A Short Grammar of Classical Greek: Part III, Syntax - VIII. The Moods of the Verb

171. 1. There are two main divisions of sentences:

a) such as contain a simple statement or assertion: (neg. οὐ). b) such as express a wish, desire, command: (neg. μή).

1. The modal particle ἄν, which is often approximately rendered by: "possibly, perhaps, if the opportunity should present itself" (see 174, 2), is of frequent occurrence in statements, but rarely found in sentences of the second kind.

Note. - Position of ἄν. Ἄν is, as a rule, placed after its verb. Often, however, it is attached to some prominent word in the sentence, esp. to interrogatives, negatives, and adverbs. In relative and conjunctional clauses which require the verb to be in the subjunctive ἄν stands next to the relative or to the conjunction, with which it often forms one word (ἐάν, ὅταν, ἐπάν, ἐπειδάν).

172. The indicative mood expresses in general the relation of reality and, in consequence, has its proper place in declaratory sentences. In this the Greek is not at variance with our idiom. However, there are some uses of the indicative peculiar to Greek.

1. The imperfect without ἄν stands in certain impersonal expressions which imply ability, possibility, necessity, duty, propriety. In English we employ, as a rule, a different mood.

ἔδει, ἐχρῆν, προσῆκεν oportet, decet or oportebat, decebat, it would be necessary etc.; you (one) should or ought - it would have been necessary etc.; you (one) should or ought to have -

ἐξῆν, εἰκός, δίκαιον, ἀναγκαῖον ἦν aequum est, erat, it would be possible, proper - it would have been proper - you (one) might, you (one) might have -

προαιρετέον, παιδευτέον ἦν praeferendum est, erat, you (one) ought to educate - you (one) ought to have educated.

The thought implied here (not so in 172, 3!) is this:

you ought etc. to do, but you do not, you ought to have done, but you did not.

Τί σιγᾷς; οὐκ ἐχρῆν σιγᾶν, τέκνον you ought not. Αἰσχρῶς κακὰ εἰργάσω τούτους, οὓς ἥκιστα ἔδει.

Note. - Ἔδει etc. may, of course, also denote reality (it was necessary). It has, therefore, three meanings: it was necessary, it would be n., it would have been n.

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THE INDICATIVE MOOD.

To denote a true case of unreality, ἄν must be added, according to 172, 3: ἔδει ἄν it would be or would have been necessary.

1. The indicative of the historical tenses without ἄν expresses an unattainable wish. It is preceded by εἴθε, εἰ γάρ, ὡς. The negative is μή.

a) The imperfect refers to the present. b) The aorist refers to the past.

Εἴθε ἦσθα δυνατὸς δρᾶν, ὅσον πρόθυμος εἶ O that you were able. Εἴθ' εὕρομέν σ' Ἄδμητε μὴ λυπούμενον Would that we had found you.

Note. - A hopeless wish may also be expressed by ὤφελον, -ες, -εν etc. with the present or aorist infinitive.

Ἀλλ' ὤφελε μὲν Κῦρος ζῆν Would that Cyrus were alive. Ὡς ὤφελον πάροιθεν ἐκλιπεῖν βίον O that I had departed life before.

1. The indicative of the historical tenses with ἄν may express unreality. The negative is μή.

a) The imperfect with ἄν refers to the present:

ἔλεγον ἄν dicerem I should say (but now I do not say).

b) The aorist with ἄν refers to the past:

ἔλεξα ἄν } dixissem I should have said εἶπον ἄν } (but I did not say).

Examples are given in 185.

1. Again, the indicative of the historical tenses with ἄν may express past potentiality. "The Potential Indicative."

ἔλεγεν (εἶπεν) ἄν τις diceres one (you) might have said; θᾶττον ἢ ὡς τις ἂν ᾤετο faster than you would have believed. Εἴ τις Κλεάρχῳ δοκοίη βλακεύειν, ἔπαισεν ἄν he would sometimes apply the cane: iterative ἄν.

Note. - Accordingly, the indicatives of the historical tenses are capable of expressing three different relations:

a) past reality, 167, 3; b) unreality, 172, 3; c) past potentiality, 172, 4.

173. The subjunctive is the mood of anticipation, inasmuch as it expresses that the speaker anticipates something to happen or to be done.

1. The hortatory subjunctive is used in exhortations. It is almost confined to the 1. person plural. The negative is μή.

Ἴωμεν eamus let us go. Καὶ δὴ λέγωμεν. Ἃ ψέγωμεν ἡμεῖς μὴ μιμώμεθα.

Note. - To the 2. and 3. persons commands are given in the imperative, 175.

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SYNTAX.

1. The deliberative subjunctive is used in questions of appeal. It stands almost only in the 1. person. The negative is μή.

