A Short Historical Latin Grammar: Chapter IX: Conjunctions and Interjections

English Grammar Advanced 19th century W. M. Lindsay

Pages 136–147 of the book.

As Prepositions are hardly separable from Adverbs of Locality, so Conjunctions are closely connected with Pronominal Adverbs. These Pronominal Adverbs, as we have seen (ch. vii. § 5), are not always capable of being referred to their proper case form (e.g. ibi, ubi), owing to our imperfect knowledge of the declension of the I.-Eur. Pronoun. Nor is it easy to find their cognates in the various I.-Eur. languages; so rapidly does the meaning of a Conjunction alter. Thus Latin enim, which in the older literature is a particle of asseveration, "indeed," had by the classical period appropriated the sense of "for"; and in French pas (Lat. passus) and point (Lat. punctum) have acquired a negative sense from their use in the phrases ne ... pas, ne ... point. A feature of I.-Eur. Conjunctions is their tendency to append other Conjunctions or conjunctive Particles (e.g. ὡς in Greek may append δή, περ, &c., ὡς δή, ὥσπερ); and this habit puts another obstacle in the way of identifying cognate Conjunctions in different languages, for in one language they may appear extended by one particle, in another language by another.

The exact form of these conjunctive Particles is also a difficult thing to ascertain; we often see parallel stems in -o, -i, -u, &c. (e.g. quo-, que-, qui-, quu- are all various forms of the Relative and Interrogative Pronoun-stem, ch. v. § 6; -te and -ti appear in Gk. αὖ-τε, ἔ-τι), and parallel forms with long and with short vowel (e.g. Lat. nē- and ne-, the Negative Particle); and the tendency was always present to adapt the ending of one Conjunction to the ending of another Conjunction of similar meaning (e.g. Lat. saltem for saltim, adapted to au-tem, i-tem). It is therefore best to designate these conjunctive Particles according to their consonants, and in tracing the origin of the Latin Conjunctions to mention such Pronouns (or pronominal Particles) as (1) the T-pronoun of Lat. tam, i-tem, u-t(i), Gk. αὖ-τε, ἔ-τι; (2) the D-pronoun of Lat. dum, ibi-dem, Gk. δή, δέ, ὅ-δε; (3) the DH-pronoun of Gk. ἔν-θα; (4) the P-pronoun of Lat. quip-pe, nem-pe; (5) the N-pronoun of Lat. num, nam, nem-pe, quis-nam.

Que, I.-Eur. que (Gk. τε), apparently the bare stem of the Relative quo-, que- (ch. v. § 6), is in Latin, as it was in I.-Eur., an enclitic appended to the first word of the sentence. Through Syncope, to which final -e was always liable in Latin (ch. ii. § 12), it became -c in ac for atc (at-que), &c., and probably often had this sound before an initial consonant in the rapid utterance of every-day life. I.-Eur. -que gave a relative and indefinite sense to Pronouns (e.g. Hom. ὅς τε), and so in Early Latin, though in the classical period the fuller ending -cunque was preferred; e.g. quem-que Plaut. for quem-cunque in Mil. 156: quemque in tegulis Videritis alienum; so quis-que, each (ch. v. § 7). This -cunque, -cumque (O. Lat. -quomque) seems to be nothing but cum-que, "whenever" (Hor. C. i. 32. 15 mihi cumque salve Rite vocanti), like quando-que.

In O. Lat. atque often signifies "forthwith," e.g. Plaut. Most. 1050:

quōniam conuocāui, atque illi me ex senatu segregant,

and Virgil uses the word sometimes in this archaic sense, e.g. Georg. i. 201:

Non aliter quam qui adverso vix flumine lembum remigiis subigit, si brachia forte remisit, atque illum in praeceps prono rapit alveus amni.

Quoque has some part of the Pronoun-stem quo-, que- as its first element. Et is the I.-Eur. Adverb ēti (Gk. ἔτι, further), used in Latin, as in Gothic (iþ, "and"), for the copula. In etiam, et is associated with the Adverb jam, now, the j (y) becoming the vowel i by the Latin phonetic law in the middle of a word, as in medius from I.-Eur. medhyos (Gk. μέσ(σ)ος) (ch. x. § 13).

