Greek · Grammars

J. N. Madvig, Syntax of the Greek Language: Appendix, On the Use and Meaning of the Particles

Syntax of The Greek Language, especially of the Attic dialect, for the use of schools, Dr. J. N. Madvig, professor in the university of Copenhagen. Translated from the German by the rev. Henry Browne, M. A and edited by the rev. Thomas Kerchever Arnold, M. A, late rector of Lyndon, and formerly fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Together with an Appendix on the Greek Particles, by the Translator. 2nd edition. Rivingstons: London, Oxford, and Cambridge, 1873.

English Grammar Advanced 19th century J. N. Madvig

Pages 211–254 of the book.

On the Use and Meaning of the Particles.

The office of the particles is either

(1) adverbial, i. e. as they are used to denote certain modifications, qualifications, or affections of the assertion, or of one or more of its terms (viz. affirmation and denial ; absoluteness and conditionality ; concession and opposition ; confirmation and limitation; parity and disparity, etc.), or

(2) conjunctional, as they serve for connexion of sentences or terms of sentences. The two uses at so many points run over into each other, that it will be more convenient, for the purpose of this Appendix, to comprise the subject under one general view. As the principal uses of conjunctions have been already described in Chapter VII, the adverbial, which is also the original, use will here principally come under consideration.

καί, connected by its origin with the form κο- of the relative and interrog. pronoun, is therefore cognate with que and τε, which are forms of the same pronoun, but as indefinite. Hence the primary force of the combination τε – καί is any-where (some-where), any-how, &c. – where, how (so), &c.; of καὶ – καί, where, how, &c. – where (there), how (so). Of καί, as conjunction, see § 185. As adverb, etiam, also, too, it denotes increase by accession.

The adverbial καί corresponds to another καί sometimes expressed, but as often left to be understood. Καὶ ὁ Σωκράτης ταῦτα ἔλεξεν, Socrates, too, said this, i. e. καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι (or the like) καὶ ὁ Σ., originally where the others, there S. So in οὐ μόνον ἀλλὰ καὶ –, the full construction is οὐ μόνον, ἀλλὰ [καὶ –,] καὶ –, not only –, but [where –,] there –.

In ὥσπερ (or other relatives) καὶ –, καὶ –: εἴπερ καὶ – καὶ –: the original parataxis καὶ – καί is taken into the syntactic form, i. e. καὶ ὁ Σ. καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι, united with ὥσπερ οἱ ἄλλοι, οὕτως ὁ Σ., gives the form καὶ ὁ Σ. ταῦτα ἔλεξεν, ὥσπερ καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι, S. also said this, as did also the others.

Where both clauses are expressed, the καί is often omitted in one or other: the first, when in conceiving the first clause the speaker has not the second clause or its καί distinctly present to his thoughts; thus, ὁ Σ. ταῦτ᾽ ἔλεξεν, ὥσπερ καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι: the second, when he means to make the first more weighty than the other, καὶ ὁ Σ. ταῦτ᾽ ἔλεξεν, ὥσπερ οἱ ἄλλοι. Often, also, the καί seems to be drawn over by a kind of attraction from the clause in which the thought would rather seem to demand its presence, to the other: thus, στρατεύονται μεθ᾽ ὧνπερ καὶ οἰκοῦσι, for with those they live with, they also take the field; ὁ Σωκράτης, εἴπερ τις καὶ ἄλλος, where we should say, καὶ ὁ Σ., εἴπερ τις ἄλλος. – In like manner it is often withdrawn from the (preceding) temporal or conditional secondary sentence to the (following) primary, to denote immediate sequence: it may then be rendered immediately, forthwith: Αὐτὰρ ἐπεὶ δείπνησε –, καί οἱ πλησάμενος δῶκε σκύφον, Od. 14, 112, after he had supped –, he also (forthwith) filled the cup and presented it to him. So in Hom. εἰ – καί, and ὅτε – καὶ τότε. Ὡς δὲ ἔδοξεν αὐτοῖς, καὶ ἐχώρουν εὐθύς, Thuc. 2, 93, for ὡς καί, simulatque: simulac decretum est ab iis continuo discesserunt. (In these instances the original relative and demonstrative force of καί is distinctly perceptible.)

As the relative clause is often omitted, e. g. καὶ ὁ Σ. ἔλεξεν (viz. ἅπερ οἱ ἄλλοι), so is often the demonstrative clause: Πῶς οὖν, ἔφη, τῷ ἀῤῥύθμῳ σώματι ἁρμόττοντα τὸν θώρακα εὔρυθμον ποιεῖς; Ὥσπερ καὶ ἁρμόττοντα, ἔφη (sc. οὕτω καὶ εὔρυθμον), Xen. Mem. 3, 10, 11.

In the single clause, it depends upon the nature of the unexpressed clause whether the καί heightens (aggravates) or lowers (extenuates): even = after all, in addition to all the rest, or even = but (so much as) independently of all the rest. In rendering this particle it is sometimes necessary to add to, or even substitute for, the literal rendering of the καί, some other particle or adverb. Thus:

a) really, indeed: Ἥνπερ καὶ φρονῶν φαίνῃ, ὅσαπερ λέγεις πρὸς ἡμᾶς, if you make it good that [besides professing] you also (really) entertain the sentiments you profess (or, that you do entertain).

b) even him- (her-, it-) self: aye –: and that –: Καὶ ἂν Διὶ πατρὶ μάχοιτο. So καὶ λίην, καὶ κάρτα, καὶ πάνυ, καὶ πολύς, καὶ πᾶς.

c) still, yet, with comparatives and in some other cases: καὶ μᾶλλον, yet more, καὶ ἀμείνονας ἵππους, still better horses, πολλοῦ γε καὶ δέω, I still want much of = far from it: καὶ ἄλλοτε, καὶ πάλιν, καὶ τρίς, &c., ἔτι καὶ νῦν, καὶ ὀψέ (late though it be, yet still), καὶ ἔπειτα, καὶ δή: καὶ ὥς, καὶ οὕτως, still even so, for all this.

d) even already (without going further): Ἀλλ᾽ ἀρκέσει καὶ ταῦτα, this already (of itself) will suffice. καὶ αὔτως (Hom.) even (already) as it is. To this head may also be reduced: καὶ πρίν, καὶ χθές, καὶ πάλαι, καὶ πρότερον, καὶ αὐτίκα, καὶ ἄρτι, καὶ ἤδη, καὶ δή.

e) only, but (so much as): Εἰ πώποτ᾽ ἔκλεψα τῶν σῶν ἄξιόν τι καὶ τριχός, worth but a hair. Ὀκνῶ καὶ λέγειν, I fear but (even) to say it.

f) Often it is best rendered by the emphatic present or past (do, did), or emphatic auxiliary: εἰ δέ τις καὶ οἴεται, but if a man does think. Τί γὰρ ἄν τις καὶ ποιοῖ ἄλλο; why, what else should one do? Especially the καί following an interrogative: Πῶς καὶ διώλετ᾽, εἰπέ, how did he perish? "Τί χρὴ λέγειν asks, What is one to say? not, Whether there is anything to say: but τί χρὴ καὶ λέγειν not only asks what, but doubts whether anything at all is to be said (fully: quid dicendum est, si omnino aliquid dicendum est?)" [1] Or, more strongly, at all, on earth: Τί χρὴ καὶ προσδοκᾶν, what on earth is one, or, what is one at all, to expect? Ἔστιν ἄρα δικαίου ἀνθρώπου βλάπτειν καὶ ὁντινοῦν ἄνθρωπον; Plat. Rep. 1, 335, B, any human being at all, be who it may? ἵνα καὶ ἴδῃς ὅσα καὶ εἴδη ἔχει ἡ κακία, ib. 4, 445, C, how many forms (after all). In like manner, the frequent combination ἵνα καί, especially with εἰδῶ, ἴδῃς, &c., may be explained, that if there is anything (or, as there is something) to know, I may know it.

[1]: Hermann ad Vig. p. 837, 320. But Krüger says, that the καί emphasizes the term to which it is prefixed, as being the particular point about which one requires to have full information. Similarly Klotz: "si dico τί χρὴ καὶ λέγειν; proprie hoc quæro, quid sit dicendum etiam si solum de dicendo cogitemus."

In καὶ γάρ, nam etiam, the καί belongs to the next following word, from which it is separated by the necessity of placing γάρ second in the sentence: Καὶ γὰρ πρὸς τούτους αὐτῷ ἐπεποίητο συμμαχίη, Hdt. 1, 77, for with these also. Καὶ γὰρ νῦν ὁμολογῶ, i. e. καὶ νῦν, Plat. Gorg. 467, B. Sometimes it is namque, and then the καί is not idle, but denotes the reciprocal correspondency of the clauses: ἀκούσατε, ἔφη, καὶ γὰρ ἄξιον, for, let me also tell you, it is worth hearing.

In εἰ καί, the καί is even, and refers not merely to the εἰ, but to the whole concessive sentence = etsi, quamquam: Εἰ καὶ μητρὶ διαφορὰν ἔχει, if it even be that he has a quarrel with their mother, if it be ever so much the case that –: in καὶ εἰ, the καί refers only to the condition, = etiamsi. Κεἰ μὴ πέποιθα, even if (for all that) I have no confidence. Εἴ τι καὶ ἀγροικότερον εἰρῆσθαι, Pl. Gorg. 486, C, if it be even somewhat rude (as it is), i. e. though I own it is somewhat rude: but καὶ εἰ ἀγροικότερόν τι εἰπεῖν ἐστιν, ib. 509, A, even if it be somewhat rude (which I do not allow). Both forms are abbreviated into the participial construction: thus, τὰ αὐτὰ ἂν ἔπραξε καὶ πρώτη λαχοῦσα, Pl. Rep. 10, 620 = εἰ καὶ or καὶ εἰ πρώτη ἔλαχεν. See § 175, e.

τε, also, so, denoting parity of the term appended. See § 222, and for the use as conjunction, § 185.