Τί ποιῶμεν; quid faciamus? what shall we do? Εἴπωμεν ἢ σιγῶμεν; ἢ τί δράσομεν; see 169, 1. Πότερον βίαν φῶμεν ἢ μὴ φῶμεν εἶναι;

1. The prohibitive subjunctive is used in prohibitions. The 2. and 3. persons of the aor. subj. are used instead of the neg. aor. imperative. The negative is μή.

Μὴ ποιήσῃς ne feceris: do not do! Μηδὲν ἀθυμήσητε ἕνεκα τῶν γεγενημένων.

174. The optative is the mood of thought or supposition, inasmuch as it expresses that the speaker fancies something to be possible. It is used

1. without ἄν to denote an attainable wish. It may take in addition the particles:

εἴθε, εἰ γάρ, ὡς O that, O if, Would that. The negative is μή.

Ὦ παῖ, γένοιο πατρὸς εὐτυχέστερος. Μή μοι γένοιθ' ἃ βούλομ', ἀλλ' ἃ συμφέρει.

Note. - For the method of expressing a hopeless wish, see 172, 2.

1. with ἄν to express possibility (may might, can could, will shall, possibly, perhaps, peradventure). It is apt to render a command less imperative or a statement less positive. The negative is οὐ. The Potential Optative.

Ἴσως ἄν τις εἴποι forsitan dixerit quispiam, perhaps somebody may say. Ὥρα ἂν εἴη συσκευάζεσθαι it may be time, - I believe, it is time.

Ὦ παῖ, γένοιο πατρὸς εὐτυχέστερος, τὰ δ' ἄλλ' ὅμοιος, καὶ γένοι' ἂν οὐ κακός.

Note. - For the potential indicative (past potentiality), see 172, 4. Notice the difference

between εἴποι (λέγοι) ἄν τις dixerit quispiam and εἶπεν (ἔλεγεν) ἄν τις diceres.

175. The imperative denotes a positive demand. The negative is μή. See the examples in 169, 3.

A prohibition is expressed by the present imperative or aorist subjunctive with μή:

μὴ ποίει or μὴ ποιήσῃς, μὴ ποιείτω or μὴ ποιήσῃ,

in the third person more frequently μὴ ποιησάτω.

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MOODS IN DEPENDENT SENTENCES.

B. MOODS IN DEPENDENT SENTENCES.

SEQUENCE OF MOOD.

176. 1. Greek has no sequence of tenses, but a sequence of mood, which presupposes the distinction of principal and historical tenses.

1. Principal tenses are all such verbal forms as refer either to the present or to the future: the present, perfect, and future tenses of the indicative; the potential optative; all subjunctives and imperatives.

1. Historical tenses are all such verbal forms as refer to the past: the aorist indicative, the imperfect, the pluperfect, the historical present, the potential indicative.

1. The construction of dependent sentences varies, of course, and accordingly the verb is sometimes required to be in the indicative, sometimes in the subjunctive, and sometimes in the optative. Now the sequence of mood briefly stated is this: When the construction of a sentence would require the verb to be in the subjunctive with or without ἄν, or in the indicative without ἄν, the writer may employ the optative without ἄν (called the Indirect Optative from its frequent occurrence in the Indirect Discourse; see 177, 193). However, these subjunctives or indicatives can be changed to the optative only when they depend upon an historical tense. On the contrary, the indicative with ἄν (172, 3 unreality, or 172, 4 past potentiality), or the optative with ἄν (174, 2 present potentiality) are never changed to the Indirect Optative, but remain unaltered.

1. The subject of a dependent sentence is often "anticipated," i.e. placed for emphasis in the principal sentence, and made the object of the principal verb (Anticipation or prolepsis). For example:

Οἶον ἔφασαν εἶναι ἣν κατωρυγμένος. Ἐξήγγειλε τοῖς φίλοις τὴν κρίσιν τοῦ Ὀρόντα ὡς ἐγένετο.

SIMPLE SENTENCES IN INDIR. DISCOURSE.

177. They are introduced by ὅτι, ὡς that, and take

after a princ. tense the indic. (potent., unreal.), after an hist. tense the opt. (potent., unreal.), rarely the indicative.

For other cases of indirect discourse, see 193, 1 and 202, 2, n. 1. The negative is οὐ.

Λέγει ὁ κατήγορος, ὡς ὑβριστής εἰμι καὶ βίαιος. Κῦρος ἔλεγεν, ὅτι ἡ ὁδὸς ἔσοιτο πρὸς βασιλέα μέγαν. Ἔλεγον, ὅτι Κῦρος μὲν τέθνηκεν, Ἀριαῖος δὲ πεφευγὼς ἐν τῷ σταθμῷ εἴη.

Note. - The sentence ἔλεγεν, ὅτι ἀδικοίην (present opt.) may mean: both: he said [that] I was doing wrong (direct: ἀδικεῖς), and: he said [that] I had been doing wrong (direct: ἠδίκεις), 169, 4.

1 (potent., unreal.) = "unless the expression of potentiality or unreality should require a different mood." See 176, 4.

