J. N. Madvig, Syntax of the Greek Language: Chapter VII, The Verb and the Gerundive

Chapter VII.

The Verb and its kinds, and the Gerundive [1].

[1] §82, §83, strictly speaking, do not belong to syntax.

In point of syntax, it is indifferent, whether the active (transitive or intransitive) signification is attached to a verb of active form, or to the middle of an otherwise active verb, or to a deponent, whether it be only in the middle (form), or have the passive tenses in an active signification. Which form is the usual one, must be learnt from the Lexicon. If of an active verb the middle is also used (not only in the forms which coincide with the passive, but also in those in which middle and passive are distinct, and with difference of meaning), then concerning the signification we must remark:

a) Most commonly, the middle voice denotes the same transitive action as the verb in the active does, but as undertaken in reference to the subject itself, and in its interest, or as performed upon something belonging to or concerning the subject, e. g. αἱροῦμαι, I take me, choose myself a — (ἡγεμόνα), παρασκευάζομαι, procure myself (παρασκευάζω, prepare), δουλοῦμαί τινα, make a person my slave (δουλῶ τινα τῷ βασιλεῖ), πορίζομαι, get me (πορίζω, bring about), αἰτοῦμαι, ask for myself, τίθεμαι νόμον, make a law (at the same time also for myself), διαμετροῦμαι σῖτον, mete out grain to myself, have it meted to me (διαμετρῶ, mete out), προβάλλομαι τὰ ὅπλα, hold out before me, couch, lay in rest, ἀμφιβάλλομαι ἱμάτια, ἀποσείομαι τὸ γῆρας, shake off old age from me, περιῤῥήγνυμαι τὸν χιτῶνα, tear off my coat, ἐσπασάμην τὸ ξίφος, drew my sword. Πλαταιῆς παῖδας καὶ γυναῖκας ἐκκεκομισμένοι ἦσαν ἐς Ἀθήνας (Thuc. 2, 78, had conveyed away their wives and children). Οἱ στρατιῶται ἠκονῶντο καὶ λόγχας καὶ μαχαίρας καὶ ἐλαμπρύνοντο τὰς ἀσπίδας (Xen. Hell. 7, 5, 20; their spears and swords —).

REM. 1. Some verbs which, when they are simple, have active forms, by composition take the form of a middle deponent, with such a signification, e. g. μεταπέμπομαι, send after, for (Thucydides also μεταπέμπω), ἐφέλκομαι, drag with me. Sometimes ἑαυτῷ (ἐμαυτῷ, σαυτῷ) is added to the middle in this sense, to mark it more strongly, e. g. ἑαυτῷ δύναμιν περιποιεῖσθαι. Sometimes the active and the middle are used with little difference, because the reference to the subject itself is not necessary to be expressed, e. g. πράττω, exact, call in, and πράττομαι (for myself), φέρομαι μισθόν, but also simply φέρω, ἀποπέμπω, send away, ἀποπέμπομαι, send away from me.

REM. 2. Ποιοῦμαι ὅπλα, make myself arms, i. e. have them made for me, διδάσκομαι, ἐδιδαξάμην τὸν υἱόν, I had my son instructed (but ἀποκτείνω, cause to be killed, without such a reference, &c.).

b) Sometimes the middle denotes an action upon and in the subject itself; this however is not the case, when the subject is at the same time plainly conceived as special object of the action, and consequently an express reflexive relation takes place, but where the action is rather taken as a merely intransitive one, without a definite external object (in the accusative), e. g. λούομαι (ἐλουσάμην), ἀλείφομαι (ἠλειψάμην), ἐπιδείκνυμαι (ἐπεδειξάμην), show oneself (my art and skill), τρέπομαι (ἐτραπόμην), turn oneself to, attend to, a thing, ἔχομαι (ἐσχόμην), keep (myself) close (τινός, to something), ἀπέχομαι, abstain from, λαμβάνομαι, lay hold upon (τινός, something). With expressly reflexive signification, the active stands with ἑαυτόν, e. g. σώζειν, ἀποκτείνειν ἑαυτόν, ἀναλαμβάνειν ἑαυτόν, παρέχω ἐμαυτὸν τέμνειν (to cut), (rarely ἐπισφάττεσθαι ἑαυτόν τινι,) and where the notion of a condition in which the subject is, or into which it is brought, or of something that goes on in it, is more strongly prominent, there the passive form (middle with passive aorist) is very frequent, where the English sometimes, and much oftener the German, has the reflexive form, e. g. φέρομαι (ἠνέχθην), κινοῦμαι (ἐκινήθην, put myself in motion, get in motion, am set in motion), ἀθροίζομαι (ἠθροίσθην, but ἠθροισάμην δύναμιν, gathered me a force, as in a), διεσπάρην, ἐπεραιώθην, ὡρμήθην, ἐπλανήθην, ἀπηλλάγην, συνεθίσθην, διηνέχθην, ἐμαλθακίσθην, sometimes where the passive view does not seem very obvious, e. g. in φαίνομαι (ἐφάνην). (Ἐπαυσάμην, I ceased, ἐπαύσθην, was made to cease.)