The adverbial use of this particle is almost entirely confined to the ancient epic style, having disappeared, except a few traces, from the later language. Its meaning is so faint that, for the most part, it does not admit of being rendered otherwise than by an exaggerated analogy: it does little more than intimate the correspondency of the clauses which it accompanies. In its origin, τε is cognate with enclitic τις: in its use, it almost exclusively accompanies other particles which connect protasis and apodosis or other parallel members, and sometimes appears in both, oftener only in one. Τε τε, any-where, -how, -way, -time, &c.... somewhere, how, &c.: hence it is the slightest possible intimation of as – so, alike – alike: Κραιπνότερος μὲν γάρ τε νόος, λεπτὴ δέ τε μῆτις, Il. 23, 591, as on the one hand the mind is more rapid, so also on the other is the counsel slight. Εἴπερ τε νοήσῃ, ἀλλά τε οἱ βράσσων τε νόος λεπτὴ δέ τε μῆτις, Il. 10, 224, although in-any-wise he has the wit, yet likewise slower alike (on the one hand, μέν om.) the wit, scanty alike on the other hand the counsel. Οὐ μὴν οἱ τόγε κάλλιον οὐδέ τ᾽ ἄμεινον, yet is this not for his honour, and (as not for his honour) so not for his good either. Ος κε θεοῖς ἐπιπείθηται, μάλα τ᾽ ἔκλυον αὐτοῦ, whoso obeys the gods (as he obeys them) so do they hear him. In sentences correlated by demonstr. and relative, te is used only when the dem. and rel. do not come close together, or when the dem. is not expressed: in other combinations it is frequent: thus we have, εἴπερ τε ἀλλά τε, or simply τε: εἴπερ τε: and εἴπερ τε with second clause omitted. Μέν τε – δέ τε or ἀλλά τε (sometimes the μέν τε, sometimes the second re, omitted), also (μέν omitted) τε δέ τε: δὲ ΤΕ: ΤΕ δέ: TE

αὐτάρ. Again, ἢ τε, so surely: καί τε (as -) so also: γάρ τε, for (as -), so: and sometimes ἤτε, or ἤτε – ἤτε.

Hence the usage of τε attached to relative words in dependent sentences to give force and clearness to the correlation: thus, ὅστε, he, or, that, who (Hom., lyr. poets, and lyrical parts of Tragedy, sometimes Herodot.), also ὅστις τε, οἷος τε, ὅσος τε (just such, or so great, as), ὥστε, so as, so that, ὡσεί τε, ἅτε, ὅπως τε, ἠΰτε, ὅτε τε (then when), ὅθι τε, ἵνα τε (there where). Of these the Attic prose has retained οἷός τε εἶναι, I am in such sort as to, in a condition to –: ὥστε, ὡσεί τε, ἔστε (ἐς ὅτε) quoad, ἅτε, quippe, ἐφ᾽ ᾧτε, on condition that (Herod. also ἐπείτε, postquam). Corresponding forms in Lat. (τε = que, -pe) are namque (γάρ τε, comp. καὶ γάρ, etenim), atque (= ad-que καί τε), quippe (ἅτε), also quisque with its adverbial forms, as ubique, &c., uterque, usque, and the suffix -cumque.

δέ, on the other hand (comp. μέν, on the one hand, § 232). Opposition is denoted by the particles which originally denote on the other hand, viz. αὖ or αὐτε, and αὐτάρ (= αὐτ᾿ ἄρα), which, shortened, is ἀτάρ. Synonymous with these is dé, which, both as adverb or mere particle, and as conjunction, in virtue of its origin (cognate with the second numeral δύο, the δείς in οὐδείς, and the pronoun of the second person), means in the second place. For the conjunctional use, see §§ 188, 189. The adverbial use appears in

α) καὶ δέ, and on the other hand, and also (moreover). In Homer the particles usually stand together; in Attic, the word that has the emphasis comes between. Καὶ δ᾽ ἄλλῳ νεμεσᾶτον, and of another also ye take it amiss. Καὶ σὺ δ᾽ αὐθάδης ἔφυς, Eur. El. 1122, and thou too art self-willed (not Ægisthus only). Καὶ οἵ τε ἄλλοι..

ὑπηρέτουν, καὶ ἡ τῶν Θηβαίων δὲ πόλις... ξυνέπεμπε, Xen. Hell. 5, 2, 37, and Thebes also -.

REM. Kai being both and and also, the Greek was obliged to have recourse to

dé to express and also.

b) in the demonstrative sentence or the apodosis of a condition: Οἵη περ φύλλων γενεή, τοίη δὲ καὶ ἀνδρῶν, as is the nature of the leaves, so is, on the other hand (also) that of man. Οἱ δ᾽ ἄρα Μηθώνην... ἐνέμοντο, τῶν δὲ Φιλοκτήτης ἦρχεν, Il. 2, 716, (comp. οἱ δ᾽ Ἄργισσαν ἔχον..., τῶν αὖθ᾽ ἡγεμόνευε... Πολυποίτης, ib. 738). Ἐγὼ μὲν οὓς ἂν τῶν λόγων ἀλγῶ κλύειν, Λαερτίου παῖ, τοὺς δὲ καὶ πράσσειν στυγῶ, Soph. Phil. 86, I also, on the other hand, hate to do. Αἰ δέ κε λίσσηαι ἑτάρους..., οἱ δέ σε... δεόντων, Od. 12, 54, let them, on the other hand (or, however), bind thee. ᾿Αλλ᾽ εἰ σύγε Παυσανίαν αἰνεῖς, ἐγὼ δ᾽ ᾿Αριστείδαν ἐπαινέω, I, on the contrary, praise Α. ᾿Αλλ᾽ εἰ μηδὲ τοῦτο βούλει ἀποκρίνασθαι, σὺ δὲ τοὐντεῦθεν λέγε, do thou, however, say. So, especially in Attic, dé after an abbreviated protasis in the form of a participle: Θαυμάζω σου, εἰ ἐκείνους ῥᾳδίως χειρούμενος, τούτοις δὲ μηδένα τρόπον οἴει δυνήσεσθαι προσενεχθῆναι, Xen. Mem. 3, 7, 8, that although, yet –. Cf. § 188, R. 6.

When in an alternative, two protases, each with its apodosis, are opposed to each other, the form may be μὲν – μέν (prot. and ap.), δὲ- dé (prot. and ap.), or also μὲν – δέ, δὲ – δέ: thus, ὃς μέν τ᾽ αἰδέσεται κούρας Διὸς...., τὸν δὲ μέγ᾽ ὤνησαν...., ὃς δέ κ᾿ ἀνῄνηται.. · λίσσονται δ᾽ ἄρα ταίγε Δία, Il. 9, 509, whoso reverences the:- virgins, him they benefit (might also be τὸν μὲν..) -: but whoso repulses them, then they pray, &c. For Attic instances, see § 188, Rem. 4.

c) in the combination οὐδέ, μηδέ, also not, not even. Here the particle dé stands for itself and also for καί, as καί cannot follow οὐ and μή in this sense. Its usage, therefore, exactly agrees with that of καί; so that οὐδ᾽ ὡς, not so too, not so either, stands on the same footing with καὶ ὥς, οὐδὲ γάρ, neque enim, with καὶ γάρ, etenim, οὐδὲ μὲν οὐδέ, neque vero etiam, with καὶ μὴν καί, et vero etiam, οὐδὲ γὰρ οὐδέ, for also not, or for not even, with καὶ γὰρ καί. The particle sometimes puts the things on a par (also not), sometimes exalts the latter (not even), ἐπεὶ οὐδὲ ἔοικε, because it is also not seemly (therefore must it also not be). Τὰ γὰρ πεπρωμέν᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὑπερβαίην ποτ᾽ ἄν, Eur. Ion, 1388, that which is fated for me can I also not escape. Οὐδέ νυ τοῦπερ φείσατο, 11. 24, 235, not even him did he spare; οὐδ᾽ ὄναρ, not even in a dream. Οὐδὲ γὰρ οὐδέ τις ἄλλος, Od. 8, 32, etenim ne alius quidem. Οὐδὲ μὲν οὐδὲ Τρώας ἀγήνορας εἴασ᾽ Ἕκτωρ εὕδειν, Il. 10, 299. Not, however, the T. either (any more than the others).

Not the Trojans moreover (either) did H. suffer to sleep. μέν, on the one hand, indeed.

This particle, bearing the same relation to the first numeral (μείς) μία, that δέ bears to the second and to the δείς in οὐδείς (not οὐδ᾽ εἷς) means therefore in the first place, and a μέν is usually followed by a corresponding dé. But as the dé has not always a preceding μέν,

μέν, so μέν not always a following δε. This, however, is always implied in the thought. Φιλοτιμίᾳ μὲν ἐνέχεται, δεινῷ κακῷ, Eur. Iph. A. 527, ambition indeed (in the first place, as far as that goes) he is liable to (the suppressed opposition being, but what of the rest, but what then?) Καὶ ὁπόθεν ποτε ταύτην τὴν ἐπωνυμίαν ἔλαβες τὸ μανικὸς καλεῖσθαι, οὐκ οἶδα ἔγωγε· ἐν μὲν γὰρ τοῖς λόγοις ἀεὶ τοιοῦτος εἶ, for in your discourse (to begin with that, it must be owned, at any rate), &c. (Pl.) Λέγεται δὲ καὶ ὅδε ὁ λόγος, ἐμοὶ μὲν οὐ πιθανός, Hdt. 3, 3, to me for my part (but what others may think I know not). Οὔτοι δὴ ἀφίκται, ἀλλὰ δοκεῖ μέν μοι ἥξειν τήμερον, Pl. Crito, 43 D, it seems to me, for my part. So οἶμαι μέν, ἡγοῦμαι μέν, δοκῶ μέν, οὐκ οἶδα μέν. Παρεγένου μὲν τῇ μάχῃ, Pl. Charm. 153 C, you were present surely (or, I suppose) -? (suppressed: but if not, I have no more to say.)

REM. In Homer and Ionic, μέν is frequently used in the same sense as the

cognate form μήν, μάν, § 231: in the later dialects, only so in the combinations

μέντοι, μὲν οὖν, μὲν δή.

μήν Dor., and Ep. μάν.

This particle, cognate with μέν, involves the same primary notion "first and foremost," "to begin with," but more strongly expressed, as here the whole statement stops at the μέν, as if the one thing were all: it insists upon one thing (the first) to the exclusion of the rest. Hence it is confirmative and concessive, and also oppositive and adversative (as Lat. vero). Accordingly, it stands in hortatory addresses and exclamations: εἰ δ᾽ ἄγε μήν, πείρησαι, but come now, do try (in the first place, now, for once); ἔπου μήν, do follow: in questions, τίνος μὴν ἕνεκα μανθάνετε τοξεύειν; to what end (let me ask you one thing) do you learn –? especially τί μήν; thus, οἱ τὸ παράπαν ἡδονὰς οὔ φασιν εἶναι. “τί μήν;” i. e. τί μὴν ἄλλο φασὶν αὐτὰς εἶναι; what else, I pray (for one thing), do they affirm them to be? Ὁρᾶς οὖν ἐκείνην τὴν ὑψηλοτάτην πλάτανον; “τί μήν;” Pl. Phil. 44, what else, I pray, do I but see it? = to be sure I do: in argumentative assertions with latent interrogation, σώφρων μὴν (I suppose I may assert this one thing) ὁ γε τοιοῦτος καὶ οὐδαμῇ φιλοχρήματος, Pl. Rep. 485, and adversatively, ταῦτ᾽ ἐπιεικῶς μέν ἐστιν ὑπό τι ἄτοπα, δηλοῖ μήν –, this is indeed somewhat strange; it shows, however –: οὐ μὴν ἐρεῖς γε, but then surely you don't mean to say: in asseverations, ὧδε γὰρ ἐξερέω, καὶ μὴν τετελεσμένον ἔσται, and be sure of one thing = assuredly; so ἢ μήν, the usual formula of swearing, ἐπομνύω σοι, ἢ μὴν ἐγὼ βούλεσθαι, verily and truly (for one thing, come what will): in announcing the coming of a new person: ὅδε μὴν Αἵμων, here, however, comes H.! (The notion however, which often renders μήν, is given by the suppressed opposition, "for one thing, however it may be with the rest," or the like.)

