J. N. Madvig, Syntax of the Greek Language: Appendix, On the Use and Meaning of the Particles

ὅπως. This is properly the dependent interrogative adverb corresponding with πῶς, how, as ὁ-πόσος with πόσος, ὁ-πότε with πότε &c. Thus, ἔστω δ᾽ οὖν ὅπως ὑμῖν φίλον (Soph.): the direct interrogation is πῶς ὑμῖν φίλον; indirect or dependent (σκέψασθε) ὅπως ὑ. φ.: hence, (say for yourselves,) how you like to have it, (and) so let it be = so be it, as you like. In most of its usages it coincides with ὡς, differing from it (originally) only as implying a question how?

a) As correlated to ὧδε, οὕτως. Frequent in poetry, but less so in prose. Ὅπως ἕκαστος ὑμῶν βούλεται, τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον φερέτω τὴν ψῆφον (Isocr.) = ὅντινα τρόπον. χρὴ τοὐμὸν σῶμα θάπτειν οὕτως ὅπως ἂν ἡγῇ νόμιμον εἶναι (Pl.). Ποίει ὅπως ἄριστόν σοι δοκεῖ εἶναι (Xen.). Like ὡς in comparisons, it frequently follows the term compared: Ἔρωτι – ὅστις ἀντανίσταται, πύκτης ὅπως ἐς χεῖρας, οὐ καλῶς φρονεῖ (Soph.).

b) The sense ὅτι, after verba declarandi, &c., is even more rare (viz. like ὡς, especially after a negative verb of this kind: οὐ λέγω ὅπως), and where it does occur, the sense is still that of a depend. interrogation: τοῦτον ἔχοι τις ἂν εἰπεῖν ὅπως οὐ δίκαιόν ἐστιν ἀποθνήσκειν; (Xen.) = πῶς οὐ δ., “ how it is not just -? can any one say how?" τοῦτ᾽ αὐτὸ μή μοι φράζ᾽ ὅπως οὐκ εἰ κακός (Soph.), don't tell me (that you are not a villain): how are you not a villain? Comp. § 159, R. 3.

c) The force of ὅπως is just the same in οὐκ ἔσθ᾽ ὅπως –, there exists not the way in which, it cannot be but that –, § 102 b, R. 2: 122, R. 2, and in the elliptical οὐχ ὅπως – ἀλλά –, "I say not how = not only, but –," § 212. – It should be observed, however, that this phrase (and οὐχ ὅτι) is sometimes not only, sometimes not only not. Thus, οὐχ ὅπως ἔτρεσεν, ἀλλ᾽ (or ἀλλὰ καὶ) ἔφυγεν, should prop. = I say not how he was frightened (he was frightened, and not only that) but he also fled. οὐχ ὅπως ἔφυγεν, ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ ἔτρεσεν –: here the negation in οὐδέ extends to both members, he did not – I say not, flee – but (not) even tremble. Ἔφυγεν, οὐχ ὅπως ἔτρεσεν, he fled, (I say not how =) much more, he was afraid; fugit, nedum extimuerit. But in the usage of the language, οὐχ ὅπως in the first clause is often non solum non, even when the adversative clause is positive: thus, οὐχ ὅπως χάριν αὐτοῖς ἔχεις, ἀλλὰ καὶ – κατὰ τουτωνὶ πολιτεύῃ (Dem.), you not only are not grateful to them, but you even –, viz. because the first clause is, to say nothing of your being grateful – (you are not grateful, and not only so) but –: in other words, οὐχ ὅπως has become a phrase of negation, as if it were one word, like οὔπως. On the other hand, in οὐχ ὅπως τοὺς πολεμίους ἐτρέψαντο οἱ Ἕλληνες, ἀλλὰ καὶ τὴν χώραν αὐτῶν ἐκάκωσαν (Xen.), the οὐχ ὅπως is not treated as a negation of ἐτρ., but retains its proper force, I say not how they routed; they not only did that, but also. With the infinitive: μὴ ὅπως ὀρχεῖσθαι, ἀλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὀρθοῦσθαι ἐδύνασθε, not only not to dance, but not even to stand upright (Xen.). (τοὺς Θηβαίους) ἡγεῖτο οὐχ ὅπως ἀντιπράξειν – ἀλλὰ καὶ συστρατεύσειν (Dem.), that they would not only not act against him, but would even join with him in the expedition: = that far from acting against him, &c.

d) With the superlative, ὅπως ἄριστα: to be explained in the same way as ὡς, viz. ὅπως δυνατόν ἐστι, &c. (" how can it be best done?")