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SYNTAX.

DEPENDENT CAUSAL CLAUSES.

178. They are introduced by

ὅτι, διότι, ὡς because, as, quod, ἐπεί since, because, ἐπειδή inasmuch as, quoniam, ὅτε, ὁπότε since then, quando,

and take after a princ. tense the indic.; after an hist. tense the indic. (point of view of writer) or the opt. (view of leading subject) (potent. or unreal.) The negative is οὐ.

Ἀθηναῖοι ἐνόμισαν ἡττᾶσθαι ὅτι οὐ πολὺ ἐνίκων (reason assigned by writer). Οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι Περικλέα ἐκάκιζον, ὅτι στρατηγὸς ὢν οὐκ ἐπεξάγοι (reason ass. by the κακίζοντες). Ἐθαύμαζον οἱ Ἕλληνες, ὅτι οὐδαμοῦ Κῦρος φαίνοιτο οὐδ' ἄλλος ἀπ' αὐτοῦ οὐδεὶς παρείη. Δέομαί σου παραμεῖναι ἡμῖν, ὡς ἐγὼ οὐδ' ἂν ἑνὸς ἥδιον ἀκούσαιμι ἢ σοῦ.

DEPENDENT OR INDIRECT QUESTIONS.

179. 1. They are introduced by interrogative or relative pronouns and adverbs (130), or by the interrogative particles:

εἰ if, whether, num, πότερον - ἤ, εἰ - ἤ whether - or, πότερα - ἤ, εἴτε - εἴτε utrum - an.

They take after a princ. tense the indic.; after an hist. tense the opt. (rarely the indic.) (pot. or unreal.) The negative is οὐ.

Συμβουλευόμεθά σοι, τί χρὴ ποιεῖν. Ἐπήρετο τὸν Μηδοσάδην, εἰ ἀληθῆ ταῦτ' εἴη. Οἷων ἂν ἐλπίδων ἐμαυτὸν στερήσαιμι, ταῦτα λέξω. Ξενοφῶν οὐ τοῦτο πρῶτον ἠρώτα, πότερον λαβὼν εἴη αὐτῷ πορεύεσθαι ἢ μένειν, ἀλλὰ τοῦτ' ἐπυνθάνετο, ὅπως ἂν κάλλιστα πορευθείη.

Note 1. - Observe that εἰ has not the same limitations as si in Latin.

Note 2. - Ordinarily the negative is οὐ. But μή is not unfrequently found, esp. in the second part of alternative indirect questions.

1. Dependent questions implying doubt (173, 2) take

after a princ. tense the subjunctive, after an hist. tense the optative or subjunctive.

The negative is always μή.

Ὁρῶ σε ἀποροῦντα, ποίαν ὁδὸν ἐπὶ τὸν βίον τράπῃ which road to take. Ὁ Θηβαῖος ἠπόρει, ὅ,τι χρήσαιτο τῷ πράγματι what to make of it.

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CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES.

CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES.

180. 1. They are introduced by ὥστε (ὡς) so that, so (such ...) as.

An actual result (histor. fact) requires ὥστε with the indic. (pot., unreal.), neg. οὐ,

a merely conceivable (expected, possible) result or tendency shading over into purpose requires ὥστε (ὡς) with the inf., neg. μή.

Ἦν ψῦχος δεινόν, ὥστε τὸ ὕδωρ ἐπήγνυτο. Ἔχω τριήρεις ὥστε ἑλεῖν τὸ ἐκείνων πλοῖον so as to be able. Κραυγὴν πολλὴν ἐποίουν οἱ στρατιῶται καλοῦντες ἀλλήλους, ὥστε καὶ τοὺς πολεμίους ἀκούειν could hear or could not help hearing it.

1. The infinitive is regularly used in the following cases:

a) to denote an intended result:

Πᾶν ποιοῦσιν ὥστε δίκην μὴ διδόναι. Πάντας οὕτω διατιθεὶς ἀπεπέμπετο ὥστε αὐτῷ μᾶλλον φίλους εἶναι ἢ βασιλεῖ.

b) after such expressions as: to be able, qualified; to bring about, effect; to be such as; e.g.

Τὸ θεῖον τοιοῦτόν ἐστιν ὥστε πανταχοῦ παρεῖναι. Τίς οὕτω δεινός ἐστι λέγειν ὥστε σε πεῖσαι;

c) after a comparative with ἤ, or after a negative; e.g.

Βραχύτερα ἠκόντιζον ἢ ὡς ἐξικνεῖσθαι ἡμῶν. Ταῦτα οὐ πάλαι ἐστὶ γεγενημένα, ὥστε ἀγνοεῖν ὑμᾶς.

d) when ὥστε means on condition that (= provided that, dummodo) and takes the place of the more frequent ἐφ' ᾧ, ἐφ' ᾧτε with inf. (or fut. indic. 191, 3. c).

