PRELIMINARY NOTE
195. Infinitives and participles may be inflected by means of the article; they are therefore used as nouns. However, they do not hereby lose their character as verbs. For a) they are qualified by adverbs, not by adjectives; b) they take their objects in the same cases respectively as the other forms of the verb (τὸ ἀκριβῶς τοῖς νόμοις πείθεσθαι); c) they have the properties of voice and express the stage of action (see 167: λιπεῖν, λείπεσθαι, λειφθῆναι - φεύγειν, φεύγειν, πεφευγέναι); d) they may be modified by ἄν.
A. THE INFINITIVE
196. The infinitive is originally a verbal noun with a dative (locative) meaning: ἰέναι to the going, to go, λῦσαι to loose.
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE OF INFINITIVE.
197. 1. The subject of the infinitive is omitted when it is the same as that of the leading verb:
Ἀδικεῖσθαι ὑφ' ἡμῶν νομίζει Κῦρος: se esse injuria affectum. Ὁμολογῶ ἁμαρτεῖν confiteor me peccasse.
- The subject of the infinitive is put in the accusative when it is not the same as the subject of the leading verb and not already contained in a genitive or dative depending on the main verb. There is therefore an Accusative-with-Infinitive construction in Greek, as well as in English. E.g. Σωκράτης ἡγεῖτο θεοὺς πάντα εἰδέναι.
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THE INFINITIVE.
Note. - The indefinite subject "one, a person, [we, you]" (= τινά, τινάς) is omitted: Γράμματα μαθεῖν δεῖ καὶ μαθόντα νοῦν ἔχειν.
- Predicate qualifications (nouns or adjectives) agree with the word (whether expressed or understood) to which they relate.
Ἐρωτώμενος, ποδαπὸς εἴη, Πέρσης ἔφη εἶναι. Νομίζω ὑμᾶς ἐμοὶ εἶναι καὶ φίλους καὶ συμμάχους. Δίκαιον εὖ πράττοντα μεμνῆσθαι θεοῦ (sc. τινά). Ἔξεστιν ὑμῖν εὐδαίμοσι γενέσθαι, or (ὑμᾶς) εὐδαίμονας γενέσθαι. Ὠρέγοντο τοῦ (198) πρῶτος ἕκαστος γίγνεσθαι. Κῦρος παραγγέλλει Ξενίᾳ ἥκειν λαβόντι τοὺς ἄλλους, or (αὐτὸν) ἥκειν λαβόντα τοὺς ἄλλους.
INFINITIVE WITH THE ARTICLE.
198. 1. By prefixing the article, the infinitive becomes a noun (124) or is used substantively without losing its character as a verb. See 195.
- The infinitive may take the article when it is the subject or the object accusative. It must have the article when it is in the genitive or the dative, or when it depends on a preposition.
Νέοις τὸ σιγᾶν κρεῖττόν ἐστι τοῦ λαλεῖν silence . . . prating. Νίκησον ὀργὴν τῷ λογίζεσθαι καλῶς by sound reasoning. Ἐκ τοῦ πρότερος (197, 3) λέγειν ὁ διώκων ἰσχύει because he speaks first. Τὸ πολλὰ τολμᾶν πολλ' ἁμαρτάνειν ποιεῖ daring . . . blundering.
INFINITIVE WITHOUT THE ARTICLE.
199. 1. The supplementary infinitive (or acc. with inf.) is used to complete the idea
a) conveyed by impersonal verbs and expressions, such as:
δεῖ, χρή, δοκεῖ, ἔξεστιν, οἷόν τέ ἐστιν, προσήκει, συμβαίνει, ἄξιον, δίκαιον, δυνατόν, καλόν - ὥρα, καιρός, νόμος ἐστίν.
Ἀλλὰ γὰρ ἤδη ὥρα ἀπιέναι. Ἀγαθοῖς ὑμῖν προσήκει εἶναι. An. 3, 2, 11.
Note. - Some of the above expressions are often used personally.