e) After such verbs as σκοπεῖν, βουλεύεσθαι, μηχανᾶσθαι, σπουδάζειν, φροντίζειν, and the like: to see how, &c.: see the rules and exx. in the §§ referred to in the Index. Hence the ellipsis, ὅπως οὖν ἔσεσθε, (see then) how ye shall be.- Also after verbs of fearing and of prohibition, § 124 b, e. g. δέδοικα ὅπως μὴ γενήσεται, I fear (considering with myself) how it shall not be. ᾿Απείρηταί μοι, ὅπως μηδὲν ἐρῶ —, the prohibition being, ὅρα ὅπως μηδὲν ἐρεῖς. f) As final particle, ὅπως and ὅπως μή with subj. and opt., § 122 and 131 b. εἰς καιρὸν ἥκεις ὅπως ἀκούῃς = your intention being how you may hear. On ὅπως ἄν with subj., see under "Av, § 302. It results from the proper interrog. signification of ὅπως that this particle (not ὡς or ἵνα) can be used with fut. indic. in the final sense, see the exx. at end of § 122. (To do so and so) ὅπως μαχοῦνται = with this view and intention, how they shall fight.

g) Its use with histor. tenses of indic. to denote an unattained result is rare. ᾿Εχρῆν σε Πήγασον ζεύξαι ὅπως ἐφαίνου τραγικώτερος = that you might have appeared, prop. how you would have -. See the expl. under ἵνα.

ἵνα. The root is either the pronoun of the third person i or ", or perhaps more probably the relative 8- with the vowel lightened (attenuated) into L. The original meaning is " where," " in which (or, what) case," &c. (comp. ἐν in ἔνθα, where, and the first element of in-de, un-de, last of alio-quin.)

a) ubi and quo. ἵν' οἴχεται, where (whither) it is gone, Hom. Od. 4, 821: and demonstratively, ἵνα γάρ σφιν ἐπέφραδον ἠγερέεσθαι, for there (= it was there that)-, Il. 10, 127. This use is almost entirely confined to the poets. ἱκόμην ἵν᾽ ἱκόμην. οὐδ᾽ ὁρᾶς ἵν᾽ εἶ κακοῦ, Soph. (ἵνα with gen.) With ἄν: σε προσθέσθαι πέλας χώρας θέλουσι, μηδ᾽ ἵν᾽ ἂν σαυτοῦ κρατῇς, Soph., and not where (if they place thee) thou shalt be thine own master. (Brunck and Elmsl. κρατοῖς, wrongly, since ἵν' ἄν is never final = ὅπως ἄν.)

b) With subj. and optat. it forms sentences of intention, that, in order that. ἐξαύδα, μὴ κεῦθε νόῳ, ἵνα εἴδομεν (= εἰδῶμεν) ἄμφω, prop. in that case (or, as the case in which) we shall both know it. See § 122. 131. ἵνα τί; ellipsis, § 198 a, note.

c) More frequently than ὡς, it is used with the historical tenses of the indicative to denote an unattained result, i. e. something which would be (or would have been) attained on the supposition made by the speaker (in the form of a wish, a question implying a wish, or of a declaration of what should be, or should have been). Here, " I wish he had come, in which case (= so that) I should (might) have seen him," implying, " but he did not come, so I did not see him." See the exx. in § 131 b, R. 3. Thus, " he does (did) so and so, ἵν' ᾖ (εἴη) τυφλός, as the case wherein he may (as he purposes) be blind;" but " he should have done so, &c., ἵν' ἢ (imperf. indic). τυφλός, as the case in which he would have been blind. " The force of the latter clause rests upon the convertible proposition, " where this (e. g. the doing) is, there. that (e. g. the being blind) is," and " where that is, there this," so that the one being denied, the other is also denied.

The absence of ἄν from the relative clause is explained by the kindred meaning of the two particles, ἵνα and ἄν: comp. εἰ ἐβουλόμην λέγειν, ἤκουσας ἄν, “ if I had wished to speak, you would in that case have heard,” with ἐβουλόμην ἂν λέξαι, ἵνα ἤκουσας, “ I wish I had spoken, in which case you would have heard." Where ἄν does occur in the relative clause, it is drawn in by some other consideration: thus, καίτοι οὐ προσῆκεν ἀλλ᾽ εὐθὺς λέγειν – ἵνα μᾶλλον ἂν ἐπιστεύετο ὑφ᾽ ὑμῶν (Isaus), the ἄν attaches itself to μᾶλλον as a set phrase (see ἄν, § 299).

