A Short Grammar of Classical Greek: Part III, Syntax - IV. The Cases

131. The Greek, like other kindred languages, originally had eight cases, but in course of time lost three of them: the ablative (whence?), the locative (where? when?) and the instrumental (whereby? wherewith?). The lost cases are made up for partly by the genitive, partly by the dative.

132. The accusative is the case of the so-called direct or nearer object, which is either external to, and merely affected by, the action (ἐνίκησαν τοὺς πολεμίους), or internal to, and already implied in the meaning of, the action (τίνα νίκην ἐνίκησας;).

1. ACCUSATIVE OF EXTERNAL OBJECT.

133. Verbs that regularly take an external object in the accusative are called transitive, all others intransitive verbs. For verbs which are transitive in Greek, see the Lexicon.

Attention is here called to:

do good (harm) to one εὖ (κακῶς) ποιῶ τινα,

speak well (ill) of one εὖ (κακῶς) λέγω τινά,

escape the notice of λανθάνω τινά (secretly, unawares!),

swear, swear falsely by ὄμνυμι, ἐπιορκέω τινά.

Hence νὴ Δία yes, by Zeus; οὐ μὰ τοὺς θεούς no, by the gods.

am on my guard against, beware of φυλάττομαι τινα.

Οὐδεὶς ποιῶν πονηρὰ λανθάνει θεόν.

134. Even (originally) intransitive verbs, esp. such as express motion and are compounded with a preposition, are employed as transitives. E.g.

μένω wait, stay, remain, τινά, τί wait for, am in store for, expect,

σπουδάζω am eager, in earnest, τινά promote, further,

σπείδω press on, hasten, τί urge on, push,

πλέω sail, go by sea, τὴν θάλατταν sail (over) the sea.

In like manner (cp. the English to under-go dangers):

διαβαίνω ποταμόν, ὑφίσταμαι κινδύνους, ὑπερβαίνω ὄρος.

παραβαίνει τοὺς νόμους, διέρχομαι τὴν χώραν, παραπλέω νῆσον etc.

135. Verbs that signify to name, make, appoint and the like take two accusatives, one of the external object, the other a predicate accusative. In the passive both accusatives become nominatives.

Δαρεῖος Κῦρον σατράπην ἐποίησε. Κῦρος στρατηγὸς ἀπεδείχθη.

136. The following verbs take two accusatives of the external object, one of the person, the other of the thing affected.

τινά τι.

Ἀναμνήσω ὑμᾶς τοὺς τῶν προγόνων κινδύνους.

Κῦρον αἰτήσομεν πλοῖα καὶ ἡγεμόνα.

Τὸν πάντα δ’ ὄλβον ἦμαρ ἐν μ’ ἀφείλετο.

Note 1. - In the passive, the acc. of the person becomes the subject nominative, that of the thing remains unchanged: Αἴκης ἀπεστερήθη τὴν ἀρχήν.

Note 2. - For ἀποστερέω τινά τινος and ἀφαιρέομαι τινός τι see 147, 2. with note 2.

137. Sometimes a transitive or an intransitive verb takes an accusative of the internal object (accusative of content or cognate accusative). The object may be

1. a noun of kindred etymology or meaning. It is nearly always modified by an attribute (or a relative clause). The cognate accusative is more frequent in Greek than in English. (Figura etymologica. Compare: vitam iucundam vivere, to live a pleasant life.)

ταύτην τὴν στρατηγίαν στρατηγεῖν - κάλλιστον ἔργον ἐργάζεσθαι -

δουλείας δουλεύειν, οἷας οὐδ’ ἂν δοῦλος οὐδείς -

Μέγιστα καὶ ἀνοσιώτατα ἁμαρτήματα ἁμαρτάνουσιν.

κινδυνεύω τὸν ἔσχατον κίνδυνον - τὸν ἱερὸν πόλεμον στρατεύσαι -

ἄπιμεν, ἥνπερ ἤλθομεν, ἢ ἄλλην τινὰ ὁδόν;

Ζήσεις βίον κράτιστον, ἢν θυμοῦ κρατῇς.