Πολλὰ Τιμασίωνι οἱ Ἡρακλεῶται ὑπισχνοῦντο ὥστε ἐκπλεῖν. Ἔφασαν ἀποδώσειν τοὺς νεκρούς, ἐφ' ᾧ μὴ καίειν τὰς οἰκίας.

Note 1. - Ὥστε, with the force wherefore, consequently, itaque, sometimes introduces independent clauses.

Εἰς τὴν ὑστεραίαν οὐχ ἧκε Τισσαφέρνης· ὥσθ' οἱ Ἕλληνες ἐφρόντιζον.

Note 2. - For the subject (nom. or acc.) of the infinitive, see 197.

FINAL CLAUSES.

181. 1. Final clauses are introduced by

ἵνα, ὡς, ὅπως, ut, in order that, negatived ἵνα μή, ὡς μή, ὅπως μή or μή, ne, lest, in order that - not.

After a princ. tense they always take the subj. (pres. or aor.), after an hist. tense they generally take the opt. (pres. or aor.), less frequently the subjunctive.

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SYNTAX.

Μὴ φθόνει τοῖς εὐτυχοῦσι, μὴ δοκῇς εἶναι κακός. Ταῦτ' εἰπὼν εὐθὺς ἀνέστη, ἵνα περαίνοιτο τὰ δέοντα. Τὰ πλοῖα Ἀβροκόμας κατέκαυσεν, ἵνα μὴ Κῦρος διαβῇ.

1. In like manner, final object clauses after verbs of fearing and other expressions that imply apprehension, anxiety, alarm,

introduced by μή, ne, that, lest, negatived μὴ οὐ, ne non, that - not,

always take after a princ. tense the subj., after an hist. tense the opt., less frequently the subjunctive.

Δέδοικα, μὴ ἐπιλαθώμεθα τῆς οἴκαδε ὁδοῦ. Ἐφοβεῖτο, μὴ οὐ δύνατο ἐκ τῆς χώρας ἐξελθεῖν.

Note. - When these verbs signify: to scruple, hesitate, be reluctant, shrink from, like vereor, metuo, dubito in Latin, they require the infinitive. See An. 1, 3, 17.

1. Final object clauses after verbs of caring and other expressions that imply care, anxiety, concern, endeavor,

as ἐπιμέλομαι, φροντίζω take care, am concerned, σκοπῶ, σκοποῦμαι see, consider, μέλει μοι it is an object of care, thought to me, I mind, σκεπτέον (ἐστίν) (you, we) must see to it that, - examine, βουλεύομαι deliberate, παρασκευάζομαι get ready, prepare myself,

introduced by ὅπως, ὡς how, that, negatived ὅπως μή, ὡς μή that - not, how - not,

take either the subj. or the opt. (see 181, 1) or generally the future indicative (according to 191, 3 c). Ὅπως in this case is a relative and the clauses are final rel. clauses.

Σκεπτέόν μοι δοκεῖ, ὅπως ὡς ἀσφαλέστατα μενοῦμεν. Κῦρος βουλεύεται, ὅπως μήποτε ἔσται ἐπὶ τῷ ἀδελφῷ.

Compare An. 3, 1, 38 with 3, 1, 13. 16; 4, 6, 10 (bis) with 1, 3, 11.

Note 1. - In independent sentences expressing apprehension, warning, a cautious or ironical assertion,

μή or ὅπως μή with the subj. means: I wish that - not; I am afraid that, μὴ οὐ with the subj. means: I rather think that - not; not ... I dare say, οὐ μή with the aor. subj. or fut. indic. means: hardly, very improbably, not at all likely, surely not.

Μὴ λίαν πικρὸν εἰπεῖν ᾖ. Ὅπως μὴ ποιήσητε, ὃ πολλάκις ὑμᾶς ἔβλαψεν. Ἀλλὰ μὴ οὐ τοῦτ' ᾖ χαλεπόν, θάνατον ἐκφυγεῖν, ἀλλὰ πονηρίαν. Τὸν ἄνδρ' ἐκεῖνον οὔ τι μὴ λίπω ποτέ. Τοὺς πονηροὺς οὐ μή ποτε βελτίους ποιήσετε.

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CONDITIONAL CLAUSES.

Note 2. - Μή with the indicative after verbs of fearing or caring has interrogative force (if not, whether not), and often represents the thing feared as positively taking or having taken place:

Φοβούμεθα, μὴ ἄμα ἀμφοτέρων ἡμαρτήκαμεν we fear we have missed. Ὅρα μή with the ind.: (see if not) perhaps, beware lest; e.g. ὅρα μὴ σκῆψιν οὐκ οὖσαν τιθῇς. with the subj.: take care not to, beware lest: μὴ γῆμα νῦν σαυτῷ τιθῇς.

HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITIONS.

182. 1. Hypothetical propositions are introduced by

εἰ, ἐάν (= εἰ ἄν, also ἄν, ἤν) if, in case that, if perchance.