Ve is I.-Eur. we (Hom. Gk. ἠ-(ϝ)ε), a particle which had also the sense of "as," "like" (e.g. Lat. ce-u, § 10). Aut is compounded of I.-Eur. au (Gk. αὖ, again, Engl. eke from Goth. au-k [quasi αὖ-γε]), and the T-pronoun (§ 1). Vel is the old 2 Sg. Pres. Imperative of volo, I wish (ch. vi. § 14), and means literally "choose," as Germ. wohl (e.g. Homer, wohl der grösste Dichter, "Homerus vel summus poeta") was originally Imper. of wollen. Sive is compounded of si, older sei (§ 13), and -ve. Before -u, the curtailed or syncopated form of -ve (as -c of -que, -n of Interrogative -ne), the ei-diphthong was by the Latin phonetic law reduced to ē, as in deus from dei(u)us (ch. x. § 13).

At is the I.-Eur. Adverb ati, "back," "from," used in Latin, as in Gothic (aþ-þan, "but"), as a Conjunction. Ast, found in old laws with the sense "if further," e.g.:

si parentem puer uerberet, ast olle plorassit, puer diuis parentum sacer esto,

had originally the sense of "further" merely, being ad-sti, a derivative from the Preposition ad like post(i) from the Preposition po (ch. viii. §§ 2, 27). It came to be used exclusively in conditional sentences and so acquired the notion of "if further" and even of "if," e.g. in the curious law of the XII Tables which refers to the use of gold in dentistry:

Neue aurum addito, at cui auro dentes iuncti escunt, ast im cum illo sepeliet uretue, se fraude esto. "No gold shall men put in a tomb; but, when the deceased has his teeth fastened with gold, if they bury or burn him with that gold, it shall not be a punishable offence."

The Augustan poets revived the use of the word, as a substitute for at, where the metre required a long syllable; and in the second cent. A.D. it passed into prose. Sed, in early Latin sedum, is a compound of s(w)e, the Reflexive Pronoun stem (ch. v. § 1) with the particle dum. With its loss of -um compare non for noenum (§ 17). Autem adds the particle -tem (cf. i-tem) to the I.-Eur. Adverb au (Gk. αὖ, Engl. eke from au-k, p. 138), which is probably identical with the Preposition au- of au-fero, au-fugio (ch. viii. § 2). Atqui adds to the Conjunction at the particle qui, so often used by the early Dramatists as a mere particle of emphasis (e.g. Hercle qui, utinam qui, ut qui Plaut.), apparently either the Abl., Loc., or Instr. Sg. of the Relative. Tamen, however, "none the less," is clearly related to tam, so, "equally much," which was in the early literature used in the sense of tamen (cf. class. tam-etsi and tamen-etsi). Ceterum is the adverbial Acc. Sg. Neut. of the stem cetero- (Nom. Pl. ceteri), from ce- the lengthened form of the Pron. stem ce- (ch. v. § 4), as cetera in such a line as Virg. A. ix. 656: cetera parce puer bello, "for the rest - you are a boy - deal sparingly with war," is an adverbial Acc. Pl. Neut. Verum is similarly an adverbial Acc. Sg. Neut. of verus, true, and vero an adverbial Abl. (Instr.?) Sg. Neut. of the same.

Quidem shows the stem of the Indefinite Pronoun quis (ch. v. § 6) with the particle dem (ch. v. § 3). Immo is perhaps in-mo, "in magis," from mo an old Comparative, "more."

Enim is in O. Lat. an asseverative particle merely (cf. class. enim-vero), a usage imitated by Virgil, e.g. A. viii. 84:

Quam pius Aeneas tibi enim, tibi, maxima Juno, mactat sacra ferens.

