A Short Grammar of Classical Greek: Part III, Syntax - II. The Article

in Greek by adjectives agreeing with the word (subj. or obj.) to which they relate. Compare

Socrates primus hoc docuit.    Socrates venenum laetus hausit.

Σκηνοῦμεν ὑπαίθριοι ἐν τῇ τάξει in the open air.

Τριταῖοι ἐκ Σπάρτης ἐγένοντο ἐν τῇ Ἀττικῇ on the third day.

Ἐνταῦθα προτέρα Κύρου εἰς Ταρσοὺς ἀφίκετο before Cyrus.

Ἑκοῦσαι αἱ πόλεις χρήματα συνεβάλλοντο willingly.

Κατέβαινον εἰς τὰς κώμας ἤδη σκοταῖοι it was already dark when ...

2. To denote the highest possible degree of anything, ὡς, ὅτι, ἢ or οἷος may be added to the superlative. E.g. ὡς τάχιστα quam celerrime, as quickly (soon) as possible; ἄνδρας ὅτι πλείστους as many men as possible; χωρίον οἷον χαλεπώτατον almost impregnable.

Δεῖ ὅτι μάλιστα εὐμαθεῖς εἶναι τοὺς νέους.

116. The originally (Homer!) demonstrative force of the article ὁ, ἡ, τό the is still apparent

1. in ὁ μέν - ὁ δέ (the) one - the other (through all cases);

in τὸ μέν - τὸ δέ adverbially: partly - partly,

τὰ μέν - τὰ δέ sometimes - sometimes.

in πρὸ τοῦ before this, erenow, formerly.

2. in ὁ δέ, ἡ δέ, τὸ δέ but (and) he, but (and) she, etc.

in the acc. with inf. τὸν δέ, τὴν δέ, τοὺς δέ but (and) he, she, etc.

and καὶ τόν, καὶ τήν, καὶ τούς and he, and she, and they (nom. καὶ ὅς 129, 1. note 3).

Οἱ μὲν ἐτόξευον, οἱ δ’ ἐσφενδόνων.

Ἐπορεύθησαν τὰ μέν τι μαχόμενοι, τὰ δὲ καὶ ἀναπαυόμενοι.

Κῦρος δίδωσι Κλεάρχῳ μυρίους δαρεικούς· ὁ δὲ λαβὼν τὸ χρυσίον στράτευμα συνέλεξεν.

Τὸν δὲ γελάσαι whereupon (it is said) he laughed.

Note 1. - The article in the above meaning has of late begun to be orthotoned: ὅ, ἥ, οἵ, αἵ.

Note 2. - For other proofs of the dem. force of the art., see 117, 1; 119, notes 1 and 2.

117. The Greek article sometimes corresponds to the English, sometimes differs from it. Thus it may have

1. an individualizing force, when it points to one particular person or thing in order to distinguish it from others (limited signification):

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SYNTAX.

Τῶν ἑπτὰ σοφῶν σοφώτατος ἦν Σόλων.

Ὁ σοφὸς ἐν αὐτῷ περιφέρει τὴν οὐσίαν his property.

Τὴν δίκην ἐπιθεῖναί τινι to inflict due, condign punishment upon.

Ξέρξης ἡττηθεὶς τῇ μάχῃ ἐκ τῆς Ἑλλάδος ἀπεχώρει in the well-known battle.

Κῦρος ὑπισχνεῖτο δώσειν τρία ἡμιδαρεικὰ τοῦ μηνὸς τῷ στρατιώτῃ

(distributive force: singulis militibus singulis mensibus: a (each) soldier a (per) month).

2. a generic force, when it points to a particular person or thing in order to make it the representative of a whole class. Here the English often prefers the indefinite article.

Ἀλλ’ εὖ φέρειν χρὴ συμφορὰς τὸν εὐγενῆ (a [the] noble-minded man).

Δεῖ τὸν στρατιώτην φοβεῖσθαι μᾶλλον τὸν ἄρχοντα ἢ τοὺς πολεμίους

(a soldier ought to fear his commander).

Νικᾷ ὁ μείων τὸν μέγαν δίκαι’ ἔχων.