1. The negative of the condition is always μή; that of the conclusion either οὐ or μή, according to its character as a statement or a wish. See 171, 1.

Note. - The condition is also called protasis, the conclusion apodosis.

Classification.

183. 1. There are four types of hypothetical sentences:

I. The First Type (expressing conditioned reality): Asserts merely the nexus between protasis and apodosis.

II. The Second Type (expressing unreality): Represents the unreality of both protasis and apodosis.

III. The Third Type (expressing potentiality): Represents both protasis and apodosis as conceivable.

IV. The Fourth Type (expressing a single future or repeated occurrence): Represents the protasis as possible or even as expected in a certain contingency.

Note. - The choice of any one of the four forms depends on the point of view of the writer, which is, of course, somewhat free to shift.

1. The conditional clauses admit of the following variety of construction:

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SYNTAX.

Conditional Sentences of the First Type.

184. This form merely sets forth the nexus between the conclusion and the condition; in other words: it sets forth the conclusion as real, if the condition be real - but implies nothing as to the latter.

Εἰ with ind. of any tense - indic. of any tense.

Εἰ βούλει - δύνασαι. If you wish, you can: Si vis, potes.

Εἰ θεοί τι δρῶσιν αἰσχρόν, οὐκ εἰσὶν θεοί. Εἰ δειν' ἔδρασας, δεινὰ καὶ παθεῖν σὲ χρή. Εἰ μὴ καθέξεις γλῶσσαν, ἔσται σοι κακά.

Conditional Sentences of the Second Type.

185. Both the condition and the conclusion are represented as unreal or contrary to fact.

Εἰ w. hist. tense indic., ἄν w. hist. tense indic.; for the present: impf., ἄν w. impf., for the past: aor. (plupf.), ἄν w. aor. (plupf.).

a) Present time:

Εἰ ἐβούλου, ἐδύνασο ἄν. Si velles, posses (sed non vis). If you wished, you could (but you do not wish).

Φῶς εἰ μὴ εἴχομεν, ὅμοιοι τοῖς τυφλοῖς ἂν ἦμεν. Εἰ μὴ γὰρ ἦν Χρύσιππος, οὐκ ἂν ἦν στοά.

b) Past time:

Εἰ ἐβουλήθης, ἐδυνήθης ἄν. Si voluisses, potuisses (sed non voluisti), If you had wished, you could have (but you did not wish).

Οὐκ ἂν ἐποίησεν Ἀγασίας, εἰ μὴ ἐγὼ ἐκέλευσα. Εἰ τριάκοντα μόναι μετέπεσον τῶν ψήφων, ἀπεπεφεύγη ἄν.

c) Mixed Forms:

Εἰ μὴ ὑμεῖς ἤλθετε, ἐπορευόμεθα ἂν ἐπὶ βασιλέα. Εἰ γάρ σὺ μὲν παῖς ἦσθ', ἐγὼ δὲ σὸς πατήρ, ἔκτεινά τοί σ' ἂν κοὐ φυγαῖς ἐζημίουν.

Note. - In conditional sentences of the second type, the imperfect occasionally expresses continuance of a past, and the aor. ind. instantaneous occurrence of a present action.

Οὐκ ἂν Ἀγαμέμνων νήσων ἠπειρώτης ὧν ἐκράτει, εἰ μή τι καὶ ναυτικὸν εἶχεν. A. would not have been master, had he not had... Εἰ μὴ πατὴρ ἦσθα, εἶπον ἄν σ' οὐκ εὖ φρονεῖν.

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CONDITIONAL CLAUSES.

Conditional Sentences of the Third Type.

186. Both the condition and the conclusion are set forth as purely imaginable, or as mere thoughts or suppositions that are gratuitously assumed by the speaker.

Εἰ with optative - ἄν with optative.

Εἰ βούλοιο, δύναιο ἄν: Si velis, possis. If you should wish (= Suppose you were to wish), you would be able.

Εἴ τις ξυνελὼν ταῦτα φαίη, ὀρθῶς ἂν εἴποι. Εἰ ἀναγκαῖον εἴη ἀδικεῖν ἢ ἀδικεῖσθαι, ἑλοίμην ἂν μᾶλλον ἀδικεῖσθαι ἢ ἀδικεῖν.

Note. - Suppositions that are contrary to fact may evidently also be expressed by the speaker, if he chooses, in this potential form. See 183, 1. note.

Καὶ ἔγωγ' ἄν, εἰ σύ εἴην (which is contrary to fact!), εὑροίην ἂν ποταμὸν ὥσπερ Ἀργεῖος.

Conditional Sentences of the Fourth Type.

187. 1. The condition is represented as objectively possible, or even as anticipated under certain circumstances. The conclusion is set forth as positively certain. This form of hypothetical proposition is especially employed to express thoughts or truths of universal application and is, therefore, of constant occurrence in legal phraseology.