καὶ μήν, καὶ μὴν γε, the καί adverbial. Καὶ μὴν χάριν γ᾽ ἂν ἀξίαν λάβοις ἐμοῦ (well be sure of one thing -): “ καὶ μὴν μάλιστα τοῦτ᾽ ἀφικόμην, ὅπως (well, sure enough -), Soph. Ed. T. 1004, 5. Adversatively: ἀλλ᾽ ἐκδιδάσκει πάνθ' ὁ γηράσκων χρόνος. “ καὶ μὴν σύ γ' οὔπω σωφρονεῖν ἐπίστασαι," yet, sure enough. καὶ μὴν πάρεισιν οἶδε, Soph. El. 1412. καὶ μὴν ὁρῶ τάλαιναν Εὐρυδίκην, Ant. 1165 (announcing the arrival of a new person). καὶ μὴν Τάνταλον εἰδεῖδον, then or moreover (for one thing) -. Od. 11, 582 (comp. Attic καὶ μενδή, § 236 c.) – καὶ μὴν καί, and (for one thing) moreover.

ἀλλὰ μήν: ἀλλὰ μὴν κεκραξόμεσθά γ᾽ ὁπόσον ἡ φάρυγξ ἂν ἡμῶν χανδάνῃ, well then, we will cry (if that be all), expressive of readiness to do something which one is challenged to do: ἀλλ᾽ ἐστι μὴν οἰκητός, Arist. R. 258, well, it is inhabited (I see that for one thing, sure enough): εἰ εἰσὶ βωμοί, εἰσὶ καὶ θεοί· ἀλλὰ μὴν (atqui) εἰσὶ βωμοί· εἰσὶν ἄρα θεοί, but there are altars. ἀλλ᾽ οὐ μήν, but not, be assured of that, especially in hasty rejoinders: τῆς δ᾽ ἑκοῦσα παιδὸς οὐ μεθήσομαι. “ ἀλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ἐγὼ μὴν τήνδ᾽ ἄπειμ᾿ αὐτοῦ λιπών, " no, nor will I; be assured of that -. (For ἀλλὰ μὴν δή, which often occurs in some copies of Plato, the critical edd. restore ἀλλὰ μὲν δή.)

γε μήν, quidem certe, see under γε, § 250.

REM. In Homer, μέν is often used in precisely the sense of μήν: thus ἢ μέν:

οὐ (μὴ) μέν: οὐδὲ μέν = ἀλλ᾽ οὐ μήν: καὶ μέν.

δή. This particle, related to δέ as μήν is to μέν, insists upon the dé to the exclusion of the μέν: its general force therefore = " leave all that is before (or intermediate) and come to that," " come to that at once, and stop there." Hence its very frequent use in emphatic statements of place, time, degree: in peremptory determinations and conclusions, urgent demands, impatient questions, in putting something as generally acknowledged (= " everybody has come to that conclusion"), and in the expression of irony and derision. Except in the epic style, δὴ τότε, δὴ γάρ, it never begins a sentence, and it is usually attached almost like a suffix to the word which it qualifies: comp. τόσος δή with τοσόςδε, αὐτὸς δή with i(s)dem, πρὶν δή with pridem, ἄγε δή with agedum.

1) With numerals, demonstratives, local and temporal adverbs, words of dimension, superlatives. τρεῖς δή, three (not short of, and not beyond): ἕκτον δὴ τύδ᾽ ἦμαρ, this is now the sixth day (it has come to that), πάντως and πάνυ δή. πολλοὶ and πολλάκις δή. – ἐκεῖνος, οὗτος, οὕτω, ἐνταῦθα, ὧδε δή: τὰ αὐτὰ δὴ ταῦτα: so the personal pronouns, σὲ δή, thee there –: νῦν δή, τότε δή (Hom. δὴ τότε, δή ῥα τότ'): ἔτι, οὐκέτι, πάλαι, πρὶν, ἀεὶ, τέλος, ὄψε δή δαρόν τε δὴ χρόνον. – ἐν βραχεῖ δή. – πλεῖστα, κράτιστοι δή.

2) With relative, interrogative, indefinite pronouns. ὃς, οἷος δή. τίς δή, who' ever? (= when are we ever to get at him? who on earth?) πῶς, ὅσος δή; ἄλλος δή, alius nescio quis. δή τις, quidam nescio quis. δή που, somewhere or other. όςτις δή and δήποτε.ὡς and

δή που, surely (= that somehow), and οὐ δή που, surely not, see under που. ἵνα (final) δή, precisely in order that. ὡς (as) δή with irony us if forsooth (so very certain is that!), ἅτε, οἷα δή.

3) With particles of asseveration and negation. ἢ δή, verily (= that, whatever comes before it), comp. ἢ μήν (= this, whatever comes after it). οὐ δή, not (that!), μὴ δή (do not think of that!), μή τι δή (cf. nedum), and μή τί γε δή, to say nothing of-, much less - (= only not that!).

4) With nouns: τότε δὴ ὁ Κῦρος λέγει· Ὦ Κυαξάρη, ὥρα δὴ ἐξαπαντᾶν, Xen. ἐπειδὴ δοκεῖ λήθη τις εἶναι κανάπαυλα δή, Soph. Phil, 866, a cessation at last (it has come to that). Often with irony, τοὺς ᾿Αθηναίους φίλους δὴ ὄντας, Thuc. 6, 80, friends forsooth (so likely that!). εἰσήγαγε τὰς ἑταιρίδας δή, the pretended concubines (that, to be sure, was what everybody would acknowledge them to be!). Comp. δῆθεν, § 234.

5) With verbs: ἄγε δή. θώμεθα δὴ φόρτιον. ἐπεὶ προθυμεῖ, χρὴ λέγειν. ἄκουε δή, well then, hear. οἶσθα δὴ τὸ πᾶν, there thou knowest the whole. σύμπεμψον τοίνυν μοί τινα. “ λαβὼν δὴ ἴθι, ἔφη, ὅντινα ἐθέλεις, ” take then (without more ado: as matter of course come to that at once). With irony, δεδιώς περὶ αὐτοῦ, μὴ διαφθαρῇ δὴ ὑπὸ ᾿Αλκιβιάδου, Pl. Prot. 320.

With the whole sentence: νῦν δ᾽ αὖ μόνα δὴ νὰ λελειμμένα, since it has come to this, that we are left alone. ὁ μὲν χρόνος δὴ διὰ χρόνου προὔβαινέ μοι, Soph. Ant. 58, denoting the slowness of the passage of time.

In conclusions: ἐκ δὴ τούτων -, from this then it follows (comp. μήν of the steps of an argument). In resumption after interruption: ἐν τούτῳ δὴ ἄν τις γενόμενος, Pl. Men. 240, well then (to come back at last to that point) if one be in—. Both uses are exemplified in δεῖ δὴ (of course then it is necessary) πραότερόν πως ἀποκρίνεσθαι. δημοκρατία δή (Well then -). In enumerations, denoting the accession of some weightier consideration, ὑγίεια καὶ ἰσχὺς καὶ κάλλος καὶ πλοῦτος δή (denique), Pl. Men. 87: so καὶ τὸ δὴ μέγιστον: or something special, ἄλλος τε καὶ δὴ καὶ –.

καὶ δή, in replies: βλέψον κάτω. “ καὶ δὴ βλέπω," well, I am looking (that S already): ταῦτα δή, there, ' tis done! in the supposition of a fictitious case, καὶ δὴ τεθνᾶσι, well, they are dead (suppose it).

μήν and δή exclude each other, therefore this combination never occurs in good authors; but μὲν δή is frequent, especially in dismissing a consideration: εἰεν τὰ μὲν δὴ τύξ᾽ ἔχεις, the bow thou hast (enough of that). τοιαῦτα μὲν δὴ ταῦτα, hæc hactenus. ἀλλ᾽ ἦλθε μὲν δὴ τοῦτο τοὔνειδος τάχ᾽ ἂν ὀργῇ βιασθέν, but in fact or, it may be enough to say that (one consideration, μέν, and there an end, δή). Hence μὲν δή approaches nearly to μήν, and Plato renders Homer's καὶ μὴν Τάνταλον εἰςεῖδον by καὶ μὲν δὴ καὶ Τάνταλόν γε εἰδεῖδον, Prot. 315, and moreover (the enumeration begun with μέν cut short by δή). ο οὐ μὲν δὴ λήξω, Soph. El. 103 = οὐ μὴν λήξω. βασιλικοὶ μὲν ἄνδρες, οὐ μὲν δὴ ἐπιστήμονές γε (where Stallb. would read μέντοι for μὲν δή), Pl. Phad. 266. καὶ μὲν δὴ χαλεπὸν ἐπιχειροῦμεν, Pl. Pol. 287 (porro etiam). ἂν μὲν δὴ καὶ ὑποπίῃ, Pl. Lys. 89, jam si adeo. μάλιστα μὲν δὴ (in fact, or, and that one consideration enough) ἔπειτα μέντοι (but then), Soph. Phil. 350.

δῆτα. This more emphatic form of δή (comp. ἔπειτα from ἐπεί, τηνικαῦτα from τηνίκα), not found in Hom. and Dor., rare in Herodot., is frequent in Attic, where it accompanies all the parts of speech.

