ἀκούσητε, κρίνατε. Μαινόμεθα πάντες, ὁπόταν ὀργιζώμεθα. Κῦρος ἐν τῷ παραδείσῳ ἐθήρευεν, ὁπότε γυμνάσαι βούλοιτο ἑαυτόν τε καὶ τοὺς ἵππους whenever. Μὴ ἀναμείνωμεν, ἕως ἂν (until) πλείους ἡμῶν οἱ πολέμιοι γένωνται, ἀλλ' ἴωμεν, ἕως (while) ἔτι οἰόμεθα εὐπετῶς ἂν (204) αὐτῶν κρατῆσαι.

Πρίν may always be followed by the infinitive (nom. or acc. with inf.: 197). Generally, however, it takes

a) After an affirmative principal sentence: the infinitive.

Διέβησαν πρὶν τοὺς ἄλλους ἀποκρίνασθαι. Πολλοὶ ἄνθρωποι ἀποθνῄσκουσι πρὶν δῆλοι (197, 3) γίγνεσθαι, οἷοι ἦσαν.

b) After a negative principal sentence:

the indicative, if an (historical) fact is referred to:

Οὐκ ἀπέπλευσαν, πρὶν ἐξεπολιόρκησαν τὴν πόλιν.

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SYNTAX.

the subjunctive with ἄν, if an expected (or intended) event is referred to:

Μὴ ἀπέλθητε, πρὶν ἂν ἀκούσητε τὸ πρᾶγμα. Οὐκ ἤθελον συμπλεῖν οἱ Κορίνθιοι, πρὶν ἂν τὰ Ἴσθμια ἑορτάσωσιν.

Note. - Πρίν never takes the optative except in indirect discourse (193, 2. b) or by way of mood assimilation (192).

§191-192

Relative Clauses

Relative Clauses

191. 1. They are introduced by relative pronouns or adverbs.

Explanatory relative clauses, which merely serve to explain some single word, retain the mood and the negative of the corresponding independent sentences.

Πρᾶγμα, ὃ οὐκ ἐγένετο - ὃ οὐ γενήσεται - ὃ οὐκ ἂν γένοιτο - ὃ οὐκ ἂν ἐγένετο - ὃ μὴ γένοιτο - ὃ μήποτε ποιῶμεν - ὃ μὴ ποιεῖτε (ποιήσητε).

Contrary to Latin usage, we find in Greek

a) in causal rel.-clauses the indicative (neg. οὐ).

Θαυμαστόν ποιεῖς, ὃς (ὅτι) ἡμῖν οὐδὲν δίδως qui des.

b) in consecutive rel.-clauses the indicative, mostly the future (neg. οὐ).

Παῖδές μοι οὔπω εἰσίν, οἵ με θεραπεύσουσι qui me colant: to take care. Τίς οὕτω μαίνεται, ὅστις οὐ βούλεταί σοι φίλος εἶναι; as not to desire. Οὐκ ἔστιν ὅπως ἥβην κτήσῃ πάλιν αὖθις.

c) in final rel.-clauses regularly (even after a leading histor. tense) the fut. indic. (neg. μή).

Ἡγεμόνα αἰτήσομεν Κῦρον, ὅστις ἡμᾶς ἀπάξει qui abducat. Ἔδοξε τῷ δήμῳ τριάκοντα ἄνδρας ἑλέσθαι, οἳ τοὺς πατρίους νόμους συγγράψουσι, καθ' οὓς πολιτεύσουσι conscriberent, viverent.

Hypothetical rel.-clauses, i.e. such as are equivalent to (and may be resolved into) hypothetical ones, require the moods of the hypothetical protases: 183 (neg. μή). See however 192.

ὅς (ὅστις) = εἴ τις, ὃς ἄν (ὅστις ἄν) = ἐάν τις.

a) First Type (184): Ἃ μὴ οἶδα, οὐδὲ οἴομαι εἰδέναι. Ἃ μὴ προσήκει, μήτ' ἄκουε μήθ' ὅρα.

b) Second Type (185): Οὐκ ἂν ἐπεχειροῦμεν πράττειν ἃ (εἴ τινα) μὴ ἠπιστάμεθα.

c) Third Type (186): Ἐγὼ μὲν ὀκνοίην ἂν εἰς τὰ πλοῖα ἐμβαίνειν, ἃ ἡμῖν Κῦρος δοίη (εἴ τινα δοίη).