Note. - The modifying attribute may be wanting in certain idiomatic phrases with pregnant meaning, as in φυλακὰς φυλάττειν to keep watch and ward, φόρον φέρειν to pay tribute, and some others.

2. or an attribute (sometimes a noun, sometimes the neuter of an adjective or pronoun) relating to a noun that is understood.

Ὀλύμπια νικᾶν = Ὀλυμπικὴν νίκην νικᾶν,

ἡδὺ γελᾶν to laugh heartily - δεινὰ ὑβρίζειν to commit an outrageous insult, πάντα νικᾶν, οὐδὲν φροντίζειν, τὰ ἄλλα ἐπιμελεῖσθαι etc.

Οὐκ ἔστιν ὅστις πάντ’ ἀνὴρ εὐδαιμονεῖ.

138. Many transitive verbs take two accusatives, one a cognate accusative, the other of the external object. See 133.

Βασιλεὺς ἡμᾶς τὰ ἔσχατα αἰκίζεται.

Λακεδαιμόνιοι πολλὰ τὴν πόλιν ἡμῶν ἠδικήκασι καὶ μεγάλα.

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SYNTAX.

Note. - In the passive the acc. of the external object becomes the subject nominative, the cognate acc. is retained:

ἄλλην εὐεργεσίαν εὐεργετηθείς - οὐδὲν ἀδικούμενος.

139. The accusative is sometimes somewhat loosely used after verbs that express a state or condition, as well as after adjectives, in order to limit their application. (Accus. of limitation; Greek Accus. Compare: os humerosque deo similis.)

κάμνω τὴν κεφαλήν suffer from my head, have a headache;

κάμνω τοὺς ὀφθαλμούς suffer from my eyes, have sore eyes.

(τὸ) ὄνομα, γένος, εἶδος by name, by birth - race, in appearance, in form.

(τὸ) εὖρος, ὕψος, βάθος, πλῆθος, κάλλος in breadth, ... (its) breadth being ...

Βέλτιόν ἐστι σώμα γ’ ἢ ψυχὴν νοσεῖν.

Τυφλὸς τά τ’ ὦτα τόν τε νοῦν τά τ’ ὄμματ’ εἶ.

140. The accusative of extent (of space and time) answers the questions: how far? (for) how long?

Τῆς Ἑλλάδος οὐ μεῖον ἢ μύρια στάδια ἀπεῖχον.

Ψευδόμενος οὐδεὶς λανθάνει πολὺν χρόνον.

Note 1. - τριάκοντα ἔτη γεγονώς triginta annos natus 30 years old.

and: ἐνάτην ἡμέραν (this being the ninth day =) eight days ago (before).

Note 2. - The terminal accusative without a preposition (whither?) is found only in poetry.

In prose a preposition must be used; hence only εἰς Ἀθήνας Athenas.

141. Very many accusatives of content, of restriction and of extent have by frequent use become adverbs or adverbial phrases (Adverbial Acc.).

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THE GENITIVE.

ἀρχήν at all, at first, from the beginning,

τὸ λοιπόν for the rest, for the (in) future,

τὴν ταχίστην (ὁδόν) as soon as possible,

τὸ κατ’ ἐμέ, τὸ κατὰ τοῦτον as far as depends on me (him), as far as I am (he is) concerned. 199, 5.

πρόφασιν professedly, pretendedly, ostensibly.

Note. - For the acc. absolute see 203, 4.

142. The Greek Genitive is partly genitive proper and partly represents the original ablative (whence-case) which denotes the source of an action. This can be either material (separation - comparison - matter) or mental (cause).

143. The possessive genitive with nouns and adjectives, as also after εἶναι, γίγνεσθαι (to belong to, be owned by; to be the part, characteristic, in the power of; to betoken, give evidence of etc.) denotes the owner or author.

ἡ Κύρου στρατιά - τὸ τοῦ Σόλωνος, τὰ τῶν Ἑλλήνων etc.