In replies: ξυμβόλαια δὲ λέγεις κοινωνήματα, ἤ τι ἄλλο; “ κοινωνήματα δῆτα” (just so, that is the very thing!), Pl. Rep. 1, 333. In earnest iterations: οἴκτειρε δ᾽ ἡμᾶς... “ οἴκτειρε δῆτα," yes, do pity, Eur. El. 678. ἰώ. “ ἰὼ δῆτα,” (it is') alas! indeed, Soph. Ed. 541. ὡς μ᾿ ἀπώλεσας θανών. ἀπώλεσας δῆτ᾽, how hast thou undone me! [1] yes, undone indeed! Soph. El. 1155. σκόπει δῆτα, only look! In wishes: ἀπόλοιο δῆτα, oh that thou mightest but perish! In questions: τί δῆτ᾽, ἐπειδὰν –; quid tum demum dicetis, quum? τί δῆτα κλαίεις; what are you weepingfor? τίς ἄρα ῥύσεται, τίς ἄρ᾽ ἐπαρκέσει θεῶν ἢ θεᾶν; ποτέρα δῆτ᾽ ἐγὼ ποτιπέσω βρέτη δαιμόνων; am I then (and what avails that)? Æsch. Sept. 93. οἶσθα δῆτά γε; thou dosť, surely, know? ᾔδησθα γὰρ δῆτ', I suppose you knew (ironically). ἢ δῆτα, yes, verily. οὐ δῆτα, minime vero. μὴ δῆτα δράσῃς ταῦτα, only not this! ὅτε δῆτα, just when. καὶ δῆτ᾽ ἐτόλμας, and, forsooth, you had the audacity, Soph. Ant. 445.

[1]: The particle belongs to the whole sentence, but attaches itself to μόνα. So in Æsch. Eum. 3. (First Gæa, and after her, Themis) ἢ δὴ (ut satis constat) τὸ μητρὸς δευτέρα τύδ᾽ ἔζετο μαντεῖον, it belongs to the sentence as a whole, but more closely to τὸ μητρός. Fully expressed, the meaning is: " who succeeded to the oracle which everybody knows that was her mother's before her, and to which therefore as everybody must see she had the fullest right." Müller on the Eum. § 91, n.

δαί (Attic). This particle occurs onlyin the combination τί δαί; πῶς δαί; and is usedin forcible transitions, with indignation, wonder, or other emotions: what then? how so? τί δαὶ τἆλλα; what then say you to the rest? It occurs only in the familiar Attic style.

-θε, -θεν. The first only as a suffix in εἴθε, " would that," " if but" = in this (or, in that) case. The second as a suffix of case, οὐρανόθεν, from heaven, ἐντεῦθεν, thence, &c.: hence, in composition with δή,

δῆθεν.

This particle (not used by Hom.), originally =from that (as the terminus a quo) is almost always ironical (= something which all the world acknowledges, to set out with!), forsooth, in pretence, of course (derisively). τοῦτο τὸ ἄγος οἱ Λακεδαιμόνιοι ἐλαύνειν ἐκέλευον, δῆθεν τοῖς θεοῖς πρῶτον τιμωροῦντες, Thuc. 1, 127. ὡς ἐκπεφευγὼς τοὺς ἐχθροὺς, οἱ μιν · · ἠθέλησαν ἀπολέσαι δῆθεν (as he pretended), Hdt. 1, 11. τῆς ἐκεῖνος οὐδαμὰ βλάστας ἐφώνει, δῆθεν οὐδὲν ἱστορῶν, Soph. Tr. 381.

δήπουθεν. See above, δή τις, and δήπου, under που: hence this (Attic) particle originally = from that in anywise, or, surely; therefore, I should hope, or, surely. ἐγὼ δὲ, ἢν ἱππεύειν μάθω, ὅταν μὲν ἐπὶ τοῦ ἵππου γένωμαι, τὰ τοῦ ἱπποκενταύρου δήπουθεν διαπράξομαι, Xen. Cyr. 4, 3, 20. ἑστάναι γὰρ ἐξέσται δήπουθεν αὐτῷ, Dem. οὔτε γὰρ μαγείρῳ μαχαίρας οὐδὲν ἔστ᾽ ὄφελος δήπουθεν, ἥτις μὴ τέμνει, Pl.

θήν. This stronger form of θέν (§ 239) is Homeric and Doric (Sicilian). In Hom. always ironical, = δήπου, especially with ἢ οὐ, οὐ μέν θην – γε, yet surely, yet surely at least not. In Theocritus ἐγὼ θήν, Ifor my part, τὺ θήν, thou for thy part, and = denique. πείρᾳ θὴν πάντα τελεῖται, Adoniaz. 63.

ἤδη. As δή to δé, so is ἤδη to ἠδέ (which answers to ἠμέν, as on the one hand, so on the other hand [1]. It denotes, therefore, the absence of an interval, chiefly with reference to time, this (that) instant, immediately.

[1] The ἤ = as, so, not ἦ, verily, but the original of ἤ, or, than, whence also ἦμος and ἠΰτε, when.

(a) As temporal particle, it answers to Lat. jam, now, in the senses, forthwith, henceforth, already, at last, still, the now being either that of the speaker, or of the person, &c. spoken of, not, as νῦν, simply " at this present time." Thus ἤδη ἀπῆλθεν, hewent awayjust now; ἤδη ἀπελήλυθεν, is just gone; ἤδη ἀπελεύσεται, will go directly. νῦν ἤδη, ἤδη νῦν, now this instant. ποιήσας δε τοῦτο, τὰ ἄλλα ἤδη ἤρχετο διοικεῖν, anon, without more ado, Xen. Hell. 7,1, 12. ἤδη οὐκ εἴχομεν, we were not yet (erewhile) able; ἤδη οὐχ ἕξομεν, we shall henceforth not (or, no more) be able. λόγοι ἔσφηλαν ἤδη (ere now = full oft) καὶ κατώρθωσαν βροτούς, Soph. El. 408. ἤδη ποτ' εἶδον (in my time), ἤδη πάλαι (this long while).

(b) In the other instances, the temporal signification, though less strongly marked, is still discernible: ἀπὸ ταύτης ἤδη Αἴγυπτος, at this point immediately Egypt begins. δῆλον δὴ τοῦτό γε ἤδη καὶ παιδί (even to a child): so οὗτος-, τότ' ἐνταῦθ᾽ –, οὕτως ἤδη. τὰ δὲ παννυχίδων ἤδη –, and then the vigils; vigilias demum si commemorem, Soph. El. 92.

REM. δήν, jam diu, evidently connected with δή, ἤδη, denique, dudum, donec.

νῦν. This is the Latin nunc, at this present time (the now of the speaker). Hence it usually occurs in connexion with the present, or present-perfect, or future, the latter in the sense, as the case is now, he, &c. will -, or, he is now going to-. With the proper past (imperf. or aorist indic.) either the sense is present, as νῦν δ᾽ εἰς τὸ κείνου κρᾶτ᾽ ἐνήλαθ' ἡ τύχη, but as it is now, destiny has; or the immediate past is denoted, ἐν ᾧπερ νῦν ἐκάμνομεν, Eur. Hec. 1144. νῦν ἐμέλλομεν, we were now about to -. νῦν δὴ ἔλεγον, just now: νῦν δὴ λέγω ον λέξω, nunc cum maxime, at this very time.

νῦν, igitur, jam vero, further serves to denote transition or argument: μὴ νῦν ἀτίμα θεούς, then do not –, Soph. Aj. 1108. εἰ νῦν ἐπίστω, if then thou knowest, Soph. Phil. 1224. In the formula of adjuration: πρὸς νῦν σὲ γονάτων, πρὸς νῦν θεῶν, now by –.

This νῦν is reduced to an enclitic (our unemphatic " now "); but, as a single word, only in the poets; in Ionic prose μένυν, in Attic τοίνυν. Homer has it, e. g. δεῦρό νυν, hither then, Il. 23, 485. [1]

[1]: Krüger says, that in Aristoph. the v is long (but still to be written vuv encl., not vûv), in the Tragic poets long or short.

Connected, if not identical, with enclit. vuv is the enclit. vu of Homer, used in asseveration with somewhat of irony: οὐ νύ τ᾽ ἀοιδοὶ αἴτιοι, nempe, scilicet, Od. 1, 348. θνητὸς δὲ νυ καὶ σὺ τέτυξαι, but I suppose, Il. 16, 622. So ἐπεί νυ, ἢ ῥά νυ, μή νυ τοι, οὔ νυ τι. Also καί νύ κεν in apodosis with præt. indic. to an hypothesis also with præt. indic., and doubtless –. In questions: τί νυ οἱ τόσον ὠδύσαο, Ζεῦ, Od. 1, 62, why art thou -? τί νυ σ᾽ ἔτρεφον, Il. 1, 414, why did I-?

νή, ναί, μά.

νή (cf. na) asseverates, but only in affirmative sentences: νὴ τὸν Δία.

This lengthened becomes ναί, yea, verily (cf. δή, δαί): often followed by μά, as ναὶ μὰ τὸν Δία, a stronger form of νὴ τὸν Δία. The μά in itself is neither negative nor affirmative, but simply = "by;" but unless the ναί is expressed, μά must always have a negative expressed or implied, either preceding or following: οὐ μὰ τὸν Δ., or μὰ τὸν Δ., οὐ –. μὰ τὴν τέλειον τῆς ἐμῆς παιδὸς δίκην, Ἄτην, Ἐρινύν θ᾽ –, οὔ μοι φόβου μέλαθρον ἐλπὶς ἐμπατεῖν, Æsch. Aj. 1354.

ἦ. This particle (always adverbial) expresses assurance: ἡ = ἀληθῶς, ὄντως, Hesych., indeed, surely. ἢ μήν, § 231, a strong asseveration, assuredly (come what will, &c.). ἢ που, assurance with a mixture of doubt, real or pretended (hence ironically of self-evident conclusions), or confident conjecture, sane opinor, surely. ἀλλ᾽ ἢ (often falsely written ἀλλ᾽ ἤ), at profecto. ἢ ρα, ἤτοι. See under ῥα, τοι.

The same particle used interrogatively, asks a question with confidence or conjecture. In Hom. without other particles, when the speaker answers his own question by another: τίπτε τόσον ἐβόησας –; ἢ μήτις σευ μῆλα – ἐλαύνει; ἢ μήτις σαυτὸν κτείνειν; Od. 9, 405. Frequent in Attic, especially in Tragedy: ἢ τολμήσατε; aye, did ye dare? ἢ κεῖνος ὤμοσεν; then did he swear? With other particles: ἢ δή; ergo revera? ἢ ταῦτα δῆτ᾽ ἀνεκτά; then is this to be borne? ἢ που [1], num forte? expects an answer in the negative, ἢ που τετόλμηκ᾽ ἔργον αἴσχιστον τόδε; do you mean to say that? Eur. Med. 695. Η ῥα Att. ἆρα; ἢ γάρ; See under ῥα, γάρ.

[1]: Elmsley, Heracl. 55, Med. 678, 1275, and Stallbaum, Pl. Lys. 207 D, deny the interrogative use of ἢ που, which Hermann, Opusc. iii. 161, has vindicated.