Note 1. - There is therefore a difference between

πολλοί many, and οἱ πολλοί the most, most people (the majority, multitude),

ὀλίγοι (a) few, “οἱ ὀλίγοι (the few =) the oligarchs,

πλείονες (still) more, a greater number,

and οἱ πλείονες the majority, generality,

πλεῖστοι very many, “οἱ πλεῖστοι the greatest number, most,

ἄλλοι alii, “οἱ ἄλλοι ceteri,

ἐμὸς φίλος a (some) friend of mine, and ὁ ἐμὸς φίλος (this) my friend,

τοιοῦτος ἀνήρ such a man = a (some) man of such qualities,

ὁ τοιοῦτος ἀνήρ such a man = the (this, that) man of such qualities.

Note 2. - ὁ βουλόμενος whoso will, any person who wishes,

ὁ τυχών “the first one meets,” a chance comer, any one,

ὁ τολμήσων such a one as will, or as is able to, venture (Quality!).

118. The article is used in the following cases, in which it refers to a definite object. Here the English often omits it.

1. With the apposition after the personal pronoun (expressed or understood):

ἡμεῖς οἱ Ἕλληνες we Greeks, ἐγὼ ὁ τλήμων I wretched man.

Εἰ βούλεσθέ μοι οἵ τε στρατηγοὶ καὶ οἱ λοχαγοὶ ἐλθεῖν, λέξω.

2. With cardinal numbers, esp. when they denote a definite portion of a whole number which is either expressed or otherwise known, hence also with fractions.

Τὰ δύο μέρη two thirds.

Ἀπῆσαν τῶν λόχων δώδεκα ὄντων οἱ τρεῖς three twelfths.

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USE OF THE ARTICLE.

3. With ἄμφω, ἀμφότερος and ἑκάτερος (uterque), often also with ἕκαστος:

τὼ παῖδε ἀμφοτέρω both (the) sons, ἐπὶ τῶν πλευρῶν ἑκατέρων,

ἕκαστον (τὸ) ἔθνος, ἑκάστης (τῆς) ἡμέρας, ἑκάστου ἔτους.

4. With the possessive genitives οὗ, ἧς, ὧν whose, of whom, of which:

Ἀπέθανε ὁ φίλος, οὗ τὸν υἱὸν παιδεύω whose son.

Αἰσχύνθητε Δία, ἐν οὗ τῷ ἱερῷ ἐσμεν.

Likewise with the posses. pron. 64; 126; with the demonstr. 65; 128; with πᾶς, 123.

5. Note. - Poets frequently omit the article where it cannot be dispensed with in prose.

119. The article is omitted in the following cases - though referring to a definite object. Its omission partly agrees with, and is partly contrary to, English usage.

1. With the predicate noun or adjective:

Ἀεὶ κράτιστόν ἐστι τἀληθῆ λέγειν.

Αἱ δεύτεραί πως φροντίδες σοφώτεραι.

Κάλλιστόν ἐστι κτῆμα παιδεία βροτοῖς.

Χαιρεφῶν ἐμὸς ἑταῖρος ἦν ἐκ νέου.

2. With words that denote persons (as θεός, ἄνθρωπος, στρατηγός, etc.), when they are used as appellatives in a generic sense, 117, 2.

Πάντων μέτρον ἄνθρωπός ἐστιν man (in general).

3. With certain appellatives, which are then used almost with the force of proper names:

βασιλεύς the king of Persia, μέγας βασιλεύς the Great King,

ἐν ἄστει in the city (of Athens), ἐπὶ θάνατον to execution, ἥλιος, οὐρανός, etc.

Ἦν ἥλιος ἐπὶ δυσμαῖς. Ἦν ἤδη ἀμφὶ ἡλίου δυσμάς.

Note 1. - The uses of the article may thus be illustrated in the word ἄνθρωπος:

ὁ ἄνθρωπος = a) the (i.e. this particular) man, the man (mentioned before); each man (117, 1). - b) man (in general, with all the constituent elements of human nature, mankind, the human race), e.g. θνητός ἐστιν (= οἱ ἄνθρωποι θνητοί εἰσιν) (117, 2).