ὅτι. This is the Lat. quod, our that: not originally the neut. of ὅστις, but the ancient form of neut. acc. of ὅς, ὅτ, covered with the vowel ι. Hence Hom. has indifferently ὅ and ὅτι.

a) that, after verba declarandi, sentiendi, &c. οὐκ ἀΐεις ὅ με βάλεν Αἴας; Hom. prop. hear you not this - which (= that) Ajax has wounded me? λέγει (ἀκούει, οἴεται, &c.) ὅτι νοσεῖς: ἔλεγεν ὅτι ἐνόσουν, ὅτι νοσοῖμι. § 159, R. 3,4; 178 a, R. 5. On the moods in object-sentences with ὅτι, see § 108.130 a, b; 137. On the difference between ὅτι and ὡς (ὅπως), § 159, R. 3. “ Ὅτι and ὡς are very rare after verbs denoting a purely subjective or uncertain view (e. g. οἴεσθαι, δοκεῖν, νομίζειν, φάναι = 'to declare one's own opinion:' but we find φάναι ὅτι, Pl. Gorg. 487; ὡς, Dem. 4, 48, Xen. Hell. 6, 3, 7; οἴεσθαι ὡς, Xen. Mem. 3, 3, 14. In later writers, δοκεῖν ὅτι, Polyb. 28, 9, 14; ἐλπίζειν ὅτι, Arr. An. 1, 4, 7. Cf. Thuc. 8,54. νομίζειν ὡς, Thuc. 3, 88). But after λέγειν, to tell (with reference to the substance of the narrative), and εἰπεῖν (with reference to the expression), ὅτι and ὡς are not uncommon." Krüger. Also, it follows from the original meaning of ὡς, that this particle is preferred to ὅτι where the " as " or " how" is of more importance than the " that: " hence, πείθειν ὡς, to get one to believe, and ἀκούειν, πυνθάνεσθαι, ἀγγέλλειν, to bring a report, ἀποδεικνύναι, &c. ὡς; and after verbs of calumniating, reproaching, accusing, &c.

On ὅτι in the sense (the circumstance) that -, (in regard) that -, § 170 a, R.: (to prove) that -, § 192 b, R. Τὸ δὲ μέγιστον ὅτι, § 197. And on μὴ ὅτι (= μὴ εἴπω ὅτι), οὐχ ὅτι (= οὐκ ἐρῶ ὅτι), see § 212, and cf. under ὅπως, § 310 c.

REM. We also find, οὐ μόνον ὅτι: thus, καὶ μὴν ὑπεραποθνήσκειν γε μόνοι ἐθέλουσιν οἱ ἐρῶντες, οὐ μόνον ὅτι ἄνδρες, ἀλλὰ καὶ γυναῖκες (non modo – sed etiam, Pl.). Likewise οὐχ ὅσον and οὐχ οἷον: οἱ μὲν οὐχ ὅσον οὐκ ἠμύναντο, ἀλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ἐσώθησαν, Thuc., which might have been expressed by οὐχ ὅπως, or by μὴ (οὐχ) ὅτι, ἠμύναντο. Οὐχ οἷον ὠφελεῖν δύναιντ᾽ ἂν τοὺς φίλους, ἀλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ αὐτοὺς σώζειν, Polyb.

b) because, for διὰ τοῦτο ὅτι, whence also διότι. ἆρα τὸ ὅσιον, ὅτι ὅσιόν ἐστι, φιλεῖται ὑπὸ τῶν θεῶν, ἢ, ὅτι φιλεῖται, ὅσιόν ἐστι; Pl. Διὰ τί δὲ ἄλλο ἄλυποι ἀλλήλοις εἰσὶν οἱ ἐμπλέοντες, ἢ διότι ἐν τάξει – κάθηνται; Xen.

REM. The poets have in the same sense, οὖνεκα = οὗ ἕνεκα, i. e. τούτου ἕνεκα, ὁ –, and ὁθούνεκα = ὅτου ἕνεκα.

With the superlative, though written as the conjunction, ὅτι τάχιστα, the word is ὅ τι, acc. neut. governed by δύναμαι, or nom. neut. subject to δυνατόν ἐστι, or the like.- Also in the elliptical ὅτι μή (except), the full construction is οὐδὲν ὅ τι μή.

ὅτε, when. This adverbial form is not a compound with τε, but its second syllable is an ancient case suffix: cf. quum, quando. Like other temp. adverbs, it is also used in a causal sense, § 127, R. 1, whence ὅτε μή = quando non and si non.