It comes from an I.-Eur. Pronoun stem eno-, "this," "that." Nam, Acc. Sg. Fem. of no-, another form of this stem, is often used in O. Lat. in questions, e.g. quid cerussa opus nam? "why, what is the use of paint?" Plaut. (cf. quisnam, and in O. Lat. poetry quianam, "why?"; cf. Virg. A. v. 13, x. 6), without that definite sense of "for," "because" to which the word is restricted in the classical literature (but cf. uti-nam). Quippe for qui-pe, adds the particle pe (§ 1) to the Loc. Instr. Sg. of the Pronoun. Nempe adds the same particle to a form nem, which is the same case-form of the N-Pronoun as -tem is of the T-Pronoun (ch. v. § 3).

Igitur had in O. Lat. the sense of tum as in the first law of the XII Tab.: si in ius uocat, ni it, antestamino, igitur em capito (ch. v. § 5). On ergo, see ch. viii. § 15.

Ut, in wishes, e.g.:

Juppiter ut Danaum omne genus pereat,

is the Conjunction ut, that (older uti, ch. ii. § 12), with suppression of the idea "I wish" or "do thou grant." In utinam the final i of ut(i) is retained (so in ne-uti-quam, pronounced as a trisyllable with the first two syllables short), and nam has its older sense of a strengthening particle "indeed" (§ 6).

In class. Latin -ne is the general interrogative particle, while nonne is limited to questions which expect an affirmative, num to those which expect a negative answer. This distinction is unknown to Plautus, who uses nonne hardly at all (-ne being used instead), and num, numquis without a negative sense occasionally. It is easy to see how these meanings came to be attached to nonne, "is ... not," and num, "now," e.g. nonne haec ita sunt?, "is not this the case?"; num haec ita sunt?, "now is this the case?" (with emphasis on the word "is").

Ne is I.-Eur. ne. Num is the I.-Eur. num, "now" (Gk. νῦν; cf. nunc for num-c(e), ch. v. § 4). Utrum is the adverbial Acc. Sg. Neut. of uter (ch. vi. § 8), like Gk. πότερον. An is the same as Gk. ἄν "in that case." Cur (O. Lat. quor) is I.-Eur. quōr, related to Engl. "where," and is quite unconnected with quā-re (cf. cui rei Plaut., quam-ob-rem).

On ut, see § 8. Quasi, "as if," comes from qua Neut. Pl. "as" and si. Ceu, which is restricted to the Epic and Lyric Poets and a few Silver Age prose writers, is compounded of the Pronoun stem ko-, ke- (ch. v. § 4) and the particle -we, "as, like" (§ 3), and stands for ce-ve (cf. ce-teri). Quam is Acc. Sg. Fem. of the Relative, as tam of the Demonstrative. The two words are combined in tanquam.

Quum, O. Lat. quom, is an Adverbial Acc. Sg. Neut. of the Relative. Quando is Acc. Sg. Fem. of the Relative with the I.-Eur. Preposition do, "to," so that quam-do will mean "to what" (time). In Plautus quando is mainly temporal, though by Terence's time it is mainly causal, as quandoquidem is at all periods of the literature. Dum, which is often a mere asseverative particle, e.g. age dum (Gk. ἄγε δή), quidum, how so?, primumdum, first of all, is an Acc. Sg. of the Pronoun stem do- as tum of to-, quum of quo-. Gk. δή is another case-form of the same stem. The temporal sense is clearly seen in non-dum, etiam-dum, inter-dum. Donec is in O. Lat. donicum, which is compounded of do-ne (the Prep. do, to, and the N-pronoun, § 1) and cum, when, and meant "to when," "till when" (cf. quo-ad). Donicum was wrongly apprehended as donec-cum instead of done-cum and so with omission of cum became donec. Donique of Lucretius (ii. 1116), &c., adds to done the particle -que, "ever" (cf. quando, when, quandoque, whenever; also de-ni-que). Ut from u-ti (cf. uti-nam) adds to the Relative stem quu- (ch. v. § 6) the Particle or case-suffix -ti (§ 1). On ubi see ch. vii. § 5.