E.g. δοκῶ videor, it seems that I, I seem, ἄξιός εἰμι, δίκαιός εἰμι I have a right, am entitled to, it is right that I, it is right for me (to do).
b) of verbs that signify:
to say and to declare, to believe and to hope, to desire and to wish, to forbid and to hinder, to teach and to learn, to understand and to know.
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SYNTAX.
Πρωταγόρας ἔλεγε πάντων χρημάτων μέτρον εἶναι ἄνθρωπον. Ὅ,τι ἂν ποιῇς, νόμιζ' ὁρᾶν θεούς τινας. Ἔλπιζε τιμῶν τὸν θεὸν πράξειν καλῶς. Καλῶς ἀκούειν μᾶλλον ἢ πλουτεῖν θέλε. Τί κωλύσει αὐτὸν βαδίζειν ὅποι βούλεται; Τὴν τῶν κρατούντων μάθε φέρειν ἐξουσίαν. Εἴκειν δ' οὐκ ἐπίσταται κακοῖς.
- The limiting (or epexegetic) infinitive (generally in the active voice) is used to limit the application of such adjectives as: able, capable, worthy, clever, skilled, easy, agreeable and their opposites. E.g.
| Greek | Meaning | Greek | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| χαλεπὸς εὑρεῖν | difficilis inventu | ἄξιος ἐπαινέσαι | dignus qui laudetur |
| ἱκανοὶ φυλάττειν | sufficient to - | οἷος ἄρχειν | fit for ruling - |
| δεινὸς λέγειν | clever at speaking | οἷος ζῆν | enough to live upon |
| ἀμήχανος εἰσελθεῖν | difficult to - | οἷός τέ εἰμι | am able |
Ῥᾴδια πάντα θεῷ τελέσαι easy to accomplish. Γνῶναι πάντων ὑμεῖς ὀξύτατοι τὰ ῥηθέντα. Κῦρος πάντων ἦν ἄρχειν ἀξιώτατος.
- The final infinitive denotes a purpose with verbs that signify to give, deliver, allow; to choose, appoint and the like.
Τὰς κώμας διαρπάσαι τοῖς Ἕλλησιν ἐπέτρεψεν . . . diripiendas tradidit. Εἵλοντο Δρακόντιον δρόμου ἐπιμεληθῆναι.
- An infinitive absolute (with or without the article) is used in:
ὀλίγου, μικροῦ δεῖν "little being wanting" = almost. ὡς (ἔπος) εἰπεῖν so to speak; ἑκὼν εἶναι willing(ly), voluntarily. ὡς συνελόντι εἰπεῖν to be brief, in short, to sum up. See 157, 3. ὡς ἐμοὶ δοκεῖν as it seems to me; τὸ νῦν εἶναι at present, just now. τὸ κατὰ τοῦτον (ἐπὶ τούτῳ) εἶναι so far as he is concerned.
Μικροῦ δεῖν ὅμοιόν ἐστι τῷ ὀνειδίζειν. Ἀληθές γε ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν οὐδὲν εἰρήκασιν. Τὸ ἐπ' ἐκείνοις εἶναι ἀπολώλατε.
B. THE PARTICIPLE
INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
200. The participle is a verbal adjective and is, therefore, used as an adjective. Its double character as adjective and as verb is explained in 195.
The Participle as Attribute and Substantive.
201. As an attribute the participle is like an adjective.
Οἱ παρόντες ἡγεμόνες - οἱ νῦν ὄντες ἄνθρωποι the present generation - ἡ Μίδου καλουμένη κρήνη the so-called fountain of Midas -
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THE PARTICIPLE.
τοῖς Θρᾳξὶ τοῖς ὑπὲρ Ἑλλήσποντον οἰκοῦσι to those Thracians who - (128, note 1).
As a substantive with the article (117, 1. 2) it has two uses:
individualizing (οὐ): ὁ γράψαμενος τὸν Σωκράτη the accuser of, or generalizing (μή): ὁ τυχών, ὁ βουλόμενος any one who wishes, ὁ μὴ πιστεύων si quis non credit (203, 3, d).
The Participle as Predicate.