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INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

d) Fourth Type (187):

A single future occurrence: Ἀπόκριναι ὅ,τι ἂν σε ἐρωτῶ. Τῷ ἀνδρί, ὃν ἂν ἕλησθε, πείσομαι.

Repeated occurrence, pres.: Νέος δ' ἀπόλλυθ', ὅντιν' ἂν φιλῇ θεός. past: Οὗ ἅψαιτο Μίδας, ἐγίγνετο χρυσός.

Note. - Here belongs: Ἥξω ἔχων ἱππέας ὡς ἂν δύναμαι πλείστους. 187, n.

192. The verbs of final, temporal and relative clauses are occasionally "assimilated to" (made to agree in mood with) that of the main sentence. This assimilation of mood is of two kinds:

An optative without ἄν may follow an opt. with or without ἄν:

Εἴθε ἥκοις, ἵνα γνοίης. Ἔροιτό τις, ἣν ἕκαστος εἰδείη τέχνην. Οὐκ ἂν εἴη πᾶν ἄθλον βασιλεύς, ὡς πᾶσι φόβον παράσχοι.

The indicative of some hist. tense without ἄν may be used after an expression of unreality (172, 2. 3, whether statement or wish) in the main sentence.

Εἰ γὰρ ὤφελον οἷοί τ' εἶναι οἱ πολλοὶ τὰ μέγιστα κακὰ ἐργάζεσθαι, ἵνα οἷοί τ' ἦσαν καὶ ἀγαθὰ τὰ μέγιστα. Εἰ τῷ ὄντι ξένος ἐτύγχανον ὤν, συνεγινώσκετε ἄν μοι, εἰ ἐν ἐκείνῃ τῇ φωνῇ τε καὶ τῷ τρόπῳ ἔλεγον, ἐν οἷσπερ ἐτεθράμμην.

191. 1. They are introduced by relative pronouns or adverbs.

Explanatory relative clauses, which merely serve to explain some single word, retain the mood and the negative of the corresponding independent sentences.

Πρᾶγμα, ὃ οὐκ ἐγένετο - ὃ οὐ γενήσεται - ὃ οὐκ ἂν γένοιτο - ὃ οὐκ ἂν ἐγένετο - ὃ μὴ γένοιτο - ὃ μήποτε ποιῶμεν - ὃ μὴ ποιεῖτε (ποιήσητε).

Contrary to Latin usage, we find in Greek

a) in causal rel.-clauses the indicative (neg. οὐ).

Θαυμαστόν ποιεῖς, ὃς (ὅτι) ἡμῖν οὐδὲν δίδως qui des.

b) in consecutive rel.-clauses the indicative, mostly the future (neg. οὐ).

Παῖδές μοι οὔπω εἰσίν, οἵ με θεραπεύσουσι qui me colant: to take care. Τίς οὕτω μαίνεται, ὅστις οὐ βούλεταί σοι φίλος εἶναι; as not to desire. Οὐκ ἔστιν ὅπως ἥβην κτήσῃ πάλιν αὖθις.

c) in final rel.-clauses regularly (even after a leading histor. tense) the fut. indic. (neg. μή).

Ἡγεμόνα αἰτήσομεν Κῦρον, ὅστις ἡμᾶς ἀπάξει qui abducat. Ἔδοξε τῷ δήμῳ τριάκοντα ἄνδρας ἑλέσθαι, οἳ τοὺς πατρίους νόμους συγγράψουσι, καθ' οὓς πολιτεύσουσι conscriberent, viverent.

Hypothetical rel.-clauses, i.e. such as are equivalent to (and may be resolved into) hypothetical ones, require the moods of the hypothetical protases: 183 (neg. μή). See however 192.