On quum see § 11. Quoniam is a compound of quum (quom) and jam, the j (y) becoming by the law of Latin phonetics vocalic in the middle of a sentence (ch. x. § 13). Its oldest sense is temporal, "when now" (with Pres. Ind., the Pres. tense being required by the jam), e.g. Plaut. Trin. 112:

Quoniam hinc iturust ipsus in Seleuciam, mihi commendauit uirginem;

and it is possible to trace its gradual development from a temporal to a causal sense in the course of Latin Literature. Quod is Acc. Sg. Neut. of the Relative O-stem (ch. v. § 6), used like Homeric ὅ in such a line as Od. i. 382:

Τηλέμαχον θαύμαζον ὃ θαρσαλέως ἀγόρευε.

In Plautus it is always, or almost always, subject or object of a relative sentence, e.g. Capt. 586:

filium tuum quód redimere se ait, id ne utiquam mihi placet.

Quia is an Acc. Pl. Neut. of the Relative I-stem (ch. v. § 6), and has the same double meaning as quod, (1) that, (2) because. On quippe see § 6.

Si, O. Lat. sei, is a Loc. Sg. of the Pronoun stem so-, seen in Lat. ip-se, ip-sa (ch. v. § 3). Sic, so, is the same word with the enclitic -c(e) appended (ch. v. § 4). Nisi is a compound of the Negative ne (§ 17) with si, and means literally "not if." Ni, I.-Eur. nei, perhaps the Negative ne with the deictic particle -i of Gk. οὑτοσί, &c., had originally the sense of non or ne, as in quid-ni, quippi-ni, and still retains this sense in Virgil's line: ni teneant cursus (A. iii. 686). It came however to acquire the sense of nisi from its use in such phrases as si in ius uocat, ni it XII Tab., "if he summons him (and) he does not go"; id ni fit, pignus dato Plaut., "lay me a wager in the event of that not happening," lit. "that does not happen, lay me a wager." Sin is a compound of si and ne, not the Negative ne, for the negative sense of sin, "if not," is hardly attached to the word in the time of Plautus, but the Demonstr. suffix seen in alioquin beside alioqui, &c. (§ 15). On sive and seu see ch. ii. § 12. Modo is the adverbial Abl. (Instr.?) Sg. of modus, "measure," "limit" (cf. Hor. quis desiderio sit pudor aut modus?), "only," and dum-modo, "while only." A common sense of the word is the temporal sense, "only a little while ago." [1]

[1]: This was emphasized in the Praenestine dialect by the addition of tam (tum modo mihi quom conuenisti in via, tam modo, "e'en now, as Praenestine folk say," Plaut. Trin. 609).

The formation of all these words is evident: et-si, "even if," quam-quam (reduplicated), quam-vis, "how you wish" (like quantum-vis, "however much you wish," or quam-libet, "how you please"), licet, "it is allowed," "granted."

On ut see § 11. Quo is the Abl. (Instr.?) Sg. Neut. of the Relative, used with comparatives, quo facilius like eo facilius. Quominus adds to quo the Comparative minus, "less," used in a negative sense (cf. minime, "by no means," parum sciens, "ignorant"). Quin as a Final Conjunction, is composed of qui, how (Abl.?, Loc.?, Instr.?) and the Negative Particle ne. In some instances it represents qui (Nom. Sg. Masc.) with Negative ne, e.g. nemo fuit quin sciret (qui ne sciret); and the same form was extended to sentences like nulla mulier fuit quin sciret, just as potis Masc. Sg. is universalized in the phrase potis est and used with Neuter or Plural subjects (ch. vi. § 23). Quin in affirmations, e.g. hercle quin recte dicis, Plaut., is merely the Adverb qui of hercle qui, &c. (§ 4) with the Demonstrative suffix -ne (so atquin and atqui, alioquin and alioqui, ceteroquin and ceteroqui). Quin in commands, originally with Ind. (and so usually in Plautus), e.g. quin dicis?, then by constructio ad sensum with Imper. (so usually in Terence), e.g. quin die, is the Adverb qui with the Interrogative Particle -ne, "how not?", "why not?"