On μέμνημαι, ὅτε, see § 178 a, R. 5, and note. – With μέν and δέ, sometimes – sometimes, the accent conforms itself to that of ποτέ, viz. ὁτὲ μέν – ὁτὲ δέ.

The correlative of ὅτε is τότε, then. The corresponding interrogative πότε, when? indef. ποτέ, at some (any) time, § 274, and relative (depend.) interrogative, ὁπότε. Hence ὁπότε, as implying the question when? is indefinite. Cf. παρήγγειλεν ὑπομένειν ὅτε οἱ πολέμιοι ἐπικέοιντο (Xen.), and εἰώθει γοῦν ὁπότε δεῦρ᾽ ἐμβάλλοι, whenever -, Xen.

ὅπου, where. As ὅτε, πότε; ὁπότε, ποτέ (encl.) of time, so οὗ, ποῦ, ὅπου, πού (encl.) of place. The correlative (τοῦ being lost) is ἔνθα, demonstr. or ἐνταῦθα. – In prose, ὅπου has taken the place of οὗ, as the simple relative where. – Sometimes, but rarely, it is since, siquidem, quandoquidem: and then the apodosis is often ἦπου, in the sense, if –, then surely. ὅπου γὰρ ᾿Αθηνόδωρος καὶ Καλλίστρατος – οἷοί τε γεγόνασιν, ἦπου – ἡμεῖς – ἂν δυνηθείημεν (Isocr.), if A. and C. have been able, surely we should be able.

ἐπεί (ἐπειδή). Properly a particle of time, when, after, postquam, but, like most particles of time, also denotes cause, since, quoniam, quandoquidem. ἐπεὶ τάχιστα, as soon as ever. – Both are also since (ex quo) of time. Οὐ πολὺς χρόνος ἐπειδὴ χιτῶνας λινοῦς ἐπαύσαντο φοροῦντες (Thuc.). With ἄν: ἐπειδάν, ἐπάν, ἐπήν; the first by far the most frequent, and the second somewhat more so than the third.

In the sense "for if not," "for otherwise," "for if so" (where εἰ δὲ μή, or εἰ δέ after a negat. proposition might have been used), there is an ellipsis: since (if you doubt it, or, if you think so, &c.) –. Νόσον γὰρ ὁ πατὴρ ἀλλόκοτον αὐτοῦ νοσεῖ, ἣν οὐδ᾽ ἂν εἷς γνοίη πότ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ἂν ξυμβάλοι εἰ μὴ πύθοιθ᾽ ἡμῶν, ἐπεὶ τοπάζετε, Aristoph.

εἰ, if. This is an ancient dative of the pronoun of the third person, ἷ or ἴ, comp. Lat. si (sibi). Its original force is "in this that," "in the (case, hap, event) that," "on the (condition) that." [1]

[1]: This (the reflexive) pronoun is closely connected with the relative pronoun, so that, in point of sense, the conditional particle may be said to be directly derived from the relative. Thus in Sanskrit, from relat. yas, yâ, yat, ὅς, ἥ, ὅ, we have yadi = ὅτε, "when," and yadi = "if;" and in German, "wenn" is both when and if. Accordingly, the usages of the relat. (and interrog.) and of the conditional particle very often run over into each other. Thus, ὅτε and ὅπου approach to the sense of condition: εἴ τις is more nearly = ὅς τις than "if any:" θαυμάζω εἰ represents θ. ὅτι (see § 194 c); the εἰ of wishing may also be expressed by ὡς and πῶς (the relat. utinam), and the interrogative εἰ (whether) by πότερα.

For the use of εἰ, ἐάν, ἤν, in conditional propositions, see the Index.

From such expressions as σκέψαι εἰ -, consider if-, results the sense whether in dependent interrogation, § 199 b. εἰ (ἐάν) is thus used only in indirect, and, indeed, properly only in double questions, denoting a wavering between two considerations: but often only one member is expressed, the other being present in the mind of the speaker. Where both are expressed, the second is introduced by ἤ, § 199 c. Σκέψαι εἰ ὁ Ἑλλήνων νόμος κάλλιον ἔχει, whether it be not (Xen.). δέομαι ὑμῶν τούτῳ τὸν νοῦν προσέχειν εἰ δίκαια λέγω ἢ μή (= μὴ δίκαια) Pl. Comp. πρὶν δῆλον εἶναι... πότερον ἔψονται Κύρῳ ἢ οὔ (= οὐχ ἔψονται). – The same thing is expressed by εἴτε εἴτε, § 199 c. In poetry we also find εἴτε – ἤ, εἰ – εἴτε, and – εἴτε with the first εἴτε omitted.