περ. Etymologically connected with πέρι, “ through and out at the other end," περᾶν, &c., comp. περί, Lat. per, this enclitic particle has for its fundamental meaning the notion, throughly, thoroughly, throughout. Hence

a) (In Homer) its meaning sometimes seems to be confined to the word which it accompanies (cf. pergratus perque jucundus): μίνυνθά περ οὔτι μαλὰ δήν, Il. 13, 573, a very little while, = just a little while: πρῶτόν περ, ὕστατόν περ, quite or just first, last: γεινόμενόν περ, just = precisely at the birth, Il. 23, 79. ἀλλὰ καὶ αὐτοί περ πονεώμεθα, ourselves precisely (and not others), Il. 10, 70. οἴκαδε περ σὺν νηυσὶ νεώμεθα, home just that (and nothing else), Il. 2, 236. τόδε πέρ μοι ἐπικρήηνον ἐέλδωρ, just this (and only this) prayer, Il. 8, 242. ὁ δὲ πείσεται εἰς ἀγαθόν περ, to what is good if to nothing else = at any rate, Il. 11, 789.

b) (also in Hom.) for all that: ἀλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὡς ἑτάρους ἐῤῥύσατο ἱέμενός περ, though quite desiring, all eager as he was, Od.1,6. ἀγαθός περ ἐών, allbrave as thou art. οὐδὲ θεοί περ – δύνανται, not the gods either for all that (they be gods), Od. 3, μῆτερ, ἐπεί μ᾽ ἔτεκές γε μινυνθάδιόν περ ἔοντα, τιμήν περ μοι ὄφελλεν ᾿Ολύμπιος ἐγγυαλίξαι, all shortlived as I am, (yet) honour, if nothing else, Il. 1, 353.

c) With relatives and conjunctions (this usage is Attic as well as epic): ὅσπερ, just what, precisely who, the same that; ὅσοςπερ, just so great as; οἷος περ, just of the same kind as; also with ὡς, οὗ, οἱ, ὅθεν, ᾗ, ὅπου, ὅτε, ἔνθα, ἕως, ἐπεί, ἐπειδή, &c. εἴπερ, if the case be just so, if really (εἴπερ εἴργασται τόδε, ἴσμεν γὰρ οὐδὲν τρανές, Soph. Aj. 22): sometimes, if ever so much; ἐάνπερ, if indeed and provided only that: εἴπερ, ἐάνπερ καί, albeit that even; ὅτανπερ, when (provided only it be so).

d) The Attic poets sometimes allow themselves the use of περ as in Homer: γενναῖός περ ὤν, all noble as thou art; but in this sense καίπερ with the participle is usual (rarely with indic.), § 175, e. (Sometimes καὶ περ with the emphatic word between. μῶν καὶ θεός περ ἱμέρῳ πεπληγμένος; Æsch. Aj. 1125.)

γε (Dor. γα). This is also enclitic, and connected in its origin with qui in quidem, and our yea. Its (original) meaning may often be conveyed by yea, with repetition of the word to which it is attached thus, ὡς δ᾽ ὅτ᾽ ἀνὴρ χαλκεὺς πελέκυν ἐν ὕδατι βάπτῃ... τὸ γὰρ αὐτε σιδήρου γε κράτος ἐστίν, for that in the case of steel (yea, of steel) is strengthening, i. e. of steel indeed (for in the case of other things it may be weakening). πῶς οὐχὶ Σίμων᾽ ἐνέπρησεν, ἀλλὰ τὸν αὐτοῦ γε νεὼν βάλλει; his own temple (that, of all things!). εἰ δὲ μὴ ἑκόντες γε, ἀλλ᾽ ἄκοντες, if not willing (yes, if not that), yet –. ἔγωγε ταῦτα ποιήσω, Ι' (yes, I: if none other).

(a) When the force of the particle is confined to the one word which it accompanies, this force can often be rendered in English by added emphasis, sometimes by indeed, at least. In general, any word admitting of emphasis may be followed by γε. Especially pronouns, personal and demonstrative: ἔγωγε (the accent retracted), σύγε, οὗτός γε, ἐκεῖνός γε, ὅδε γε, αὐτός γε: relatives and correlatives, ὅς γε, ὅσος γε, τόσοςγε, τοσοῦτόςγε (οἷόςγε rare in Attic): pronominal adverbs, &δέγε, ὥς γε, ὥστεγε, ὥσπερ γ᾽: νῦν γε: interrogatives, rare in Attic, but not unknown, τίνος γ᾽ ὑπ᾿ ἄλλου; by whom' else? Eur. Hec. 774. τίνα γ' εἶπας; Troad. 241. πῶς γ᾽ ἂν ψέγοις; how indeed? Soph. Ed. C. 9811; negative particles, οὐ γε, οὐ δή που γε: μή πω γε: conditionals, εἴγε (in Trag. most usually εἰ-γε), certe si, at least if, if indeed, if (that is), &c.: εἴπερ γε, if" really, if really.-With nouns of every kind, if with article, the ye often attachedto it: thus, τό γ' ἶκον πρᾶγμα, the involuntary deed (as certainly it was), Soph. Ed. Col. 981: and often to the preposition, ἔκ γε τῆςδε γῆς, the emphasis on τῆςδε, Soph. Tr. 798: and with verbs, with various kinds of emphasis, παῦσαί γε, do cease! χρή γε, oportet nempe! behoves, forsooth, aye? ζῶν ἢ θανών γε, living or even dead. ἆρ᾽ οἶσθάγε; thou knowest, aye? ἢ μαίνεταί γε; is he mad even? [1]

[1]: "The particle does not increase the force of the interrogation, but the natural force of the interrogative word." Klotz.

But in all these cases, it should be considered in each particular instance whether the ye is limited to one word, or whether its use comes under the following head:

(6) It approaches to the nature of a conjunction, where, attached to one of two sentences or members of a sentence, it virtually belongs to both.

In a reply, containing something additional to the preceding expression, the ye is placed as near as may be to the beginning, with the emphatic word first: εἴπω τι δῆτα κἄλλο; “ Ὅσον γε χρήζεις," yes, (and) as much as you wish, Ed. Τ. 364. τί μέλλεις κομίζειν –; “ μαθοῦσά γ' why delayest thou to carry -? " yes, (I will carry) when I have learnt -," Ed. Τ. 680. Τροίαν σ᾽ ἑλεῖν δεῖ. “ οὐδέποτέ γ ” (take Troy!) Never! Phil. 987. στεῖχε –. “ μήπω γε πρὶν ἂν -" (yes, go:) not yet, at least (however, though) until —, Phil. 1409.

Frequent in replies with secondary predicate (participle); e. g. καλῶς γ'᾽ ἐγὼ ποιῶν, "aye, and well too for me to do so," Pl. Rep. 5,474. ὀρθῶς γε σὺ λέγων, Lach. 192. ταύτην γ᾿ ἰδὼν θάπτουσαν, yes (I did it) because I saw, Soph. Ant. 400. In explanatory additions: κλῦθι εἰ ἐτέον γε σός εἰμι, if, namely (or, that is) I am -. In enumerations: γενναῖοι ἢ σοφοὶ ἢ τίμιοι ἢ γέροντές γε ἢ νέοι, yes, or old, Pl. Hipp. Maj. 301. πρακτέον καὶ γυμναστέον καὶ ἐδεστέον γε καὶ ποτέον, Crito, 47.

Appendix.

Appendix.

On the Use and Meaning of the Particles.

On the Use and Meaning of the Particles.

§ 221

§ 221

The office of the particles is either

(1) adverbial, i. e. as they are used to denote certain modifications, qualifications, or affections of the assertion, or of one or more of its terms (viz. affirmation and denial ; absoluteness and conditionality ; concession and opposition ; confirmation and limitation; parity and disparity, etc.), or

(2) conjunctional, as they serve for connexion of sentences or terms of sentences. The two uses at so many points run over into each other, that it will be more convenient, for the purpose of this Appendix, to comprise the subject under one general view. As the principal uses of conjunctions have been already described in Chapter VII, the adverbial, which is also the original, use will here principally come under consideration.

The office of the particles is either
(1) adverbial, i. e. as they are used to denote certain modifications, qualifications, or affections of the assertion, or of one or more of its terms (viz. affirmation and denial ; absoluteness and conditionality ; concession and opposition ; confirmation and limitation; parity and disparity, etc.), or
(2) conjunctional, as they serve for connexion of sentences or terms of sentences. The two uses at so many points run over into each other, that it will be more convenient, for the purpose of this Appendix, to comprise the subject under one general view. As the principal uses of conjunctions have been already described in Chapter VII, the adverbial, which is also the original, use will here principally come under consideration.

§ 222

§ 222

καί, connected by its origin with the form κο- of the relative and interrog. pronoun, is therefore cognate with que and τε, which are forms of the same pronoun, but as indefinite. Hence the primary force of the combination τε – καί is any-where (some-where), any-how, &c. – where, how (so), &c.; of καὶ – καί, where, how, &c. – where (there), how (so). Of καί, as conjunction, see § 185. As adverb, etiam, also, too, it denotes increase by accession.

The adverbial καί corresponds to another καί sometimes expressed, but as often left to be understood. Καὶ ὁ Σωκράτης ταῦτα ἔλεξεν, Socrates, too, said this, i. e. καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι (or the like) καὶ ὁ Σ., originally where the others, there S. So in οὐ μόνον ἀλλὰ καὶ –, the full construction is οὐ μόνον, ἀλλὰ [καὶ –,] καὶ –, not only –, but [where –,] there –.

In ὥσπερ (or other relatives) καὶ –, καὶ –: εἴπερ καὶ – καὶ –: the original parataxis καὶ – καί is taken into the syntactic form, i. e. καὶ ὁ Σ. καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι, united with ὥσπερ οἱ ἄλλοι, οὕτως ὁ Σ., gives the form καὶ ὁ Σ. ταῦτα ἔλεξεν, ὥσπερ καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι, S. also said this, as did also the others.

καί, connected by its origin with the form κο- of the relative and interrog. pronoun, is therefore cognate with que and τε, which are forms of the same pronoun, but as indefinite. Hence the primary force of the combination τε – καί is any-where (some-where), any-how, &c. – where, how (so), &c.; of καὶ – καί, where, how, &c. – where (there), how (so). Of καί, as conjunction, see § 185. As adverb, etiam, also, too, it denotes increase by accession.

The adverbial καί corresponds to another καί sometimes expressed, but as often left to be understood. Καὶ ὁ Σωκράτης ταῦτα ἔλεξεν, Socrates, too, said this, i. e. καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι (or the like) καὶ ὁ Σ., originally where the others, there S. So in οὐ μόνον ἀλλὰ καὶ –, the full construction is οὐ μόνον, ἀλλὰ [καὶ –,] καὶ –, not only –, but [where –,] there –.