Quin in a sentence like Plaut. Trin. 360:

quin comedit quód fuit? quod nón fuit?

i.e. eumne dicis qui comedit? &c., is qui Nom. Sg. with the same particle (cf. Mil. 13 quemne ego seruaui? "I mean the man whose life I saved?"). Ne is I.-Eur. ne, a variety of I.-Eur. nē (§ 1). Neve adds to this the enclitic -ve, "or," which in neu is reduced by Syncope (ch. ii. § 12). For nedum (especially used by Livy, also by Cicero, but rarely by the other authors) ne alone is occasionally found. An early instance of the word, which is not employed by Plautus, is Ter. Haut. 454:

satrapa si siet Amator, numquam sufferre eius sumtus queat, nedum tu possis,

lit. ne(dum) tu te posse credas, dico satrapam non posse, or "satrapa non potest, nondum tu potes," with which we may compare Plaut. Amph. 330:

uix incedo inanis, ne ire posse cum onere existumes.

Nedum is related to ne, as vixdum to vix, nondum to non; cf. Liv. xxiv. 4. 1 puerum vixdum libertatem, nedum dominationem modice laturum.

Ne is the better spelling, though there may have been a by-form nae (older nai), as the cognate Greek word νή had a by-form ναί (cf. δή and δαί). -Ne affirmative is found in the Dramatists with Personal and Demonstrative Pronouns, e.g. Plaut. Mil. 565:

egone si post hunc diem muttivero, etiam quod egomet certo sciam, dato excruciandum me.

(On ne and nē, see § 1; cf. ne and nē Negative, § 17.)

Ne- (I.-Eur. ne) is prefixed, not only to Verbs, e.g. ne-queo (Engl. can-not), ne-scio, O. Lat. ne-vis (ch. vi. § 23), ne-pareunt, &c. (cf. O. Engl. nille, nolde), but also to other parts of speech, e.g. nefas, n(e)-utiquam, neuter (ne-, I.-Eur. ne, appears in nequiquam); in- (I.-Eur. n̥, Gk. ἀν-, ἀ-) and ve- (I.-Eur. we), a curtailment of I.-Eur. awe (ch. viii. § 2), only to Adjectives. [2] Non is O. Lat. noenum (for ne-oinom, i.e. ne unum, "not one," ch. iv. § 4), with the same loss of -um (originally before an initial vowel only) as is seen in nihil from nihilum. Noenu (e.g. Lucr. iii. 199 noenu potest) should be written noenus, and represents ne unus Nom. Sg. Masc. (cf. demus and demum, ch. vii. § 2). Haud, which is confined within narrower limits than non in O. Lat., being used especially with Adjectives and Adverbs, usually immediately before the negated word, and hau in questions, is (like Gk. οὐ) connected with I.-Eur. awe (cf. above), and should properly be spelt aud. The initial h- was added to distinguish the word from aut. (On the O. Lat. by-form haut, used before consonants, e.g. haut scio, see ch. ii. § 9.) Nec in O. Lat. has the sense of non. Thus Catullus (lxiv. 83) uses the phrase funera nec funera to express the Greek τάφοι ἄταφοι; the Laws of the Twelve Tables had ast ei custos nec escit (ch. vi. § 4), "si autem ei custos non erit"; Plautus (Most. 240) has nec recte si illi dixeris. The neg- of negotium, neglego (also spelt neclego) seems to be a trace of this usage.

[2]: Improbare, infiteri, ignoscere, "not to notice," "to overlook" (cf. Ter. Haut. 218 et cognoscendi et ignoscendi) are seeming exceptions.