REM. 1. A similar view lies at the foundation of the form of several verbs as deponent with middle or passive aorist, e. g. νεανιεύομαι, behave myself like a young man, ἐνεανιευσάμην, but ὀργίζομαι, become wroth (am wroth), ὠργίσθην (ὀργίζω, move to wrath, rare), μαίνομαι, become mad, ἐμάνην. Where the view wavered between the two, the result was a deponent with alternating form of middle and passive; cf. the Accidence.

REM. 2. Sometimes a verb lays aside the transitive signification, and yet keeps the active form. Originally, this is apt to take place in consequence of an ellipse, some object, more general or special, being understood, and the verb thereby acquiring a specific meaning, although in process of time the ellipse quite disappears from the signification, e. g. ἄγω (viz. τὸ στράτευμα), lead on (in war), ἐλαύνω, ride (τὸν ἵππον), βάλλω λίθοις, pelt with stones, ἐσβάλλω, make an attack, charge, μεταβάλλω, change myself (undergo a change), ἔχω εἰς Σκιώνην, steer (τὴν ναῦν), ἐπέχω, hold up, stay, pause, ἀνίημι, leave off, cease, στρέφω, ὑποστρέφω, turn round, φυλάσσω, keep guard. Sometimes both the active and passive are used in the same signification, e. g. ὑποφαίνει ἡ ἡμέρα and ὑποφαίνεται.

REM. 3. In some particular transitive verbs, certain forms have intransitive signification, especially the perfect, plusquamperfect, and aor. 2, in δύω, φύω, and ἵστημι, then the perf. 2, and its pluperf. in certain verbs, e. g. ὄλωλα (cf. the Accidence).

c) Sometimes the middle assumes a somewhat different and more special active signification, in which there lies concealed an original relation to the subject, e. g. φυλάττω, guard, φυλάττομαι, am on my guard against (τί or τινά), ἀποδίδωμι, give back, pay, ἀποδίδομαι, give back from me, i. e. sell, γράφω, write, γράφομαι, indite, lay a charge against, ἐπαγγέλλω, announce, pass the order for something, ἐπαγγέλλομαι (announce myself), promise, make profession of, ἀμύνω, ward off, ἀμύνομαι, ward off from myself, defend myself against. (Τιμωρῶ τινι, help, intransitively, τιμωροῦμαί τινα, avenge myself upon some one.)

REM. 1. Sometimes the middle is used, without any strongly marked difference, but still in certain particular constructions of the verb, e. g. ποιῶ, make, bring forth, but ποιοῦμαι λόγον, θήραν, hold (in periphrases); ποιοῦμαι περὶ πολλοῦ, ἐν ὀργῇ ποιοῦμαί τινα, ποιοῦμαι τὸν ποταμὸν ὄπισθεν, get the river in my rear.

REM. 2. Sometimes out of the purely passive conception (with the passive forms) there developes itself a new active signification, as a deponent passive, e. g. φοβῶ, I make afraid, φοβοῦμαι, ἐφοβήθην τοὺς πολεμίους, I fear, καταπλήττω, beat down, dismay, κατεπλάγην τὴν δύναμιν αὐτῶν, was dismayed at, αἰσχύνω, put to shame, αἰσχύνομαι, ᾐσχύνθην (τινά or τί), to be ashamed of; to feel shame at. (Πείθω, persuade, πείθομαι, obey, ἐπείσθην, but with the dative.)

d) In some instances the distinction almost entirely disappears, so that active and middle of the same verb are used in the same signification; e. g. this is often the case with παρέχω and παρέχομαι, afford, supply, exhibit, προτρέπω and προτρέπομαι, put forward, instigate, ἀποκρύπτω and ἀποκρύπτομαι, conceal (ἀποκρύπτομαι ἐμαυτόν, Pl. Rep. 3, 393, but usually ἀποκρύπτομαί τινά τι, hide a thing from). (Compare the use of the fut. middle with the other tenses active, on which see Accidence.)

REM. 1. Λοιδορῶ τινα, λοιδοροῦμαί τινι, with change of construction.