ὅς (ὅστις) = εἴ τις, ὃς ἄν (ὅστις ἄν) = ἐάν τις.

a) First Type (184): Ἃ μὴ οἶδα, οὐδὲ οἴομαι εἰδέναι. Ἃ μὴ προσήκει, μήτ' ἄκουε μήθ' ὅρα.

b) Second Type (185): Οὐκ ἂν ἐπεχειροῦμεν πράττειν ἃ (εἴ τινα) μὴ ἠπιστάμεθα.

c) Third Type (186): Ἐγὼ μὲν ὀκνοίην ἂν εἰς τὰ πλοῖα ἐμβαίνειν, ἃ ἡμῖν Κῦρος δοίη (εἴ τινα δοίη).

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INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

d) Fourth Type (187):

A single future occurrence: Ἀπόκριναι ὅ,τι ἂν σε ἐρωτῶ. Τῷ ἀνδρί, ὃν ἂν ἕλησθε, πείσομαι.

Repeated occurrence, pres.: Νέος δ' ἀπόλλυθ', ὅντιν' ἂν φιλῇ θεός. past: Οὗ ἅψαιτο Μίδας, ἐγίγνετο χρυσός.

Note. - Here belongs: Ἥξω ἔχων ἱππέας ὡς ἂν δύναμαι πλείστους. 187, n.

192. The verbs of final, temporal and relative clauses are occasionally "assimilated to" (made to agree in mood with) that of the main sentence. This assimilation of mood is of two kinds:

An optative without ἄν may follow an opt. with or without ἄν:

Εἴθε ἥκοις, ἵνα γνοίης. Ἔροιτό τις, ἣν ἕκαστος εἰδείη τέχνην. Οὐκ ἂν εἴη πᾶν ἄθλον βασιλεύς, ὡς πᾶσι φόβον παράσχοι.

The indicative of some hist. tense without ἄν may be used after an expression of unreality (172, 2. 3, whether statement or wish) in the main sentence.

Εἰ γὰρ ὤφελον οἷοί τ' εἶναι οἱ πολλοὶ τὰ μέγιστα κακὰ ἐργάζεσθαι, ἵνα οἷοί τ' ἦσαν καὶ ἀγαθὰ τὰ μέγιστα. Εἰ τῷ ὄντι ξένος ἐτύγχανον ὤν, συνεγινώσκετε ἄν μοι, εἰ ἐν ἐκείνῃ τῇ φωνῇ τε καὶ τῷ τρόπῳ ἔλεγον, ἐν οἷσπερ ἐτεθράμμην.

§193

Indirect Discourse

Indirect Discourse

A Summary of the Rules for Indirect Discourse.

193. 1. When independent sentences, whether statements or wishes, are indirectly quoted, i.e. are made to depend upon a verb of saying or thinking,

a) statements require the infinitive (for whose subject, see 197), or the participle (202, 2, n. 1) or a finite verb with ὡς or ὅτι.

E.g. Directly quoted: Σωκράτης ἔλεγεν· "οἱ θεοὶ πάντα ἴσασιν." Indirectly: Σωκράτης ἔλεγεν ὅτι οἱ θεοὶ πάντα ἴσασιν or εἰδείεν, or τοὺς θεοὺς πάντα εἰδέναι.

b) wishes require the infinitive (for whose subject, see 197).

E.g. Directly: Μὴ παραχωρεῖτε (παραχωρήσητε) τῆς τάξεως. Indirectly: Ἀξιῶ ὑμᾶς μὴ παραχωρεῖν (-ρῆσαι) τῆς τάξεως.

When dependent sentences are to be quoted indirectly:

a) After a principal tense, both the mood and the tense of the direct discourse remain unchanged. b) After an historical tense, the potential and the unreal moods remain unchanged, while indicatives, as well as subjunctives with or without ἄν, may be retained or changed to the indirect optative without ἄν. (See 176, 4.)

Not unfrequently the indirect turns abruptly into the direct discourse. See An. 1, 3, 14. 16. 20; 1, 9, 25.

Indirect discourse, introduced by ὅτι or ὡς, is occasionally changed to an infinitive construction; an indirect quotation with ὅτι (ὡς) or in the infinitive is sometimes continued by the indirect optative.

A Summary of the Rules for Indirect Discourse.