ἱερὸς ὁ χῶρος τῆς Ἀρτέμιδος - Κίμων Μιλτιάδου, Περικλῆς ὁ Ξανθίππου. - ἀπόρων ἐστὶ καὶ ἀμηχάνων.

ἐν Ἅιδου (sc. τῇ οἰκίᾳ), εἰς Ἅιδου. Compare: at my brother’s.

Πενίαν φέρειν οὐ παντός, ἀλλ’ ἀνδρὸς σοφοῦ - but ἐμόν ἐστιν.

Compare: cuiusvis hominis est errare - but meum est.

144. The objective genitive, which denotes the object of an action or feeling, is used

1. with nouns which denote an action (compare cupiditas gloriae):

ἡ τῆς πατρίδος σωτηρία - ἡ ἐπιθυμία ἡδονῶν,

τὸ μῖσος Παυσανίου the hatred of (felt against) P. (subj. hatred of [felt by] Paus.),

βία τῶν πολιτῶν against the will of the citizens,

δι’ αἰσχύνην ἀλλήλων καὶ Κύρου from a sense of shame before.

2. with judicial verbs, nouns and adjectives that denote a charge or crime. E.g.

to accuse of, charge with αἰτιάομαι, γράφομαι τινά τινος.

to convict, detect one doing, catch in αἱρέω τινά τινος - ἁλίσκομαί τινος.

guilty of αἴτιος, ἀναίτιός τινος.

Ἐάν τις ἁλῷ τῆς κακώσεως τῶν γονέων, δεδέσθω.

3. with verbs and adjectives expressing the following notions (and their opposites):

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SYNTAX.

desire: ἐπιθυμέω, ἐράω, ἐφίεμαι, ὀρέγομαί τινος.

knowledge: ἔμπειρος, ἄπειρος, ἐπιστήμων τινός.

memory: μέμνημαι, μνήμων - ἐπιλανθάνομαι τινος.

concern: ἐπιμέλομαι, φροντίζω - ἀμελέω τινός,

μέλει μοι τινος - ἐπιμελής, ἀμελὴς τινος.

participation: κοινωνέω, μετέχω - μεταδίδωμί τινος.

power: ἄρχω, βασιλεύω - κύριος, ἐγκρατής τινος, see 148, 2.

plenty: ἐμπίμπλημι, πληρόω - πλήρης, μεστός, κενός τινος.

Ὁ γραμμάτων ἄπειρος οὐ βλέπει βλέπων.

Ἄνθρωπος ὢν μέμνησο τῆς κοινῆς τύχης.

4. after verbs that signify:

to seize, grasp, touch: λαμβάνομαι, ἅπτομαί τινος.

to cling: ἔχομαι, - hit, find: τυγχάνω τινός.

to obtain: λαγχάνω, - miss, lose: ἁμαρτάνω τινός.

to be mistaken, disappointed: ψεύδομαι, experience: πειράομαί τινος.

Ἐλαίβετο τῆς χειρὸς αὐτοῦ.

Ἐσφάλημεν τῆς δόξης. Πολλῶν κακῶν πεπειράμεθα.

Note. - With many of the verbs that belong to 3 and 4, the objective genitive is at the same time partitive.

145. 1. The partitive genitive is the genitive of the whole of which a part is taken. It has nearly always the predicate position (121). It is more frequent in Greek than in Latin, and may be used wherever there is an expressed or implied relation of whole to part.

τῶν ἀνθρώπων οἱ σοφοί - (but only οἱ θνητοὶ ἄνθρωποι) -

ὁ ἄριστος ἁπάντων - τίς ἡμῶν - οὐδεὶς αὐτῶν -

Θῆβαι τῆς Βοιωτίας - ποῦ γῆς; ubi terrarum? -

ὀψὲ τῆς ἡμέρας - εἰς τοῦθ’ ὕβρεως (eo vecordiae).

Ἀριστεὺς ἤθελε καὶ αὐτὸς τῶν μενόντων εἶναι.