202. It completes the action of the finite verb.
- It belongs to the subject of the verb, when it is used with verbs
a) that express some particular mode of being (in such or such a state). E.g.
τυγχάνω am by chance, happen or chance (to be) - adv. by chance. λανθάνω am hidden, escape notice - secretly, without (his) knowing. διάγω, διατελῶ, διαγίγνομαι continue (doing) - constantly. δῆλος, φανερός εἰμι, φαίνομαι it is evident that I - evidently. φθάνω anticipate, am beforehand - before, sooner, first. οἴχομαι am gone - adv. away, off.
Ἡ ψυχὴ ἀθάνατος φαίνεται οὖσα. Ἔτυχον παραγενόμενος ἵππον ἔχων. Ἑπτὰ ἡμέρας πάσας μαχόμενοι διετέλεσαν. Ἔλαθον ἐξελθόντες. Ἔφθησαν τοὺς Πέρσας ἀφικόμενοι εἰς τὴν πόλιν.
b) that signify to begin and to cease, to persevere and to grow weary.
E.g. ἄρχομαι begin (by), at first; παύομαι, λήγω cease (from). ἀνέχομαι endure, can bear; ἀπαγορεύω, κάμνω grow weary (of).
Οὔποτε ἐπαυόμην ὑμᾶς οἰκτίρων. Οὐκ ἀνέξομαι ζῶσα. Μὴ κάμῃς φίλον ἄνδρα εὐεργετῶν. Παῦσαι λέγων. Παύω τοὺς ἐχθροὺς γελῶντας I make the enemy stop laughing.
c) that signify to be right and to do wrong, to be superior and to be inferior to one, e.g.
καλῶς ποιῶ do well (to or in) - ἀδικῶ do wrong (to or in) - χαρίζομαι τινί, χάριν φέρω τινί do one a favor, oblige one (by) - νικῶ, κρατῶ outdo (in) - ἡττῶμαι, λείπομαι am inferior (in); wanting (in) -
Καλῶς ἐποίησας προειπών. Ἔστε νικῶν ἀλεξόμενος. Ἀδικεῖτε πολέμου ἄρχοντες καὶ σπονδὰς λύοντες. Μῆδον καταλιπὼν Κυαξάρῃ ἐχαρίσατο.
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SYNTAX.
d) that denote mental states, as
χαίρω, ἥδομαι delight (in), am delighted (to) - ἄχθομαι, ἀγανακτῶ am displeased, vexed, angry (at) - αἰσχύνομαι am ashamed (to do), (do) with a sense of shame - μεταμέλομαι repent (of), am sorry (for).
Ἥδομαι ἀκούων σου φρονίμους λόγους. Τιμώμενοι χαίρουσιν. Οὐκ ἂν ἀχθοίμην μανθάνων. Τοῦτο οὐκ αἰσχύνομαι λέγων.
- It belongs either to the subject or the object of the verb, when it is used with verbs
a) that signify a (mental or sensitive) perception. E.g.
ὁρῶ, περιορῶ (overlook, allow), ἀκούω, αἰσθάνομαι, καταλαμβάνω, οἶδα, ἐπίσταμαι, μέμνημαι, γιγνώσκω, εὑρίσκω and the like.
Compare: Catonem vidi sedentem, Socratem audio dicentem.
Ὁρῶμεν πάντα ἀληθῆ ὄντα, ἃ λέγετε omnia vera esse. Οὐκ ᾔδεσαν αὐτὸν τεθνηκότα. Ἐὰν ἁλῷς τοῦτο πράττων, ἀποθανεῖ. Μείζω τὸν ἄνθρωπον γιγνόμενον περιορῶμεν.
b) that denote the cause or occasion of such a perception.
E.g. δείκνυμι, δηλόω, (ἀπο)φαίνω, ἀγγέλλω, (ἐξ)ελέγχω.
Κῦρον ἐπιστρατεύοντα πρῶτος ἤγγειλα. Πάνθ' ἕνεκα ἑαυτοῦ ποιῶν Φίλιππος ἐξελεγχθήσεται.