Many Latin Interjections are borrowed from the Greek, especially the exclamations used at musical or other entertainments, e.g. euge, sophos, palin, as ours come from the Italian or French, e.g. bravo, da capo, encore. Of genuine Latin words, some are old Imperatives, [3] e.g. em, lo, Imper. of emo, I take (cf. em tibi, "take that!", "there's for you!") (cf. § 3 on vel). Em (not to be confused with hem, an Interjection of terror, grief, &c.) was later superseded by en (Gk. ἤν), which in the Republican writers is used only in rhetorical questions, e.g. en-unquam? Em joined with ille (in the Acc. Case) produced ellum, [4] ellos, &c. of the Comedians. So ecce, an Interjection of similar meaning, from the Pronoun stem eko-, eke- (ch. v. § 3), joined with the Acc. of hic (wanting the enclitic -c(e)) produced eccum (for ecce-hum), eccos (for ecce-hos), &c. Pro (wrongly spelt proh) is the Preposition or Adverb pro (ch. viii. § 30), forth, "away with it!" Vae, I.-Eur. wai, is the same word as our Noun "woe."

The names of deities occur in hercle, me-hercules (sc. juvet), me-dius fidius ("the god of good faith," from fides), pol (a curtailment of Pollux), &c.; eccere is either an invocation of Ceres, or ecce re, "lo indeed."

[3]: Our "lo" is Imper. of "look."

[4]: Ello is an Interjection used in parts of Italy at the present day.

§11

(10) Temporal. Quum, quando, dum, donec, ut, ubi.

(10) Temporal. Quum, quando, dum, donec, ut, ubi.

Quum, O. Lat. quom, is an Adverbial Acc. Sg. Neut. of the Relative. Quando is Acc. Sg. Fem. of the Relative with the I.-Eur. Preposition do, "to," so that quam-do will mean "to what" (time). In Plautus quando is mainly temporal, though by Terence's time it is mainly causal, as quandoquidem is at all periods of the literature. Dum, which is often a mere asseverative particle, e.g. age dum (Gk. ἄγε δή), quidum, how so?, primumdum, first of all, is an Acc. Sg. of the Pronoun stem do- as tum of to-, quum of quo-. Gk. δή is another case-form of the same stem. The temporal sense is clearly seen in non-dum, etiam-dum, inter-dum. Donec is in O. Lat. donicum, which is compounded of do-ne (the Prep. do, to, and the N-pronoun, § 1) and cum, when, and meant "to when," "till when" (cf. quo-ad). Donicum was wrongly apprehended as donec-cum instead of done-cum and so with omission of cum became donec. Donique of Lucretius (ii. 1116), &c., adds to done the particle -que, "ever" (cf. quando, when, quandoque, whenever; also de-ni-que). Ut from u-ti (cf. uti-nam) adds to the Relative stem quu- (ch. v. § 6) the Particle or case-suffix -ti (§ 1). On ubi see ch. vii. § 5.

Quum, O. Lat. quom, is an Adverbial Acc. Sg. Neut. of the Relative. Quando is Acc. Sg. Fem. of the Relative with the I.-Eur. Preposition do, "to," so that quam-do will mean "to what" (time). In Plautus quando is mainly temporal, though by Terence's time it is mainly causal, as quandoquidem is at all periods of the literature. Dum, which is often a mere asseverative particle, e.g. age dum (Gk. ἄγε δή), quidum, how so?, primumdum, first of all, is an Acc. Sg. of the Pronoun stem do- as tum of to-, quum of quo-. Gk. δή is another case-form of the same stem. The temporal sense is clearly seen in non-dum, etiam-dum, inter-dum. Donec is in O. Lat. donicum, which is compounded of do-ne (the Prep. do, to, and the N-pronoun, § 1) and cum, when, and meant "to when," "till when" (cf. quo-ad). Donicum was wrongly apprehended as donec-cum instead of done-cum and so with omission of cum became donec. Donique of Lucretius (ii. 1116), &c., adds to done the particle -que, "ever" (cf. quando, when, quandoque, whenever; also de-ni-que). Ut from u-ti (cf. uti-nam) adds to the Relative stem quu- (ch. v. § 6) the Particle or case-suffix -ti (§ 1). On ubi see ch. vii. § 5.

§12

(11) Causal. Quum, quoniam, quod, quia, quippe.