2. Accordingly, the partitive genitive may be dependent upon any verb, if its action affects only a part and not the whole of the object. It follows, therefore, especially

a) verbs that signify to eat, to drink, to take, to taste, if only part of the food etc. is taken.

Τῶν κηρίων ὅσοι ἔφαγον, πάντες ἄφρονες ἐγίγνοντο.

Ὀλίγου σίτου ἐγεύσαντο. - but: Σωκράτης τὸ φάρμακον ἔπιεν.

b) verbs and adjectives that signify participation or fullness. See 144, 3.

Note 1. - καινόν τι (aliquid novi) [not: καινοῦ τι],

οὐδὲν ἀγαθόν (nihil boni) [not: οὐδὲν ἀγαθοῦ].

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THE GENITIVE.

Note 2. - When a partitive genitive depends on a numeral adjective, the latter agrees in gender with the genitive:

ὁ λοιπὸς τοῦ χρόνου - τῆς γῆς τὴν πολλήν - τοῦ σίτου τὸν ἥμισυν.

146. The genitive of quality is used almost exclusively with definite numbers to express size or age. An. 1, 2, 8.

Τριῶν ἡμερῶν ὁδόν - τεῖχος εὖρος εἴκοσι ποδῶν, ὕψος δὲ ἑκατόν -

Πρόξενος ἦν, ὅτε ἀπέθνῃσκεν, ἐτῶν ὡς τριάκοντα.

Note. - In other instances, quality is expressed by the Greek accusative. 139 sq.

147. The genitive of separation is used with verbs (and adjectives of kindred meaning) that signify

1. to separate, remove, free and the like.

Here belongs: φείδομαί τινος I spare.

Ἀπέχει ἡ Πλάταια τῶν Θηβῶν σταδίους ἑβδομήκοντα.

2. to deprive, be in want of, need and the like.

Note in particular: δεῖ μοί τινος I need something.

Ὁ μηδὲν ἀδικῶν οὐδενὸς δεῖται νόμου.

Note 1. - “I ask something of some one” means δέομαί τινός τι, if the thing asked for is expressed by a neuter adjective or pronoun. Otherwise, αἰτῶ with two accusatives is generally used.

E.g. Ὑμῶν δεόμεθα ταῦτα, but: Κῦρον ᾔτησαν μισθόν.

Note 2. See 136. - Ἀφαιρέομαι takes also τινός τι.

3. to begin and to cease:

ἄρχω I begin (what others continue): τοῦ λόγου open the discussion.

ἄρχομαι (I begin what I myself continue): τοῦ λόγου my speech.

ἄρχομαι ἀπό, ἐκ τινος from, with, at: ἀπὸ or ἐκ τῶν θεῶν.

παύω cause to stop, τινά τινος restrain, prevent; depose, divest (ἀρχῆς).

παύομαι, λήγω τινός quit, cease, desist from (ὀργῆς).

Πειρᾶσθε σὺν τοῖς θεοῖς ἄρχεσθαι παντὸς ἔργου.

Ἔπαυσαν οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι Τιμόθεον τῆς στρατηγίας.

4. to perceive, hear etc., to denote the person who is heard:

ἀκούω, μανθάνω, αἰσθάνομαι, πυνθάνομαι.

Ἀκούσεσθε ἐμοῦ πᾶσαν τὴν ἀλήθειαν.

Note. - The thing that is heard etc. is generally put in the accusative. There is, however, a difference between

ἀκούω, αἰσθάνομαί τι I hear, learn, notice, perceive something; and

ἀκούω, αἰσθάνομαί τινος (persons or things): listen, harken, give heed, attend to, obey.

Ἀκούσαντες τὸν θόρυβον οὐχ ὑπέμειναν.

Ἄκουε πάντων, ἐκλέγου δ’ ἃ συμφέρει.

Νέος ὢν ἀκούειν τῶν γεραιτέρων θέλε.

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SYNTAX.

148. The genitive of comparison is used

1. with comparatives. It is equivalent to ἤ with a nom., acc., (gen.) or dat.

Σιγὴ ποτ’ ἐστὶν αἱρετωτέρα λόγου - cf. luce clarius.