In ὥσπερ (or other relatives) καὶ –, καὶ –: εἴπερ καὶ – καὶ –: the original parataxis καὶ – καί is taken into the syntactic form, i. e. καὶ ὁ Σ. καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι, united with ὥσπερ οἱ ἄλλοι, οὕτως ὁ Σ., gives the form καὶ ὁ Σ. ταῦτα ἔλεξεν, ὥσπερ καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι, S. also said this, as did also the others.

§ 223

§ 223

Where both clauses are expressed, the καί is often omitted in one or other: the first, when in conceiving the first clause the speaker has not the second clause or its καί distinctly present to his thoughts; thus, ὁ Σ. ταῦτ᾽ ἔλεξεν, ὥσπερ καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι: the second, when he means to make the first more weighty than the other, καὶ ὁ Σ. ταῦτ᾽ ἔλεξεν, ὥσπερ οἱ ἄλλοι. Often, also, the καί seems to be drawn over by a kind of attraction from the clause in which the thought would rather seem to demand its presence, to the other: thus, στρατεύονται μεθ᾽ ὧνπερ καὶ οἰκοῦσι, for with those they live with, they also take the field; ὁ Σωκράτης, εἴπερ τις καὶ ἄλλος, where we should say, καὶ ὁ Σ., εἴπερ τις ἄλλος. – In like manner it is often withdrawn from the (preceding) temporal or conditional secondary sentence to the (following) primary, to denote immediate sequence: it may then be rendered immediately, forthwith: Αὐτὰρ ἐπεὶ δείπνησε –, καί οἱ πλησάμενος δῶκε σκύφον, Od. 14, 112, after he had supped –, he also (forthwith) filled the cup and presented it to him. So in Hom. εἰ – καί, and ὅτε – καὶ τότε. Ὡς δὲ ἔδοξεν αὐτοῖς, καὶ ἐχώρουν εὐθύς, Thuc. 2, 93, for ὡς καί, simulatque: simulac decretum est ab iis continuo discesserunt. (In these instances the original relative and demonstrative force of καί is distinctly perceptible.)

As the relative clause is often omitted, e. g. καὶ ὁ Σ. ἔλεξεν (viz. ἅπερ οἱ ἄλλοι), so is often the demonstrative clause: Πῶς οὖν, ἔφη, τῷ ἀῤῥύθμῳ σώματι ἁρμόττοντα τὸν θώρακα εὔρυθμον ποιεῖς; Ὥσπερ καὶ ἁρμόττοντα, ἔφη (sc. οὕτω καὶ εὔρυθμον), Xen. Mem. 3, 10, 11.

Where both clauses are expressed, the καί is often omitted in one or other: the first, when in conceiving the first clause the speaker has not the second clause or its καί distinctly present to his thoughts; thus, ὁ Σ. ταῦτ᾽ ἔλεξεν, ὥσπερ καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι: the second, when he means to make the first more weighty than the other, καὶ ὁ Σ. ταῦτ᾽ ἔλεξεν, ὥσπερ οἱ ἄλλοι. Often, also, the καί seems to be drawn over by a kind of attraction from the clause in which the thought would rather seem to demand its presence, to the other: thus, στρατεύονται μεθ᾽ ὧνπερ καὶ οἰκοῦσι, for with those they live with, they also take the field; ὁ Σωκράτης, εἴπερ τις καὶ ἄλλος, where we should say, καὶ ὁ Σ., εἴπερ τις ἄλλος. – In like manner it is often withdrawn from the (preceding) temporal or conditional secondary sentence to the (following) primary, to denote immediate sequence: it may then be rendered immediately, forthwith: Αὐτὰρ ἐπεὶ δείπνησε –, καί οἱ πλησάμενος δῶκε σκύφον, Od. 14, 112, after he had supped –, he also (forthwith) filled the cup and presented it to him. So in Hom. εἰ – καί, and ὅτε – καὶ τότε. Ὡς δὲ ἔδοξεν αὐτοῖς, καὶ ἐχώρουν εὐθύς, Thuc. 2, 93, for ὡς καί, simulatque: simulac decretum est ab iis continuo discesserunt. (In these instances the original relative and demonstrative force of καί is distinctly perceptible.)

As the relative clause is often omitted, e. g. καὶ ὁ Σ. ἔλεξεν (viz. ἅπερ οἱ ἄλλοι), so is often the demonstrative clause: Πῶς οὖν, ἔφη, τῷ ἀῤῥύθμῳ σώματι ἁρμόττοντα τὸν θώρακα εὔρυθμον ποιεῖς; Ὥσπερ καὶ ἁρμόττοντα, ἔφη (sc. οὕτω καὶ εὔρυθμον), Xen. Mem. 3, 10, 11.

§ 224

§ 224

In the single clause, it depends upon the nature of the unexpressed clause whether the καί heightens (aggravates) or lowers (extenuates): even = after all, in addition to all the rest, or even = but (so much as) independently of all the rest. In rendering this particle it is sometimes necessary to add to, or even substitute for, the literal rendering of the καί, some other particle or adverb. Thus:

a) really, indeed: Ἥνπερ καὶ φρονῶν φαίνῃ, ὅσαπερ λέγεις πρὸς ἡμᾶς, if you make it good that [besides professing] you also (really) entertain the sentiments you profess (or, that you do entertain).

b) even him- (her-, it-) self: aye –: and that –: Καὶ ἂν Διὶ πατρὶ μάχοιτο. So καὶ λίην, καὶ κάρτα, καὶ πάνυ, καὶ πολύς, καὶ πᾶς.

c) still, yet, with comparatives and in some other cases: καὶ μᾶλλον, yet more, καὶ ἀμείνονας ἵππους, still better horses, πολλοῦ γε καὶ δέω, I still want much of = far from it: καὶ ἄλλοτε, καὶ πάλιν, καὶ τρίς, &c., ἔτι καὶ νῦν, καὶ ὀψέ (late though it be, yet still), καὶ ἔπειτα, καὶ δή: καὶ ὥς, καὶ οὕτως, still even so, for all this.

d) even already (without going further): Ἀλλ᾽ ἀρκέσει καὶ ταῦτα, this already (of itself) will suffice. καὶ αὔτως (Hom.) even (already) as it is. To this head may also be reduced: καὶ πρίν, καὶ χθές, καὶ πάλαι, καὶ πρότερον, καὶ αὐτίκα, καὶ ἄρτι, καὶ ἤδη, καὶ δή.

e) only, but (so much as): Εἰ πώποτ᾽ ἔκλεψα τῶν σῶν ἄξιόν τι καὶ τριχός, worth but a hair. Ὀκνῶ καὶ λέγειν, I fear but (even) to say it.

f) Often it is best rendered by the emphatic present or past (do, did), or emphatic auxiliary: εἰ δέ τις καὶ οἴεται, but if a man does think. Τί γὰρ ἄν τις καὶ ποιοῖ ἄλλο; why, what else should one do? Especially the καί following an interrogative: Πῶς καὶ διώλετ᾽, εἰπέ, how did he perish? "Τί χρὴ λέγειν asks, What is one to say? not, Whether there is anything to say: but τί χρὴ καὶ λέγειν not only asks what, but doubts whether anything at all is to be said (fully: quid dicendum est, si omnino aliquid dicendum est?)" [1] Or, more strongly, at all, on earth: Τί χρὴ καὶ προσδοκᾶν, what on earth is one, or, what is one at all, to expect? Ἔστιν ἄρα δικαίου ἀνθρώπου βλάπτειν καὶ ὁντινοῦν ἄνθρωπον; Plat. Rep. 1, 335, B, any human being at all, be who it may? ἵνα καὶ ἴδῃς ὅσα καὶ εἴδη ἔχει ἡ κακία, ib. 4, 445, C, how many forms (after all). In like manner, the frequent combination ἵνα καί, especially with εἰδῶ, ἴδῃς, &c., may be explained, that if there is anything (or, as there is something) to know, I may know it.

[1]: Hermann ad Vig. p. 837, 320. But Krüger says, that the καί emphasizes the term to which it is prefixed, as being the particular point about which one requires to have full information. Similarly Klotz: "si dico τί χρὴ καὶ λέγειν; proprie hoc quæro, quid sit dicendum etiam si solum de dicendo cogitemus."

In the single clause, it depends upon the nature of the unexpressed clause whether the καί heightens (aggravates) or lowers (extenuates): even = after all, in addition to all the rest, or even = but (so much as) independently of all the rest. In rendering this particle it is sometimes necessary to add to, or even substitute for, the literal rendering of the καί, some other particle or adverb. Thus:

a) really, indeed: Ἥνπερ καὶ φρονῶν φαίνῃ, ὅσαπερ λέγεις πρὸς ἡμᾶς, if you make it good that [besides professing] you also (really) entertain the sentiments you profess (or, that you do entertain).

b) even him- (her-, it-) self: aye –: and that –: Καὶ ἂν Διὶ πατρὶ μάχοιτο. So καὶ λίην, καὶ κάρτα, καὶ πάνυ, καὶ πολύς, καὶ πᾶς.

c) still, yet, with comparatives and in some other cases: καὶ μᾶλλον, yet more, καὶ ἀμείνονας ἵππους, still better horses, πολλοῦ γε καὶ δέω, I still want much of = far from it: καὶ ἄλλοτε, καὶ πάλιν, καὶ τρίς, &c., ἔτι καὶ νῦν, καὶ ὀψέ (late though it be, yet still), καὶ ἔπειτα, καὶ δή: καὶ ὥς, καὶ οὕτως, still even so, for all this.

d) even already (without going further): Ἀλλ᾽ ἀρκέσει καὶ ταῦτα, this already (of itself) will suffice. καὶ αὔτως (Hom.) even (already) as it is. To this head may also be reduced: καὶ πρίν, καὶ χθές, καὶ πάλαι, καὶ πρότερον, καὶ αὐτίκα, καὶ ἄρτι, καὶ ἤδη, καὶ δή.

e) only, but (so much as): Εἰ πώποτ᾽ ἔκλεψα τῶν σῶν ἄξιόν τι καὶ τριχός, worth but a hair. Ὀκνῶ καὶ λέγειν, I fear but (even) to say it.

f) Often it is best rendered by the emphatic present or past (do, did), or emphatic auxiliary: εἰ δέ τις καὶ οἴεται, but if a man does think. Τί γὰρ ἄν τις καὶ ποιοῖ ἄλλο; why, what else should one do? Especially the καί following an interrogative: Πῶς καὶ διώλετ᾽, εἰπέ, how did he perish? "Τί χρὴ λέγειν asks, What is one to say? not, Whether there is anything to say: but τί χρὴ καὶ λέγειν not only asks what, but doubts whether anything at all is to be said (fully: quid dicendum est, si omnino aliquid dicendum est?)" [1] Or, more strongly, at all, on earth: Τί χρὴ καὶ προσδοκᾶν, what on earth is one, or, what is one at all, to expect? Ἔστιν ἄρα δικαίου ἀνθρώπου βλάπτειν καὶ ὁντινοῦν ἄνθρωπον; Plat. Rep. 1, 335, B, any human being at all, be who it may? ἵνα καὶ ἴδῃς ὅσα καὶ εἴδη ἔχει ἡ κακία, ib. 4, 445, C, how many forms (after all). In like manner, the frequent combination ἵνα καί, especially with εἰδῶ, ἴδῃς, &c., may be explained, that if there is anything (or, as there is something) to know, I may know it.