Note 1. - The above mentioned verbs expressive of thought or emotion may also take ὅτι with a finite form of the verb.
Note 2. - Observe the difference of idiom in:
ἴσθι (μέμνησο) θνητὸς ὤν scito te esse mortalem. Ὁρῶμεν ἡμεῖς ἀδύνατοι ὄντες περιγενέσθαι.
Note 3. - Σύνοιδα ἐμαυτῷ am conscious of takes the participle now in the nominative, now in the dative, - μεταμέλει μοι repent, am sorry takes it only in the dative.
Ἐγὼ οὐ ξύνοιδα ἐμαυτῷ σοφὸς ὤν or σοφῷ ὄντι.
Note 4. - Ἀκούω, αἰσθάνομαι and πυνθάνομαι are construed as follows:
ἀκούω w. gen. part.: hear [myself, in person] that - (see 147, 4, note). ἀκούω w. acc. part.: hear [through others] (as a fact) that - = ὅτι. ἀκούω w. acc. and inf.: hear (as a rumor) that -.
Note 5. - In like manner several of the above verbs take sometimes the participle, sometimes the infinitive, in order to imply a different shade of meaning. E.g.
| Verb | with the Participle | with the Infinitive |
|---|---|---|
| ἄρχομαι | am at the beginning (of an action), begin by (doing something), at first | begin, undertake, set or go about (doing), proceed (to do) |
| φαίνομαι | it is evident that I, I am evidently, apparent | it seems that I, videor |
| αἰδέομαι, αἰσχύνομαι | am ashamed of (doing), i.e. do with a sense of shame | am ashamed to (do), i.e. omit (doing) from shame |
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THE PARTICIPLE.
| Verb | with a finite clause | with the infinitive |
|---|---|---|
| γιγνώσκω | (learn to) know | determine, resolve |
| ἐπίσταμαι | understand | understand, know how |
| οἶδα, μανθάνω | know, learn | know, learn how |
| ἐπιλανθάνομαι | forget | forget |
| μέμνημαι | remember | am careful, remember |
The first construction means "that" (follows an assertion) (ὅτι, ὡς); the second means "to do something." See 199, 1. b.
μέμνημαι (οἶδα, ἀκούω), ὅτε with indic. memini cum, remember (the time) when.
Note 6. - Accordingly:
μεμνήσθω ἀνὴρ ἀγαθὸς εἶναι let him remember to be a brave soldier, but: μεμνήσθω ἄνθρωπος ὢν let him remember that he is a man.
The Circumstantial Participle.
203. 1. The circumstantial participle is equivalent to a variety of conjunctional clauses. In English we sometimes retain the participle, sometimes employ a subordinate clause. This participle is either appositive or absolute.
a) An appositive participle may be used only when its subject occurs in some case or other in the main sentence.
b) An absolute participle may be used only when its subject does not occur in any form in the main sentence.
- The Greek has a genitive absolute corresponding to the ablative absolute in Latin.
Θεοῦ διδόντος οὐδὲν ἰσχύει φθόνος, καὶ μὴ διδόντος οὐδὲν ἰσχύει πόνος.
Note. - Differently from the Latin, the Greek
a) allows the participle to be without a subject whenever the latter is easily understood from the context: οὕτως ἐχόντων quae cum ita sint.
b) does not allow the participle to be replaced by either a noun or an adjective (Cicerone consule, Hannibale vivo?), but ὤν must always be added. Therefore, Pericle duce = Περικλέους ἡγεμόνος ὄντος. - Ἑκών and ἄκων are considered as participles: me invito = ἐμοῦ οὐχ ἑκόντος.
- Either participial construction may correspond
a) to a causal clause, which, for greater clearness, often commences with
ἅτε, οἷον, οἷα (the author's reason): since, as, because, inasmuch as. ὡς (reason of the subject of the leading verb): since, as though, on the ground, plea, under the pretence, saying, thinking that, as if to signify etc. See 178.