Φιλεῖ δ’ ἑαυτοῦ πλέον οὐδεὶς οὐδένα.

Τοῦτο δ’ ἔξεστιν ἡμῖν μᾶλλον ἑτέρων.

2. with verbs and adjectives involving comparison, i.e. such as denote

superiority: περιγίγνομαι, στρατηγέω, ἡγέομαι (cf. 144, 3) etc.;

inferiority: ἡττάομαι - ὑστερέω etc., am (come) later than (too late for).

Ἄνθρωπος ξυνέσει ὑπερέχει τῶν ἄλλων. - Οὐδενὸς ὕστερος.

Παυσανίας εἰς Ἁλίαρτον ὑστέρησεν Λυσάνδρου.

Note. - κρατέω τινός: lord it over, am master of: κρατοῦσι πάντων οἱ θεοί;

but κρατέω τινά: conquer, vinco: ἐκρατήσαμεν μάχας Συρακοσίους.

ἡγέομαί τινος: am leader (head) of, command: στρατεύματος.

ἡγέομαί τινι: lead = guide, show the way to: ναυσίν.

149. The genitive of material denotes the material of which anything consists or is made, or the contents of anything. The Latin has here ex aliqua re.

παράδεισος παντοίων δένδρων, γέρρα δασείων βοῶν (β. here ox-hides).

Οἱ στέφανοι οὐκ ἴων ἢ ῥόδων ἦσαν, ἀλλὰ χρυσίου.

150. The genitive of cause, after verbs and adjectives denoting mental states, designates the person or thing that causes an emotion. (Comp. 159, 2.) Also: οἴμοι ταλαίνης o te miseram.

εὐδαιμονίζω, μακαρίζω τινά τινος count one happy for,

χαλεπαίνω, ὀργίζομαί τινί τινος am angry with one on account of.

Εὐδαιμονίζω ὑμᾶς τῆς ἐλευθερίας, ἧς κέκτησθε.

151. The genitive of price denotes the price after verbs (and adjectives) that signify:

to buy: ὠνέομαι - to sell: πωλέω, ἀποδίδομαί τί τινος,

to value, to think worthy: τιμάω, ἀξιόω - ἄξιος, ἀνάξιος.

Τῶν πόνων πωλοῦσιν ἡμῖν πάντα τἀγαθ’ οἱ θεοί.

Ἰητρὸς γὰρ ἀνὴρ πολλῶν ἀντάξιος ἄλλων worth as much as.

Thus: πολλοῦ magno, dear - ὀλίγου, μικροῦ parvo, cheap, πλείονος, ἐλαχίστου etc. - μισθοῦ mercede, for money, for a salary. - τιμᾶσθαί τι πολλοῦ magno aestimare.

Note especially the phrase: περὶ πολλοῦ (πλείονος, πλείστου, παντός, οὐδενὸς) ποιεῖσθαι magni, pluris, etc., facere, to make much of, etc., to value highly, etc.

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THE DATIVE.

152. The genitive of time stands

1. without an attribute, in answer to the question: at what time? (General statements of time!)

νυκτὸς καὶ ἡμέρας - θέρους aestate, χειμῶνος hieme,

τοῦ ἐνιαυτοῦ quotannis - τοῦ μηνός every month (117, 1. extr.).

2. with an attribute, in answer to the question: since or within what time?

πολλοῦ, πλείστου χρόνου for a long, very long time.

πέντε, δέκα ἡμερῶν within five, ten days.

153. The genitive is used with many verbs, one of whose component parts is a preposition that requires the genitive (162, 3). So especially with:

Πολλῶν κατέγνωσαν θάνατον (κατεγνώσθη θάνατος) μηδισμοῦ.

154. The Greek dative has two functions, one of its own (the dative proper), the other representing the Latin ablative (the dative of accompaniment, of means or instrument, the locative dative).

155. Very many (transitive as well as intransitive) verbs and adjectives[^1] take a dative of the person (or thing) to whom anything is done. Most of the verbs of this kind govern other cases in English.