REM. 2. There are also intransitive verbs which have both an active and a middle with different signification, the middle denoting the action more as referred to the subject alone, the active in relation to others; e. g. ἄρχω, begin, i. e. am the first among several (take the lead), ἄρχομαι, begin, i. e. take the first step (of my own actions), βουλεύω, am counsellor, βουλεύομαι, deliberate, take counsel, συμβουλεύω τινί, give counsel, συμβουλεύομαί τινι, take counsel with some one (on my own concerns). Some other intransitive verbs have active and middle used with no perceptible difference of meaning; but usually the one form is more frequent than the other, e. g. πειρώμαι more frequent than πειρῶ. (Ἐτρεψάμην, put to flight, ἐτραπόμην, turned myself.)

Of the use of the several forms in middle and passive it is to be remarked:

a) The future middle, like the tenses which coincide for act. and pass., is often used in a purely passive sense, e. g. θρέψομαι = τραφήσομαι, βλάψομαι, ὠφελήσομαι = βλαβήσομαι, ὠφεληθήσομαι (rarely the future of the verba liquida, φανοῦμαι = φανήσομαι), but not of those verbs which to the present active take the future in the middle (cf. the Accidence), e. g. λήψομαι, γνώσομαι, γελάσομαι. (But aor. 2 middle, in a passive sense, is very rare and limited to a few verbs; thus κατασχόμενος.)

b) Of transitive deponents the perfect middle is used in the passive beside the active sense, e. g. εἴργασμαι, κεκτημένος (κατακέχρηται, is used up, Isocr. Paneg. 74, although the verb governs the dative); so from transitive medial deponents sometimes the passive aor. and fut. are formed and used as such, e. g. εἰργάσθην (middle εἰργασάμην), ἐκτήθην (ἐκτησάμην), αἰτιαθείς (ᾐτιασάμην), ἐργασθήσομαι. The other tenses of a transitive deponent in the middle are rarely used passively, e. g. ὠνούμενα καὶ πιπρασκόμενα (Pl. Phæd. 69).

c) That in Greek there are passives of sundry verbs which are not transitive, or do not take a proper object-accusative, was noted in § 26, § 27, § 35 b. R. 3, § 36 a. R. 4, and § 56, R. 2.

(420) a) The gerundive of transitive verbs (active or middle) is an adjective with the signification fit or necessary, and is predicated of the subject with εἰμί. (The εἰμί is often omitted in the indicative, sometimes also in the infinitive.) Ὠφελητέα σοι ἡ πόλις ἐστίν (Xen. Mem. 3, 6, 3). Νικίας ἔλεγεν, ὁπλιταγωγοὺς (ναῦς) ἐκ τῶν ξυμμάχων μεταπεμπτέας εἶναι (Thuc. 6, 25). Ποιητέα ἃ λέγεις.

(421 a) b) Of intransitive verbs the gerundive is formed only in the neuter, and is used with ἐστίν as an impersonal predicate, which is construed with the dative or genitive when the verb governs these cases. Ἰτέον ἐστίν (ἰτητέα ἐστίν, § 1 b, R. 4). Ἐπιχειρητέον τῷ ἔργῳ. Ἁπτέον τοῦ πολέμου (from ἅπτομαι in middle). Ἐπιμελητέον τῶν βοσκημάτων.

(421 b) c) As from intransitive, so, by analogy, from transitive verbs also, the gerundive is used impersonally with ἐστίν, and governs the accusative: Θεραπευτέον τοὺς θεούς (Xen. Mem. 2, 1, 28). Ἀσκητέον τὴν σοφίαν. Τοὺς παῖδας εἰς τὸν πόλεμον ἀκτέον καὶ γευστέον αἵματος (Pl. Rep. 7, 537, from γεύειν τινὰ αἵματος, to give one a taste of blood).

REM. From verbs which are used both in active and middle in different senses, the gerundive may be used impersonally in both significations, e. g. γυμναστέον τὸ σῶμα (γυμνάζω) and γυμναστέον ἐστίν, one must exercise (γυμνάζομαι), πειστέον, one must obey (πείθομαι).

The name of the person who has to perform the action, is taken by the gerundive in the dative (of relation, by § 34): Ὠφελητέα ἡμῖν ἡ πόλις. Ἰτητέον σοι. But with the impersonally used gerundive the name of the acting person also stands in the accusative: Οὐ δουλευτέον τοὺς νοῦν ἔχοντας τοῖς οὕτω κακῶς φρονοῦσιν (Isocr. Evag. 7). Τὸν βουλόμενον εὐδαίμονα εἶναι σωφροσύνην διωκτέον καὶ ἀσκητέον (Pl. Gorg. 507). Οὐ δίκαις καὶ λόγοις διακριτέα ἐστίν, μὴ λόγῳ καὶ αὐτοὺς βλαπτομένους (Thuc. 1, 86; we must not seek to decide by law and words, not being ourselves injured in words only).

REM. The acting person was conceived in general, without the special relation denoted by the dative, and yet not as actual grammatical subject (nominative).