1. Sentences of this type admit of a double construction.

I. The condition refers to a single future occurrence (if).

Ἐάν with subj. (pres. or aor.) - fut. indic. or imperative.

Ἐὰν βούλῃ (βουληθῇς), δυνήσῃ. Si voles (volueris), poteris. If you wish, you will be able.

Ἥξω παρὰ σὲ αὔριον, ἐὰν θεὸς ἐθέλῃ. Νέος ἂν πονήσῃς, γῆρας ἕξεις εὐθαλές. Ἐὰν δ' ἔχωμεν χρήματα, ἕξομεν φίλους.

Compare Donec eris felix, multos numerabis amicos.

Here the pres. subj. stands in the sense of the Latin future, the aor. subj. stands in the sense of the Latin fut. perfect.

II. The condition implies repeated occurrence (as often as).

a) in the present:

Ἐάν with subj. (pres. or aor.) - present indicative.

Ἐὰν βούλῃ (βουληθῇς), δύνασαι. Cum vis (voluisti), potes. If (= whenever) you wish, you (always) can.

Ἅπας λόγος, ἂν ἀπῇ τὰ πράγματα, μάταιος φαίνεται. Ἄν ἐγγὺς ἔλθῃ θάνατος, οὐδεὶς βούλεται θνῄσκειν.

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SYNTAX.

b) in the past:

Εἰ with opt. (pres. or aor.) - hist. tense ind. (esp. impf.).

Εἰ βούλοιο (βουληθείης), ἐδύνασο. Cum volebas (volueras), poteras. If (= as often as) you (had) wished, you (always) could.

Ξενοφῶν εἴ πού τι ὁρῴη βρωτόν, διεδίδου. Εἴ τίς γέ τι Κύρῳ προστάξαντι καλῶς ὑπηρετήσειεν, οὐδενὶ πώποτε ἀχάριστον εἴασε τὴν προθυμίαν. - (See Anab. 2, 3, 11; 1, 9, 19. cf. 172, 4.)

Here the pres. opt. stands in the sense of the Lat. imperfect, the aor. opt. stands in the sense of the Lat. pluperfect.

Note. - These hypothetical forms account for the construction of those temporal and relative clauses (190, 3. and 4. b; 191, 4. d) in which

ὅταν, ἕως ἄν, πρὶν ἄν - ὅς ἄν, ὅπως ἄν, ᾗ ἄν take the subj. after a princ. tense, or ὅτε, ἕως, πρίν - ὅς, ὅπως, ᾗ take the opt. after an hist. tense.

All these clauses are equivalent in meaning to hypothetical propositions.

188. 1. The protasis of one type is sometimes followed by the apodosis of another. In particular, a potential apodosis (as a more polite and less peremptory mode of expression, 174, 2) is often joined to a protasis of the first or the fourth type.

Δείξαιμι ἂν ταῦτα, εἴ μοί τινα βούλεσθε συμπέμψαι. Οὐδέ, ἂν πολλαὶ γέφυραι ὦσι, ἔχοιμεν ἄν, ὅποι σωθῶμεν.

1. Besides the simple particles εἰ and ἐάν, the following combinations are worthy of note:

a) εἰ μή after a negative means (like nisi): save, except, unless. b) εἰ δὲ μή, when used without a verb after εἰ μέν (μή), ἐάν μέν (μή), is the regular expression for the English: otherwise, or else. c) εἴπερ with the indic. means: si quidem, if indeed, if really, if it be true that. Sometimes it is equivalent to: since indeed, etc. d) εἰ μὴ ἄρα with the indic. is (like nisi forte, nisi vero) used chiefly in irony: unless perhaps, unless indeed, unless of course, unless forsooth. e) ὥσπερ ἂν εἰ with the opt. (denoting potentiality) or with hist. tense ind. (denoting unreality): (just) as if, as though.

CONCESSIVE AND ADVERSATIVE CLAUSES.

189. Being introduced by εἰ καί, ἐὰν καί granting that, although, καὶ εἰ (κεί), καὶ ἐάν (κἄν) even if, even supposing, even though, although, they perfectly agree in construction with conditional sentences. Their negative is μή.

Κεί μὴ πέποιθα, τοὔργον ἔστ' ἐργαστέον. Γελᾷ δ' ὁ μωρός, κἂν τι μὴ γελοῖον ᾖ.

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TEMPORAL CLAUSES.

Note. - Sentences introduced by "although, even though," may also be expressed by the participle with καί or καίπερ prefixed, the negative being οὐ. See 203, 3. e.

TEMPORAL CLAUSES.

190. 1. They are introduced by the temporal particles

ὅτε, ὁπότε, ἡνίκα, ὡς when, cum with the indic., ἐπεί, ἐπειδή when, after, cum with the subj., ἐπεὶ (ἐπειδή) πρῶτον (τάχιστα) as soon as, no sooner ... than, cum primum, ἀφ' οὗ, ἐξ οὗ from the time that, since, ex quo, ἐν ᾧ during the time that, while, dum, ἕως, ἔστε, μέχρι (οὗ) while, so long as, until, dum, quoad, πρίν before, until, priusquam.