Ἡ μωρία δίδωσιν ἀνθρώποις κακά.

Νόμοις ἕπεσθαι τοῖς ἐπιχωρίοις καλόν.

Οὐκ ἔστιν οὐδείς, ὅστις οὐχ αὐτῷ φίλος.

Note. - εὔχομαί τινί τι wish one something: ὑμῖν ἀγαθά.

εὔχομαι θεοῖς τι promise the gods: σωτήρια, δεκάτην,

[^1]: esp. βοηθέω τινί help, ἕπομαι, ἀκολουθέω follow, πιστεύω, πέποιθα trust, ἀπειλέω threaten, ὀργίζομαι am angry with (τινί), δουλεύω serve, πείθομαι obey, ἀρκέω suffice, help, πρέπει, προσήκει it becomes, συμφέρει it is of advantage.

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SYNTAX.

or implore the g. for, implore something from the g.: σωτηρίαν, σῴζειν.

φθονέω τινί τινος begrudge one something (150).

156. The dative of advantage (or disadvantage) designates the person (or thing) for whose sake, benefit or advantage (disadvantage) anything is done or exists, at whose disposal it is etc. So especially with εἶναι and γίγνεσθαι. Εἰσίν ἐμοί sunt mihi, I have.

Ἐνταῦθα Κύρῳ βασίλεια ἦν καὶ παράδεισος.

Ἕκαστος οὐχὶ τῷ πατρὶ καὶ τῇ μητρὶ μόνον γεγέννηται, ἀλλὰ καὶ τῇ πατρίδι.

157. Closely akin are the following varieties:

1. The ethical dative denotes in general the person who is morally or mentally interested in an action. In particular it designates

a) the person who desires the performance of an action.

Τί σοι μαθήσομαι; what do you want me to learn? - tell me, what . . .?

Μή μοι θορυβήσητε pray, do not raise an uproar.

Τούτῳ πάνυ μοι προσέχετε τὸν νοῦν I beg you to pay close attention to this.

b) the person whose feelings (joy, surprise, distress, impatience) are awakened by an action [often untranslatable].

Πῶς ἡμῖν ἔχεις; how is our darling? comp. quid mihi Celsus agit? = “How fares my Celsus?”

Ὦ τέκνον, ἦ βέβηκεν ἡμῖν ὁ ξένος; O daughter, is the stranger gone at length?

c) the person with whose mind or view anything accords.

Οὕτως ἔχει σοι ταῦτα such is the case - you understand?

Ἡμῖν δ’ Ἀχιλλεὺς ἄξιος τιμῆς in our opinion.

2. The dative of agent denotes the personal agent or author of an action. This dative:

is always used with the verb. adj. in -τέος: ἡμῖν ποιητέον nobis faciendum est, and

often with the passive, esp. the perf. pass. (instead of ὑπό with the genit.):

τὰ ὑμῖν πεπραγμένα your achievements - your policy.

Ἐὰν ἐκεῖ νικῶμεν, πάνθ’ ἡμῖν πεποίηται.

3. The dative of reference: “judging from the point of view of one who,” “with respect to one (doing),” “when or as one [you] . . .” Compare: in universum aestimanti.

Διαβάντι, εἰσπλέοντι (as you sail in), προϊοῦσιν. An. 3, 5, 15; 6, 4, 1; (Ὡς) συνελόντι εἰπεῖν. [3, 2, 22.

Τῷ γὰρ καλῶς πράσσοντι πᾶσα γῆ πατρίς.

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THE DATIVE.

Likewise γίγνεταί μοι βουλομένῳ, ἡδομένῳ, ἀχθομένῳ,

I am pleased with it, glad of it, vexed at it.

Ἐπανέλθωμεν, εἰ σοι ἡδομένῳ ἐστίν if you please.

Note. - In the phrase ὄνομά μοί ἐστι (mihi nomen est), the name is always put in the same case as ὄνομα: Ἐμοὶ δ’ ὄνομα κλυτὸν Αἴθων.