ἄνθρωπος = a) a man (some man, any one individual of the human race), e.g. ἔλεξεν αὐτῷ told him (117, note 1). - b) man (in general, one man serving as the representative of mankind), e.g. πάντων μέτρον ἄνθρωπός ἐστιν (119, 2).

Note 2. - However, the predicate noun takes the article, whenever it is to be emphasized as quite definite, as previously mentioned or generally known, hence esp. with participles that are used as nouns, with ὁ αὐτός the same, τοὐναντίον, θάτερον (= τὸ ἕτερον), etc.

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SYNTAX.

Αὐτὴ ἡ πολιτεία ἔκειτο τὰ ἆθλα the prize (belonging to a contest).

Οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ σώφρων, οὗτος ὁ ἀνδρεῖος the truly wise man, the very type of a wise man.

Οἱ ἄνδρες εἰσὶν οἱ ποιοῦντες, ὅ, τι ἂν ἐν ταῖς μάχαις γένηται are precisely those, who perform.

Ἐγὼ μέν ὁ αὐτός εἰμι, ὑμεῖς δὲ μεταβάλλετε.

Note 3. - Proper names do not require the article. When the person spoken of is to be marked as identical with one that has been previously mentioned, or as one that is well known, the article is generally added to the person’s name or to its apposition, if there be one.

E.g. ὁ Σωκράτης or Σωκράτης ὁ Ἀθηναῖος.

the (well-known) Athenian Socrates.

Note 4. - Names of countries, originally adjectives, as a rule, take the article.

ἡ Ἀσία, ἡ Εὐρώπη, ἡ Ἑλλάς, ἡ Ἀττική (sc. γῆ).

Note 5. - Names of rivers stand between the article and ποταμός; e.g. ὁ Εὐφράτης ποταμός the (river) Euphrates. Other geographical names also have the attributive position (120), if their gender coincides with that of their respective appellatives (ὄρος, πόλις), as τὸ Πήλιον ὄρος, but ἡ Αἴτνη τὸ ὄρος.

Note 6. - Words that signify parts of the body, virtues, vices, faculties, arts, size, descent, length, width, name, etc., are more frequently without than with the article.

The article is also omitted in very many familiar expressions: κατὰ γῆν καὶ κατὰ θάλατταν, ἐκ νέου, ἐκ παιδός (παίδων), κατ’ ἀγρούς ruri, ἐν δεξιᾷ, etc. etc.

120. A word has the attributive position, when it stands between the article and the noun, or after the noun with the article repeated.

ὁ ἀγαθὸς ἀνήρ the good man,

or ὁ ἀνὴρ ὁ ἀγαθός the man (and more particularly) the good man.

Thus ἡ τῶν Περσῶν ἀρχή, ὁ δῆμος ὁ τῶν Ἀθηναίων,

ὁ παρὼν καιρός, κατὰ τοὺς νόμους τοὺς κειμένους.

Δέδοικα μὴ ἐπιλαθώμεθα τῆς οἴκαδε ὁδοῦ.

Ὁ τόπος οὗτος ἐκαλεῖτο Ἀρμενία ἡ πρὸς ἑσπέραν.

By means of the attributive position adverbs and adverbial phrases are used as adjectives. E.g.

τὴν ἄνω ὁδόν (cf. “the above remark”), οἱ τότε ἄνθρωποι (cf. “the then president”), ἡ οἴκαδε ὁδός, ἡ πρόσθεν φιλία, -

τοὺς οἴκοι στασιώτας - τὸ ἐν Πλαταιαῖς ἔργον.

Note. - Dependent genitives (for partitives, see 145, 1) are not confined to the attributive position. Thus besides ἡ τῶν Περσῶν ἀρχή, τῶν Περσῶν ἡ ἀρχή and ἡ ἀρχὴ τῶν Περσῶν are equally good.

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USE OF THE ARTICLE.

121. A word has the predicate position, when it stands before the article, or follows the noun without an additional article. See 145, 1.

ἀγαθός ὁ ἀνήρ or ὁ ἀνὴρ ἀγαθός (sc. ἐστίν or ὤν),

the man is good or the man, who (when, etc. . . . he) is good.

Εἶχον πάντες τὰς ἀσπίδας ἐκκεκαλυμμένας.