REM. Εἴτε εἴτε is also conditional, viz. where several cases are put conditionally, both if and if: but here also in English we use the interrogative whether or. See § 194 a.

The use of εἰ in wishes, εἰ γὰρ ὤφελον πρότερος ἰδεῖν, is elliptical: if it were so, it would be well. Thus we say, O if it were so! (i. e. how happy I should be!) – Hence with suffix θε, § 239, εἴθε, utinam. See exx. in § 129, and R. 2.

εἴ γε (= si quidem) if at least, if, that is (εἰ – γέ when the γέ distinguishes the interposed word, εἴ γε when its influence extends to the whole clause). Οὐδείς, εἴ γε σὺ ἀληθῆ λέγεις, nobody, if, that is (or, if, at least) what you say is true.

εἴπερ is εἰ strengthened by πέρ. It calls attention to the condition, and so adds emphasis to it. The force of πέρ may be rendered in the condition by always supposing that, in the apodosis by, then it quite follows that —.

καὶ εἰ, is even if: the καί emphasizes the condition, marks it as improbable, extreme, or as the most unfavorable that can well be conceived. In εἰ καί, the καί gives emphasis, not to the condition, but to the thing supposed. καὶ εἰ λέγω, even supposing I say, i. e. go so far as to suppose that I say. εἰ καὶ λέγω, supposing I even say, i. e. suppose I go so far as to say. For (see § 222) καί adverbial implies a correlation καί – καί: therefore the first is καὶ (ἄλλως), καὶ εἰ λέγω; the second, εἰ καὶ (ἄλλως), καὶ λέγω. This is the principle of the distinction, but in practice the difference is often so slight, that no reason appears why one form should be chosen rather than the other.

εἶτα. ἔπειτα. These particles, perhaps, are related to εἰ, ἐπεί, as δῆτα to δή, τηνικαῦτα to τηνίκα; and thus they may be considered as denoting the demonstrative apodosis of a suppressed condition (if) or relative (when). Thus Ellendt remarks that εἶτα may sometimes be explained by a sentence with εἰ or εἰ καί. Soph. Phil. 1337, ἀλλ᾽ εἰκάθω δῆτ᾽; εἶτα πῶς ὁ δύσμορος εἰς φῶς – εἶμι; i. e. (and if I yield) then how?

Others make εἶτα cognate with ἔτι (corresponding forms in Sanskrit ati, éta), and ἔπειτα = ἐπ᾿ εἶτα (Kühner). – In Latin, the sense is expressed by deinde: –

a) In enumerations, πρῶτον (μέν) –, εἶτα, ἔπειτα (δέ) –. (b) In the usage with participles, see § 175 a (comp. 181, R. 2). (c) In interrogations, expressed with vehemence or indignation: as in the ex. given above. Εὖ ἴσθι, ἔφη, ὅτι, εἰ νομίζοιμι θεοὺς ἀνθρώπων τι φροντίζειν, οὐκ ἂν ἀμελοίην αὐτῶν. Σ. Ἔπειτ᾿ οὐκ οἴει φροντίζειν; (Xen.) It may be explained = post talia (Gronov.), quum ita sit, ergo: the Lat. uses deinde in the same way: quæ nunc deinde mora est, aut ut quid jam, Turne, retractas? Virg. Æn. 12, 889. Hercules solus domat. Cur deinde latebras aut fugam vecors petam? Sen. Herc. 1407. Often κᾆτα, κἄπειτα, which are more emphatic: κἄπειτα τοιοῦτον ὄντα οὐ φιλεῖς αὐτόν; (Xen.) – Εἶτα, ἔπειτα, and then, § 185 a, R. 6.

ἔτι. This particle is cognate with Lat. et, at, prep. ad, at-que = ad-que. Its meaning is, further (on), yet, still. Comp. also Lat. item. ταῦτα μὲν οὖν πάντα ὁμοίως ἀμφοτέρων ἐστίν· ἀλλὰ τὸ μάχεσθαι οὐκέτι (οὐκ ἔτι, non item) ἀμφοτέρων (Xen.). ἀνεστράφησαν οἱ ἀμφὶ βασιλέα, πεζοὶ μὲν οὐκέτι, τῶν δὲ ἱππέων ὁ λόφος ἐνεπλήσθη (Xen.).