1. An actual (present or past) event is referred to by the indicative. The neg. is οὐ.

Ἐπεὶ πάντες συνῆλθον, ἐκαθέζοντο· ὅτε δὲ ταῦτα ἦν, ἦσαν μέσαι νύκτες.

1. An event may, however, be represented as possible only or as anticipated (and occasionally as intended). And here too, as in hypothetical clauses (187 with note), it may be referred to as occurring only once at some future time or as one that may repeatedly take place. Then

a) the subjunctive with ἄν (neg. μή) must be used after a princ. tense, b) the optative without ἄν (neg. μή) is generally used after an hist. tense. For assimilation of mood in temporal clauses, see 192.

Note. - Ἄν (171, 2. note) attaches itself to the temporal particle, with which, if possible, it forms one word.

Τάφος δὲ ποῖος δέξεταί μ', ὅταν θάνω; Ἐπειδὰν ἅπαντα ἀκούσητε, κρίνατε. Μαινόμεθα πάντες, ὁπόταν ὀργιζώμεθα. Κῦρος ἐν τῷ παραδείσῳ ἐθήρευεν, ὁπότε γυμνάσαι βούλοιτο ἑαυτόν τε καὶ τοὺς ἵππους whenever. Μὴ ἀναμείνωμεν, ἕως ἂν (until) πλείους ἡμῶν οἱ πολέμιοι γένωνται, ἀλλ' ἴωμεν, ἕως (while) ἔτι οἰόμεθα εὐπετῶς ἂν (204) αὐτῶν κρατῆσαι.

1. Πρίν may always be followed by the infinitive (nom. or acc. with inf.: 197). Generally, however, it takes

a) After an affirmative principal sentence: the infinitive.

Διέβησαν πρὶν τοὺς ἄλλους ἀποκρίνασθαι. Πολλοὶ ἄνθρωποι ἀποθνῄσκουσι πρὶν δῆλοι (197, 3) γίγνεσθαι, οἷοι ἦσαν.

b) After a negative principal sentence:

the indicative, if an (historical) fact is referred to:

Οὐκ ἀπέπλευσαν, πρὶν ἐξεπολιόρκησαν τὴν πόλιν.

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SYNTAX.

the subjunctive with ἄν, if an expected (or intended) event is referred to:

Μὴ ἀπέλθητε, πρὶν ἂν ἀκούσητε τὸ πρᾶγμα. Οὐκ ἤθελον συμπλεῖν οἱ Κορίνθιοι, πρὶν ἂν τὰ Ἴσθμια ἑορτάσωσιν.

Note. - Πρίν never takes the optative except in indirect discourse (193, 2. b) or by way of mood assimilation (192).

RELATIVE CLAUSES.

191. 1. They are introduced by relative pronouns or adverbs.

1. Explanatory relative clauses, which merely serve to explain some single word, retain the mood and the negative of the corresponding independent sentences.

Πρᾶγμα, ὃ οὐκ ἐγένετο - ὃ οὐ γενήσεται - ὃ οὐκ ἂν γένοιτο - ὃ οὐκ ἂν ἐγένετο - ὃ μὴ γένοιτο - ὃ μήποτε ποιῶμεν - ὃ μὴ ποιεῖτε (ποιήσητε).

1. Contrary to Latin usage, we find in Greek

a) in causal rel.-clauses the indicative (neg. οὐ).

Θαυμαστόν ποιεῖς, ὃς (ὅτι) ἡμῖν οὐδὲν δίδως qui des.

b) in consecutive rel.-clauses the indicative, mostly the future (neg. οὐ).

Παῖδές μοι οὔπω εἰσίν, οἵ με θεραπεύσουσι qui me colant: to take care. Τίς οὕτω μαίνεται, ὅστις οὐ βούλεταί σοι φίλος εἶναι; as not to desire. Οὐκ ἔστιν ὅπως ἥβην κτήσῃ πάλιν αὖθις.

c) in final rel.-clauses regularly (even after a leading histor. tense) the fut. indic. (neg. μή).

Ἡγεμόνα αἰτήσομεν Κῦρον, ὅστις ἡμᾶς ἀπάξει qui abducat. Ἔδοξε τῷ δήμῳ τριάκοντα ἄνδρας ἑλέσθαι, οἳ τοὺς πατρίους νόμους συγγράψουσι, καθ' οὓς πολιτεύσουσι conscriberent, viverent.

1. Hypothetical rel.-clauses, i.e. such as are equivalent to (and may be resolved into) hypothetical ones, require the moods of the hypothetical protases: 183 (neg. μή). See however 192.