193. 1. When independent sentences, whether statements or wishes, are indirectly quoted, i.e. are made to depend upon a verb of saying or thinking,

a) statements require the infinitive (for whose subject, see 197), or the participle (202, 2, n. 1) or a finite verb with ὡς or ὅτι.

E.g. Directly quoted: Σωκράτης ἔλεγεν· "οἱ θεοὶ πάντα ἴσασιν." Indirectly: Σωκράτης ἔλεγεν ὅτι οἱ θεοὶ πάντα ἴσασιν or εἰδείεν, or τοὺς θεοὺς πάντα εἰδέναι.

b) wishes require the infinitive (for whose subject, see 197).

E.g. Directly: Μὴ παραχωρεῖτε (παραχωρήσητε) τῆς τάξεως. Indirectly: Ἀξιῶ ὑμᾶς μὴ παραχωρεῖν (-ρῆσαι) τῆς τάξεως.

When dependent sentences are to be quoted indirectly:

a) After a principal tense, both the mood and the tense of the direct discourse remain unchanged. b) After an historical tense, the potential and the unreal moods remain unchanged, while indicatives, as well as subjunctives with or without ἄν, may be retained or changed to the indirect optative without ἄν. (See 176, 4.)

Not unfrequently the indirect turns abruptly into the direct discourse. See An. 1, 3, 14. 16. 20; 1, 9, 25.

Indirect discourse, introduced by ὅτι or ὡς, is occasionally changed to an infinitive construction; an indirect quotation with ὅτι (ὡς) or in the infinitive is sometimes continued by the indirect optative.

§194

Summing Up of the Uses of the Particle ἄν

Summing Up of the Uses of the Particle ἄν

Page 150

SYNTAX.

SUMMING UP OF THE USES OF THE PARTICLE ἄν.

194. The modal particle ἄν can be used only:

With the indicative of the hist. tenses to denote unreality, 172, 3.

With the indicative of the hist. tenses to denote past potentiality (including the ἄν iterativum), 172, 4.

With the subjunctive in hypothetical clauses of the fourth type (both in the purely hypothetical and in the hyp.-temporal or hyp.-relative clauses), 187; 190, 3. 4; 191, 4.

With the optative to denote potentiality, 174, 2.

With the infinitive and the participle to denote potentiality or unreality, 204.

Rarely with the final particles ὡς, ὅπως (never with the final ἵνα; ἵν' ἄν is always relative = ubicunque). Ὡς ἂν μάθῃς αὐτάκουσον.

Note. - Ἄν sometimes occurs twice (πῶς ἂν οὐκ ἂν πάσχομεν;), or it is occasionally omitted (by the poets, Thucydides and Herodotus) where the above rules would require it. For the position of ἄν, see 171, note.

Page 150

SYNTAX.

SUMMING UP OF THE USES OF THE PARTICLE ἄν.

194. The modal particle ἄν can be used only:

With the indicative of the hist. tenses to denote unreality, 172, 3.

With the indicative of the hist. tenses to denote past potentiality (including the ἄν iterativum), 172, 4.

With the subjunctive in hypothetical clauses of the fourth type (both in the purely hypothetical and in the hyp.-temporal or hyp.-relative clauses), 187; 190, 3. 4; 191, 4.

With the optative to denote potentiality, 174, 2.

With the infinitive and the participle to denote potentiality or unreality, 204.

Rarely with the final particles ὡς, ὅπως (never with the final ἵνα; ἵν' ἄν is always relative = ubicunque). Ὡς ἂν μάθῃς αὐτάκουσον.

Note. - Ἄν sometimes occurs twice (πῶς ἂν οὐκ ἂν πάσχομεν;), or it is occasionally omitted (by the poets, Thucydides and Herodotus) where the above rules would require it. For the position of ἄν, see 171, note.