[1]: Hermann ad Vig. p. 837, 320. But Krüger says, that the καί emphasizes the term to which it is prefixed, as being the particular point about which one requires to have full information. Similarly Klotz: "si dico τί χρὴ καὶ λέγειν; proprie hoc quæro, quid sit dicendum etiam si solum de dicendo cogitemus."

§ 225

§ 225 

In καὶ γάρ, nam etiam, the καί belongs to the next following word, from which it is separated by the necessity of placing γάρ second in the sentence: Καὶ γὰρ πρὸς τούτους αὐτῷ ἐπεποίητο συμμαχίη, Hdt. 1, 77, for with these also. Καὶ γὰρ νῦν ὁμολογῶ, i. e. καὶ νῦν, Plat. Gorg. 467, B. Sometimes it is namque, and then the καί is not idle, but denotes the reciprocal correspondency of the clauses: ἀκούσατε, ἔφη, καὶ γὰρ ἄξιον, for, let me also tell you, it is worth hearing.

In καὶ γάρ, nam etiam, the καί belongs to the next following word, from which it is separated by the necessity of placing γάρ second in the sentence: Καὶ γὰρ πρὸς τούτους αὐτῷ ἐπεποίητο συμμαχίη, Hdt. 1, 77, for with these also. Καὶ γὰρ νῦν ὁμολογῶ, i. e. καὶ νῦν, Plat. Gorg. 467, B. Sometimes it is namque, and then the καί is not idle, but denotes the reciprocal correspondency of the clauses: ἀκούσατε, ἔφη, καὶ γὰρ ἄξιον, for, let me also tell you, it is worth hearing.

§ 226

§ 226

In εἰ καί, the καί is even, and refers not merely to the εἰ, but to the whole concessive sentence = etsi, quamquam: Εἰ καὶ μητρὶ διαφορὰν ἔχει, if it even be that he has a quarrel with their mother, if it be ever so much the case that –: in καὶ εἰ, the καί refers only to the condition, = etiamsi. Κεἰ μὴ πέποιθα, even if (for all that) I have no confidence. Εἴ τι καὶ ἀγροικότερον εἰρῆσθαι, Pl. Gorg. 486, C, if it be even somewhat rude (as it is), i. e. though I own it is somewhat rude: but καὶ εἰ ἀγροικότερόν τι εἰπεῖν ἐστιν, ib. 509, A, even if it be somewhat rude (which I do not allow). Both forms are abbreviated into the participial construction: thus, τὰ αὐτὰ ἂν ἔπραξε καὶ πρώτη λαχοῦσα, Pl. Rep. 10, 620 = εἰ καὶ or καὶ εἰ πρώτη ἔλαχεν. See § 175, e.

τε, also, so, denoting parity of the term appended. See § 222, and for the use as conjunction, § 185.

In εἰ καί, the καί is even, and refers not merely to the εἰ, but to the whole concessive sentence = etsi, quamquam: Εἰ καὶ μητρὶ διαφορὰν ἔχει, if it even be that he has a quarrel with their mother, if it be ever so much the case that –: in καὶ εἰ, the καί refers only to the condition, = etiamsi. Κεἰ μὴ πέποιθα, even if (for all that) I have no confidence. Εἴ τι καὶ ἀγροικότερον εἰρῆσθαι, Pl. Gorg. 486, C, if it be even somewhat rude (as it is), i. e. though I own it is somewhat rude: but καὶ εἰ ἀγροικότερόν τι εἰπεῖν ἐστιν, ib. 509, A, even if it be somewhat rude (which I do not allow). Both forms are abbreviated into the participial construction: thus, τὰ αὐτὰ ἂν ἔπραξε καὶ πρώτη λαχοῦσα, Pl. Rep. 10, 620 = εἰ καὶ or καὶ εἰ πρώτη ἔλαχεν. See § 175, e.

τε, also, so, denoting parity of the term appended. See § 222, and for the use as conjunction, § 185.

§ 227

§ 227

The adverbial use of this particle is almost entirely confined to the ancient epic style, having disappeared, except a few traces, from the later language. Its meaning is so faint that, for the most part, it does not admit of being rendered otherwise than by an exaggerated analogy: it does little more than intimate the correspondency of the clauses which it accompanies. In its origin, τε is cognate with enclitic τις: in its use, it almost exclusively accompanies other particles which connect protasis and apodosis or other parallel members, and sometimes appears in both, oftener only in one. Τε τε, any-where, -how, -way, -time, &c.... somewhere, how, &c.: hence it is the slightest possible intimation of as – so, alike – alike: Κραιπνότερος μὲν γάρ τε νόος, λεπτὴ δέ τε μῆτις, Il. 23, 591, as on the one hand the mind is more rapid, so also on the other is the counsel slight. Εἴπερ τε νοήσῃ, ἀλλά τε οἱ βράσσων τε νόος λεπτὴ δέ τε μῆτις, Il. 10, 224, although in-any-wise he has the wit, yet likewise slower alike (on the one hand, μέν om.) the wit, scanty alike on the other hand the counsel. Οὐ μὴν οἱ τόγε κάλλιον οὐδέ τ᾽ ἄμεινον, yet is this not for his honour, and (as not for his honour) so not for his good either. Ος κε θεοῖς ἐπιπείθηται, μάλα τ᾽ ἔκλυον αὐτοῦ, whoso obeys the gods (as he obeys them) so do they hear him. In sentences correlated by demonstr. and relative, te is used only when the dem. and rel. do not come close together, or when the dem. is not expressed: in other combinations it is frequent: thus we have, εἴπερ τε ἀλλά τε, or simply τε: εἴπερ τε: and εἴπερ τε with second clause omitted. Μέν τε – δέ τε or ἀλλά τε (sometimes the μέν τε, sometimes the second re, omitted), also (μέν omitted) τε δέ τε: δὲ ΤΕ: ΤΕ δέ: TE

αὐτάρ. Again, ἢ τε, so surely: καί τε (as -) so also: γάρ τε, for (as -), so: and sometimes ἤτε, or ἤτε – ἤτε.

The adverbial use of this particle is almost entirely confined to the ancient epic style, having disappeared, except a few traces, from the later language. Its meaning is so faint that, for the most part, it does not admit of being rendered otherwise than by an exaggerated analogy: it does little more than intimate the correspondency of the clauses which it accompanies. In its origin, τε is cognate with enclitic τις: in its use, it almost exclusively accompanies other particles which connect protasis and apodosis or other parallel members, and sometimes appears in both, oftener only in one. Τε τε, any-where, -how, -way, -time, &c.... somewhere, how, &c.: hence it is the slightest possible intimation of as – so, alike – alike: Κραιπνότερος μὲν γάρ τε νόος, λεπτὴ δέ τε μῆτις, Il. 23, 591, as on the one hand the mind is more rapid, so also on the other is the counsel slight. Εἴπερ τε νοήσῃ, ἀλλά τε οἱ βράσσων τε νόος λεπτὴ δέ τε μῆτις, Il. 10, 224, although in-any-wise he has the wit, yet likewise slower alike (on the one hand, μέν om.) the wit, scanty alike on the other hand the counsel. Οὐ μὴν οἱ τόγε κάλλιον οὐδέ τ᾽ ἄμεινον, yet is this not for his honour, and (as not for his honour) so not for his good either. Ος κε θεοῖς ἐπιπείθηται, μάλα τ᾽ ἔκλυον αὐτοῦ, whoso obeys the gods (as he obeys them) so do they hear him. In sentences correlated by demonstr. and relative, te is used only when the dem. and rel. do not come close together, or when the dem. is not expressed: in other combinations it is frequent: thus we have, εἴπερ τε ἀλλά τε, or simply τε: εἴπερ τε: and εἴπερ τε with second clause omitted. Μέν τε – δέ τε or ἀλλά τε (sometimes the μέν τε, sometimes the second re, omitted), also (μέν omitted) τε δέ τε: δὲ ΤΕ: ΤΕ δέ: TE

αὐτάρ. Again, ἢ τε, so surely: καί τε (as -) so also: γάρ τε, for (as -), so: and sometimes ἤτε, or ἤτε – ἤτε.

§ 228

§ 228

Hence the usage of τε attached to relative words in dependent sentences to give force and clearness to the correlation: thus, ὅστε, he, or, that, who (Hom., lyr. poets, and lyrical parts of Tragedy, sometimes Herodot.), also ὅστις τε, οἷος τε, ὅσος τε (just such, or so great, as), ὥστε, so as, so that, ὡσεί τε, ἅτε, ὅπως τε, ἠΰτε, ὅτε τε (then when), ὅθι τε, ἵνα τε (there where). Of these the Attic prose has retained οἷός τε εἶναι, I am in such sort as to, in a condition to –: ὥστε, ὡσεί τε, ἔστε (ἐς ὅτε) quoad, ἅτε, quippe, ἐφ᾽ ᾧτε, on condition that (Herod. also ἐπείτε, postquam). Corresponding forms in Lat. (τε = que, -pe) are namque (γάρ τε, comp. καὶ γάρ, etenim), atque (= ad-que καί τε), quippe (ἅτε), also quisque with its adverbial forms, as ubique, &c., uterque, usque, and the suffix -cumque.

Hence the usage of τε attached to relative words in dependent sentences to give force and clearness to the correlation: thus, ὅστε, he, or, that, who (Hom., lyr. poets, and lyrical parts of Tragedy, sometimes Herodot.), also ὅστις τε, οἷος τε, ὅσος τε (just such, or so great, as), ὥστε, so as, so that, ὡσεί τε, ἅτε, ὅπως τε, ἠΰτε, ὅτε τε (then when), ὅθι τε, ἵνα τε (there where). Of these the Attic prose has retained οἷός τε εἶναι, I am in such sort as to, in a condition to –: ὥστε, ὡσεί τε, ἔστε (ἐς ὅτε) quoad, ἅτε, quippe, ἐφ᾽ ᾧτε, on condition that (Herod. also ἐπείτε, postquam). Corresponding forms in Lat. (τε = que, -pe) are namque (γάρ τε, comp. καὶ γάρ, etenim), atque (= ad-que καί τε), quippe (ἅτε), also quisque with its adverbial forms, as ubique, &c., uterque, usque, and the suffix -cumque.