Note. - Compare in English: The law makes a difference between things stolen and things found.

122. A change of position sometimes changes the meaning. Hence:

1. ὁ αὐτὸς βασιλεύς the same king, idem rex,

ὁ βασιλεὺς αὐτός / αὐτὸς ὁ βασιλεύς the king himself, rex ipse; 127.

2. ἡ μέση πόλις the middle city (between two others),

ἡ πόλις μέση / μέση ἡ πόλις the middle (center) of the city.

3. τὸ ἄκρον ὄρος the high, peaked mountain,

τὸ ὄρος ἄκρον / ἄκρον τὸ ὄρος the top, brow of the mountain.

4. ἡ ἐσχάτη νῆσος the farthest, most distant of several islands,

ἡ νῆσος ἐσχάτη / ἐσχάτη ἡ νῆσος the end, extremity, edge of the island.

123. Πᾶς (ἅπας, σύμπας, ὅλος) mean:

1. when qualifying a noun with the article - in which case a definite object is referred to -

a) in predicate position: all.

πᾶσα ἡ πόλις / ἡ πόλις πᾶσα all the city, the (this) whole city.

πᾶσαι αἱ πόλεις / αἱ πόλεις πᾶσαι all the (these) cities (individually, severally).

b) in attributive position: whole, entire, total, complete.

ὁ πᾶς ἀριθμός the sum total, the whole number.

ἡ πᾶσα πόλις the entire city, the whole of the city (the city in its totality, opp. the various parts of the city).

αἱ πᾶσαι πόλεις the union (confederation) of cities, the United Cities (all the cities collectively).

hence οἱ πάντες, τὰ σύμπαντα (with numbers): in all, all told.

2. when qualifying a noun without the article - here an indefinite object is referred to -

every, any, all, whole, nothing but, extreme, absolute, utter, sheer.

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SYNTAX.

πᾶσα πόλις / πόλις πᾶσα a whole city; every (any) city.

πᾶσαι πόλεις whole cities; any (number of) cities imaginable, all the cities imaginable.

Πᾶσαν ὑμῖν τὴν ἀλήθειαν ἐρῶ. - Οὐδὲ οἱ πάντες ἄνθρωποι.

Εἰς πάντας τοὺς θεοὺς καὶ εἰς ἅπασαν τὴν πόλιν ἡμαρτήκασιν.

Εἴ που διακοπείη ἡμῶν ἡ φάλαγξ, τῇ ὅλῃ φάλαγγι κακὸν ἔσται.

Ναῦς διέφθειραν τὰς πάσας ἐς διακοσίας in all.

Τῷ γὰρ καλῶς πράσσοντι πᾶσα γῆ πατρίς. See An. 2, 5, 9.

Πάσῃ τέχνῃ καὶ μηχανῇ by every means and device.

παντὶ σθένει with all might, at full speed.

πάντες ἄνθρωποι “everything human,” everybody, all the world.

πᾶν ἀγαθόν nothing but what is good.

ἐν πάσῃ ἀπορίᾳ in sheer want of everything, in utter want.

124. By prefixing the article any word (adj., part., adv., inf.), even parts of sentences or entire sentences can be used as nouns. Thus the neuter of an adjective may supply an abstract noun.

τὸ ἀγαθόν, οἱ πολλοί, οἱ πλείονες, οἱ παρόντες,

οἱ νῦν, οἱ πάλαι, τὸ ὅπως, τὸ γνῶθι σαυτόν,

τὸ δίκαιον justice, τἀληθῆ truth, τὸ ἀναγκαῖον what is (was, etc.) necessary.

Νέοις τὸ σιγᾶν κρεῖττόν ἐστι τοῦ λαλεῖν.

Note. - Here belong expressions like the following:

τὰ οἴκοι the state of affairs at home, in one’s country; home life.

τὰ τῶν φίλων κοινά the property of friends is common.

τὰ πρὸς τὸν πόλεμον what belongs to war; military matters.

οἱ περὶ Κῦρον, οἱ ἀμφὶ Ἀριαῖον Cyrus, Ariaeus and his men, followers, etc.

τὸ τοῦ Δημοσθένους, illud Demosthenis, that (word) saying of Dem.