§215

THE MOST COMMON GRECIAN MEASURES, WEIGHTS AND COINS

THE MOST COMMON GRECIAN MEASURES, WEIGHTS AND COINS

§1

MEASURES OF LENGTH

MEASURES OF LENGTH

στάδιον	πλέθρα	ὀργυιαί	πήχεις	πόδες	Meters	Feet
1	5	100	333 1/3	500	164	540
-	1 πλέθρον	20	66 2/3	100	32.8	108
-	-	1 ὀργυιά	3 1/3	5	1.64	5.4
-	-	-	1 πῆχυς	1 1/2	.492	1.6
-	-	-	-	1 πούς	.328	1.08

The above stadium was the itinerary stadium which was somewhat shorter than other stadia.

Page 171

MEASURES, WEIGHTS AND COINS.

The Olympic stadium = 600 ft., reckoning .32 m to the foot, = 192 m = 629 ft.

The Greek-Roman stadium = 600 ft., reckoning .29 m to the foot, = 178 m = 584 ft.

1 Parasang = 30 stadia = 4.92 km = 3.05 miles = an hour's march.

στάδιον	πλέθρα	ὀργυιαί	πήχεις	πόδες	Meters	Feet
1	5	100	333 1/3	500	164	540
-	1 πλέθρον	20	66 2/3	100	32.8	108
-	-	1 ὀργυιά	3 1/3	5	1.64	5.4
-	-	-	1 πῆχυς	1 1/2	.492	1.6
-	-	-	-	1 πούς	.328	1.08

The above stadium was the itinerary stadium which was somewhat shorter than other stadia.

Page 171

MEASURES, WEIGHTS AND COINS.

The Olympic stadium = 600 ft., reckoning .32 m to the foot, = 192 m = 629 ft.

The Greek-Roman stadium = 600 ft., reckoning .29 m to the foot, = 178 m = 584 ft.

1 Parasang = 30 stadia = 4.92 km = 3.05 miles = an hour's march.

§2

MEASURES OF CAPACITY

MEASURES OF CAPACITY

Dry Measures.

μέδιμνος	χοῖνικες	Approximate gallons	Approximate pints
1	48	12	-
-	1 χοῖνιξ	-	2

Liquid Measures.

μετρητής	χόες	κοτύλαι	Approximate gallons	Approximate pints
1	12	144	9	-
-	1 χοῦς	12	-	6
-	-	1 κοτύλη	-	1/2

Dry Measures.

μέδιμνος	χοῖνικες	Approximate gallons	Approximate pints
1	48	12	-
-	1 χοῖνιξ	-	2

Liquid Measures.

μετρητής	χόες	κοτύλαι	Approximate gallons	Approximate pints
1	12	144	9	-
-	1 χοῦς	12	-	6
-	-	1 κοτύλη	-	1/2

§3

WEIGHTS AND COINS

WEIGHTS AND COINS

τάλαντον	μναῖ	δραχμαί	ὀβολοί	Grammes	Grains	Dollars	Cents
1	60	6000	36,000	26,400 =	405,000	1080	-
-	1 μνᾶ	100	600	440 =	6750	18	-
-	-	1 δραχμή	6	4.40 =	67.5	-	18
-	-	-	1 ὀβολός	.73 =	11.2	-	3

The ratio of gold to silver was 10 or (in commerce) 12 to 1.

The Persian Δαρεικός (στατήρ) was exactly one Attic gold stater = about $5.40.

Besides the above weights and coins of the Solonian coinage, the ancient Aeginetan commercial weights were in vogue still at the early Roman period. Of the latter, a talent = 36,156 grammes, a mina = 602.6 gr., a drachma = 6.03 gr.

τάλαντον	μναῖ	δραχμαί	ὀβολοί	Grammes	Grains	Dollars	Cents
1	60	6000	36,000	26,400 =	405,000	1080	-
-	1 μνᾶ	100	600	440 =	6750	18	-
-	-	1 δραχμή	6	4.40 =	67.5	-	18
-	-	-	1 ὀβολός	.73 =	11.2	-	3

The ratio of gold to silver was 10 or (in commerce) 12 to 1.

The Persian Δαρεικός (στατήρ) was exactly one Attic gold stater = about $5.40.

Besides the above weights and coins of the Solonian coinage, the ancient Aeginetan commercial weights were in vogue still at the early Roman period. Of the latter, a talent = 36,156 grammes, a mina = 602.6 gr., a drachma = 6.03 gr.