§ 229

§ 229 

δέ, on the other hand (comp. μέν, on the one hand, § 232). Opposition is denoted by the particles which originally denote on the other hand, viz. αὖ or αὐτε, and αὐτάρ (= αὐτ᾿ ἄρα), which, shortened, is ἀτάρ. Synonymous with these is dé, which, both as adverb or mere particle, and as conjunction, in virtue of its origin (cognate with the second numeral δύο, the δείς in οὐδείς, and the pronoun of the second person), means in the second place. For the conjunctional use, see §§ 188, 189. The adverbial use appears in

α) καὶ δέ, and on the other hand, and also (moreover). In Homer the particles usually stand together; in Attic, the word that has the emphasis comes between. Καὶ δ᾽ ἄλλῳ νεμεσᾶτον, and of another also ye take it amiss. Καὶ σὺ δ᾽ αὐθάδης ἔφυς, Eur. El. 1122, and thou too art self-willed (not Ægisthus only). Καὶ οἵ τε ἄλλοι..

ὑπηρέτουν, καὶ ἡ τῶν Θηβαίων δὲ πόλις... ξυνέπεμπε, Xen. Hell. 5, 2, 37, and Thebes also -.

REM. Kai being both and and also, the Greek was obliged to have recourse to

dé to express and also.

b) in the demonstrative sentence or the apodosis of a condition: Οἵη περ φύλλων γενεή, τοίη δὲ καὶ ἀνδρῶν, as is the nature of the leaves, so is, on the other hand (also) that of man. Οἱ δ᾽ ἄρα Μηθώνην... ἐνέμοντο, τῶν δὲ Φιλοκτήτης ἦρχεν, Il. 2, 716, (comp. οἱ δ᾽ Ἄργισσαν ἔχον..., τῶν αὖθ᾽ ἡγεμόνευε... Πολυποίτης, ib. 738). Ἐγὼ μὲν οὓς ἂν τῶν λόγων ἀλγῶ κλύειν, Λαερτίου παῖ, τοὺς δὲ καὶ πράσσειν στυγῶ, Soph. Phil. 86, I also, on the other hand, hate to do. Αἰ δέ κε λίσσηαι ἑτάρους..., οἱ δέ σε... δεόντων, Od. 12, 54, let them, on the other hand (or, however), bind thee. ᾿Αλλ᾽ εἰ σύγε Παυσανίαν αἰνεῖς, ἐγὼ δ᾽ ᾿Αριστείδαν ἐπαινέω, I, on the contrary, praise Α. ᾿Αλλ᾽ εἰ μηδὲ τοῦτο βούλει ἀποκρίνασθαι, σὺ δὲ τοὐντεῦθεν λέγε, do thou, however, say. So, especially in Attic, dé after an abbreviated protasis in the form of a participle: Θαυμάζω σου, εἰ ἐκείνους ῥᾳδίως χειρούμενος, τούτοις δὲ μηδένα τρόπον οἴει δυνήσεσθαι προσενεχθῆναι, Xen. Mem. 3, 7, 8, that although, yet –. Cf. § 188, R. 6.

When in an alternative, two protases, each with its apodosis, are opposed to each other, the form may be μὲν – μέν (prot. and ap.), δὲ- dé (prot. and ap.), or also μὲν – δέ, δὲ – δέ: thus, ὃς μέν τ᾽ αἰδέσεται κούρας Διὸς...., τὸν δὲ μέγ᾽ ὤνησαν...., ὃς δέ κ᾿ ἀνῄνηται.. · λίσσονται δ᾽ ἄρα ταίγε Δία, Il. 9, 509, whoso reverences the:- virgins, him they benefit (might also be τὸν μὲν..) -: but whoso repulses them, then they pray, &c. For Attic instances, see § 188, Rem. 4.

c) in the combination οὐδέ, μηδέ, also not, not even. Here the particle dé stands for itself and also for καί, as καί cannot follow οὐ and μή in this sense. Its usage, therefore, exactly agrees with that of καί; so that οὐδ᾽ ὡς, not so too, not so either, stands on the same footing with καὶ ὥς, οὐδὲ γάρ, neque enim, with καὶ γάρ, etenim, οὐδὲ μὲν οὐδέ, neque vero etiam, with καὶ μὴν καί, et vero etiam, οὐδὲ γὰρ οὐδέ, for also not, or for not even, with καὶ γὰρ καί. The particle sometimes puts the things on a par (also not), sometimes exalts the latter (not even), ἐπεὶ οὐδὲ ἔοικε, because it is also not seemly (therefore must it also not be). Τὰ γὰρ πεπρωμέν᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὑπερβαίην ποτ᾽ ἄν, Eur. Ion, 1388, that which is fated for me can I also not escape. Οὐδέ νυ τοῦπερ φείσατο, 11. 24, 235, not even him did he spare; οὐδ᾽ ὄναρ, not even in a dream. Οὐδὲ γὰρ οὐδέ τις ἄλλος, Od. 8, 32, etenim ne alius quidem. Οὐδὲ μὲν οὐδὲ Τρώας ἀγήνορας εἴασ᾽ Ἕκτωρ εὕδειν, Il. 10, 299. Not, however, the T. either (any more than the others).

Not the Trojans moreover (either) did H. suffer to sleep. μέν, on the one hand, indeed.

δέ, on the other hand (comp. μέν, on the one hand, § 232). Opposition is denoted by the particles which originally denote on the other hand, viz. αὖ or αὐτε, and αὐτάρ (= αὐτ᾿ ἄρα), which, shortened, is ἀτάρ. Synonymous with these is dé, which, both as adverb or mere particle, and as conjunction, in virtue of its origin (cognate with the second numeral δύο, the δείς in οὐδείς, and the pronoun of the second person), means in the second place. For the conjunctional use, see §§ 188, 189. The adverbial use appears in

α) καὶ δέ, and on the other hand, and also (moreover). In Homer the particles usually stand together; in Attic, the word that has the emphasis comes between. Καὶ δ᾽ ἄλλῳ νεμεσᾶτον, and of another also ye take it amiss. Καὶ σὺ δ᾽ αὐθάδης ἔφυς, Eur. El. 1122, and thou too art self-willed (not Ægisthus only). Καὶ οἵ τε ἄλλοι..

ὑπηρέτουν, καὶ ἡ τῶν Θηβαίων δὲ πόλις... ξυνέπεμπε, Xen. Hell. 5, 2, 37, and Thebes also -.

REM. Kai being both and and also, the Greek was obliged to have recourse to

dé to express and also.

b) in the demonstrative sentence or the apodosis of a condition: Οἵη περ φύλλων γενεή, τοίη δὲ καὶ ἀνδρῶν, as is the nature of the leaves, so is, on the other hand (also) that of man. Οἱ δ᾽ ἄρα Μηθώνην... ἐνέμοντο, τῶν δὲ Φιλοκτήτης ἦρχεν, Il. 2, 716, (comp. οἱ δ᾽ Ἄργισσαν ἔχον..., τῶν αὖθ᾽ ἡγεμόνευε... Πολυποίτης, ib. 738). Ἐγὼ μὲν οὓς ἂν τῶν λόγων ἀλγῶ κλύειν, Λαερτίου παῖ, τοὺς δὲ καὶ πράσσειν στυγῶ, Soph. Phil. 86, I also, on the other hand, hate to do. Αἰ δέ κε λίσσηαι ἑτάρους..., οἱ δέ σε... δεόντων, Od. 12, 54, let them, on the other hand (or, however), bind thee. ᾿Αλλ᾽ εἰ σύγε Παυσανίαν αἰνεῖς, ἐγὼ δ᾽ ᾿Αριστείδαν ἐπαινέω, I, on the contrary, praise Α. ᾿Αλλ᾽ εἰ μηδὲ τοῦτο βούλει ἀποκρίνασθαι, σὺ δὲ τοὐντεῦθεν λέγε, do thou, however, say. So, especially in Attic, dé after an abbreviated protasis in the form of a participle: Θαυμάζω σου, εἰ ἐκείνους ῥᾳδίως χειρούμενος, τούτοις δὲ μηδένα τρόπον οἴει δυνήσεσθαι προσενεχθῆναι, Xen. Mem. 3, 7, 8, that although, yet –. Cf. § 188, R. 6.

When in an alternative, two protases, each with its apodosis, are opposed to each other, the form may be μὲν – μέν (prot. and ap.), δὲ- dé (prot. and ap.), or also μὲν – δέ, δὲ – δέ: thus, ὃς μέν τ᾽ αἰδέσεται κούρας Διὸς...., τὸν δὲ μέγ᾽ ὤνησαν...., ὃς δέ κ᾿ ἀνῄνηται.. · λίσσονται δ᾽ ἄρα ταίγε Δία, Il. 9, 509, whoso reverences the:- virgins, him they benefit (might also be τὸν μὲν..) -: but whoso repulses them, then they pray, &c. For Attic instances, see § 188, Rem. 4.

c) in the combination οὐδέ, μηδέ, also not, not even. Here the particle dé stands for itself and also for καί, as καί cannot follow οὐ and μή in this sense. Its usage, therefore, exactly agrees with that of καί; so that οὐδ᾽ ὡς, not so too, not so either, stands on the same footing with καὶ ὥς, οὐδὲ γάρ, neque enim, with καὶ γάρ, etenim, οὐδὲ μὲν οὐδέ, neque vero etiam, with καὶ μὴν καί, et vero etiam, οὐδὲ γὰρ οὐδέ, for also not, or for not even, with καὶ γὰρ καί. The particle sometimes puts the things on a par (also not), sometimes exalts the latter (not even), ἐπεὶ οὐδὲ ἔοικε, because it is also not seemly (therefore must it also not be). Τὰ γὰρ πεπρωμέν᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὑπερβαίην ποτ᾽ ἄν, Eur. Ion, 1388, that which is fated for me can I also not escape. Οὐδέ νυ τοῦπερ φείσατο, 11. 24, 235, not even him did he spare; οὐδ᾽ ὄναρ, not even in a dream. Οὐδὲ γὰρ οὐδέ τις ἄλλος, Od. 8, 32, etenim ne alius quidem. Οὐδὲ μὲν οὐδὲ Τρώας ἀγήνορας εἴασ᾽ Ἕκτωρ εὕδειν, Il. 10, 299. Not, however, the T. either (any more than the others).

Not the Trojans moreover (either) did H. suffer to sleep. μέν, on the one hand, indeed.