ὅς (ὅστις) = εἴ τις, ὃς ἄν (ὅστις ἄν) = ἐάν τις.

a) First Type (184): Ἃ μὴ οἶδα, οὐδὲ οἴομαι εἰδέναι. Ἃ μὴ προσήκει, μήτ' ἄκουε μήθ' ὅρα.

b) Second Type (185): Οὐκ ἂν ἐπεχειροῦμεν πράττειν ἃ (εἴ τινα) μὴ ἠπιστάμεθα.

c) Third Type (186): Ἐγὼ μὲν ὀκνοίην ἂν εἰς τὰ πλοῖα ἐμβαίνειν, ἃ ἡμῖν Κῦρος δοίη (εἴ τινα δοίη).

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INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

d) Fourth Type (187):

A single future occurrence: Ἀπόκριναι ὅ,τι ἂν σε ἐρωτῶ. Τῷ ἀνδρί, ὃν ἂν ἕλησθε, πείσομαι.

Repeated occurrence, pres.: Νέος δ' ἀπόλλυθ', ὅντιν' ἂν φιλῇ θεός. past: Οὗ ἅψαιτο Μίδας, ἐγίγνετο χρυσός.

Note. - Here belongs: Ἥξω ἔχων ἱππέας ὡς ἂν δύναμαι πλείστους. 187, n.

192. The verbs of final, temporal and relative clauses are occasionally "assimilated to" (made to agree in mood with) that of the main sentence. This assimilation of mood is of two kinds:

1. An optative without ἄν may follow an opt. with or without ἄν:

Εἴθε ἥκοις, ἵνα γνοίης. Ἔροιτό τις, ἣν ἕκαστος εἰδείη τέχνην. Οὐκ ἂν εἴη πᾶν ἄθλον βασιλεύς, ὡς πᾶσι φόβον παράσχοι.

1. The indicative of some hist. tense without ἄν may be used after an expression of unreality (172, 2. 3, whether statement or wish) in the main sentence.

Εἰ γὰρ ὤφελον οἷοί τ' εἶναι οἱ πολλοὶ τὰ μέγιστα κακὰ ἐργάζεσθαι, ἵνα οἷοί τ' ἦσαν καὶ ἀγαθὰ τὰ μέγιστα. Εἰ τῷ ὄντι ξένος ἐτύγχανον ὤν, συνεγινώσκετε ἄν μοι, εἰ ἐν ἐκείνῃ τῇ φωνῇ τε καὶ τῷ τρόπῳ ἔλεγον, ἐν οἷσπερ ἐτεθράμμην.

A Summary of the Rules for Indirect Discourse.

193. 1. When independent sentences, whether statements or wishes, are indirectly quoted, i.e. are made to depend upon a verb of saying or thinking,

a) statements require the infinitive (for whose subject, see 197), or the participle (202, 2, n. 1) or a finite verb with ὡς or ὅτι.

E.g. Directly quoted: Σωκράτης ἔλεγεν· "οἱ θεοὶ πάντα ἴσασιν." Indirectly: Σωκράτης ἔλεγεν ὅτι οἱ θεοὶ πάντα ἴσασιν or εἰδείεν, or τοὺς θεοὺς πάντα εἰδέναι.

b) wishes require the infinitive (for whose subject, see 197).

E.g. Directly: Μὴ παραχωρεῖτε (παραχωρήσητε) τῆς τάξεως. Indirectly: Ἀξιῶ ὑμᾶς μὴ παραχωρεῖν (-ρῆσαι) τῆς τάξεως.

1. When dependent sentences are to be quoted indirectly:

a) After a principal tense, both the mood and the tense of the direct discourse remain unchanged. b) After an historical tense, the potential and the unreal moods remain unchanged, while indicatives, as well as subjunctives with or without ἄν, may be retained or changed to the indirect optative without ἄν. (See 176, 4.)

1. Not unfrequently the indirect turns abruptly into the direct discourse. See An. 1, 3, 14. 16. 20; 1, 9, 25.

1. Indirect discourse, introduced by ὅτι or ὡς, is occasionally changed to an infinitive construction; an indirect quotation with ὅτι (ὡς) or in the infinitive is sometimes continued by the indirect optative.

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SYNTAX.

SUMMING UP OF THE USES OF THE PARTICLE ἄν.

194. The modal particle ἄν can be used only:

1. With the indicative of the hist. tenses to denote unreality, 172, 3.

1. With the indicative of the hist. tenses to denote past potentiality (including the ἄν iterativum), 172, 4.

1. With the subjunctive in hypothetical clauses of the fourth type (both in the purely hypothetical and in the hyp.-temporal or hyp.-relative clauses), 187; 190, 3. 4; 191, 4.

1. With the optative to denote potentiality, 174, 2.

1. With the infinitive and the participle to denote potentiality or unreality, 204.

1. Rarely with the final particles ὡς, ὅπως (never with the final ἵνα; ἵν' ἄν is always relative = ubicunque). Ὡς ἂν μάθῃς αὐτάκουσον.