Λέγω δὲ τοῦδ' ἕνεκα, βουλόμενος δόξαι σοι ὅπερ ἐμοί. Ἅτε ἐξαίφνης ἐπιπεσόντες πολλὰ ἀνδράποδα ἔλαβον. Ἀνεθορύβησαν ὡς εὖ εἰπόντος τοῦ Ἀγασίου.
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SYNTAX.
b) to a final clause. The part. must be in the future and is often preceded by ὡς: in order to, with the intention, avowed object of (neg. μή).
Ὁ ἡγησόμενος οὐδεὶς ἔσται. Οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι παρεσκευάζοντο ὡς πολεμήσοντες.
c) to a temporal clause. The part. is often emphasized by such adverbs as
ἅμα while, αὐτίκα, εὐθύς immediately, forthwith, μεταξύ while, etc. ἅμα πορευόμενοι during (on) their march, or: while marching, εὐθὺς παῖδες ὄντες a pueris, from (earliest, their very) boyhood.
Πολλαχοῦ με ἐπέσχε λέγοντα μεταξύ. Ταῦτ' ἐπράχθη Κόνωνος στρατηγοῦντος.
d) to a conditional clause (neg. μή).
Δίκαια δράσας συμμάχους ἕξεις θεούς. Γευόμενος καὶ σὺ γνώσει ὅτι ἡδέα ἐστίν if you taste, you will find . . . Οὐκ ἂν δύναιο μὴ καμὼν εὐδαιμονεῖν.
e) to a concessive or adversative clause. For the purpose of clearness, καί or καίπερ (neg. οὐ) may be added. See 189, note.
Ἔρχεται τἀληθὲς εἰς φῶς ἐνίοτ' οὐ ζητούμενον. Εἰσήλθετε ὑμεῖς καίπερ οὐ διδόντος τοῦ νόμου.
- The participle (often with ὡς, ὥσπερ) is used absolutely (Accusative Absolute) with such impersonal expressions as:
δέον, προσῆκον since (when, although) it is or was necessary, proper, ὄν, ἐξόν, παρόν since (when, although) it is or was possible, δόξαν, δεδογμένον since (if, although) it is or was resolved, ἄδηλον ὄν, αἰσχρὸν ὄν since (if, although) it is or was unknown, shameful.
Κατακείμεθα, ὥσπερ ἐξὸν ἡσυχίαν ἄγειν. Οἱ δ' οὐ βοηθήσαντες δέον ὑγιεῖς ἀπῆλθον; Βουλῆς ἄξιοι τυχεῖν Φίλων, οὐ μετὸν αὐτῷ.
Infinitive or Participle with ἄν.
204. Both the infinitive and the participle require the modal suffix ἄν, if the finite verb for which they stand would be either the optative with ἄν, or the ind. of an historical tense with ἄν.
Consequently, infinitives or participles with ἄν always denote either potentiality or unreality.
Σὺν ὑμῖν ἂν οἶμαι τίμιος εἶναι, ὅπου ἂν ὦ. Ἀρίστιππος αἰτεῖ Κῦρον εἰς δισχιλίους ξένους καὶ μισθόν, ὡς οὕτως περιγενόμενος ἂν τῶν ἀντιστασιωτῶν.
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THE VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
Note. - Aorist infinitives or participles that stand for optatives never denote past time. Compare 169. 170.
C. THE VERBAL ADJECTIVES
205. 1. Verbal adjectives in -τός, -τή, -τόν denote (79, 9) either
what has been done: λυτός (that has been) loosed, ἄκρατος unmixed, or what may be done: βρωτός that may be eaten, eatable, ἀόρατος invisible.
- Verbal adjectives in -τέος, -τέα, -τέον denote necessity.
E.g. λυτέος solvendus, πειστέον oboediendum, ἰτέον it is necessary to go, one must go.
The personal construction emphasizes the person (or thing) that must be acted upon.
The impersonal construction emphasizes the kind of action that is to be done.
The person who must do something is put in the dative (157, 2).
Οἱ συμμαχεῖν ἐθέλοντες εὖ ποιητέοι. Οἰστέον πᾶσι τὴν τύχην. Τῷ ἀδικοῦντι δοτέον δίκην.