(11) Causal. Quum, quoniam, quod, quia, quippe.

On quum see § 11. Quoniam is a compound of quum (quom) and jam, the j (y) becoming by the law of Latin phonetics vocalic in the middle of a sentence (ch. x. § 13). Its oldest sense is temporal, "when now" (with Pres. Ind., the Pres. tense being required by the jam), e.g. Plaut. Trin. 112:

Quoniam hinc iturust ipsus in Seleuciam, mihi commendauit uirginem;

and it is possible to trace its gradual development from a temporal to a causal sense in the course of Latin Literature. Quod is Acc. Sg. Neut. of the Relative O-stem (ch. v. § 6), used like Homeric ὅ in such a line as Od. i. 382:

Τηλέμαχον θαύμαζον ὃ θαρσαλέως ἀγόρευε.

In Plautus it is always, or almost always, subject or object of a relative sentence, e.g. Capt. 586:

filium tuum quód redimere se ait, id ne utiquam mihi placet.

Quia is an Acc. Pl. Neut. of the Relative I-stem (ch. v. § 6), and has the same double meaning as quod, (1) that, (2) because. On quippe see § 6.

On quum see § 11. Quoniam is a compound of quum (quom) and jam, the j (y) becoming by the law of Latin phonetics vocalic in the middle of a sentence (ch. x. § 13). Its oldest sense is temporal, "when now" (with Pres. Ind., the Pres. tense being required by the jam), e.g. Plaut. Trin. 112:

Quoniam hinc iturust ipsus in Seleuciam, mihi commendauit uirginem;

and it is possible to trace its gradual development from a temporal to a causal sense in the course of Latin Literature. Quod is Acc. Sg. Neut. of the Relative O-stem (ch. v. § 6), used like Homeric ὅ in such a line as Od. i. 382:

Τηλέμαχον θαύμαζον ὃ θαρσαλέως ἀγόρευε.

In Plautus it is always, or almost always, subject or object of a relative sentence, e.g. Capt. 586:

filium tuum quód redimere se ait, id ne utiquam mihi placet.

Quia is an Acc. Pl. Neut. of the Relative I-stem (ch. v. § 6), and has the same double meaning as quod, (1) that, (2) because. On quippe see § 6.

§13

(12) Conditional. Si, nisi, ni, sin, sive, seu, modo, dummodo.

(12) Conditional. Si, nisi, ni, sin, sive, seu, modo, dummodo.

Si, O. Lat. sei, is a Loc. Sg. of the Pronoun stem so-, seen in Lat. ip-se, ip-sa (ch. v. § 3). Sic, so, is the same word with the enclitic -c(e) appended (ch. v. § 4). Nisi is a compound of the Negative ne (§ 17) with si, and means literally "not if." Ni, I.-Eur. nei, perhaps the Negative ne with the deictic particle -i of Gk. οὑτοσί, &c., had originally the sense of non or ne, as in quid-ni, quippi-ni, and still retains this sense in Virgil's line: ni teneant cursus (A. iii. 686). It came however to acquire the sense of nisi from its use in such phrases as si in ius uocat, ni it XII Tab., "if he summons him (and) he does not go"; id ni fit, pignus dato Plaut., "lay me a wager in the event of that not happening," lit. "that does not happen, lay me a wager." Sin is a compound of si and ne, not the Negative ne, for the negative sense of sin, "if not," is hardly attached to the word in the time of Plautus, but the Demonstr. suffix seen in alioquin beside alioqui, &c. (§ 15). On sive and seu see ch. ii. § 12. Modo is the adverbial Abl. (Instr.?) Sg. of modus, "measure," "limit" (cf. Hor. quis desiderio sit pudor aut modus?), "only," and dum-modo, "while only." A common sense of the word is the temporal sense, "only a little while ago." [1]

[1]: This was emphasized in the Praenestine dialect by the addition of tam (tum modo mihi quom conuenisti in via, tam modo, "e'en now, as Praenestine folk say," Plaut. Trin. 609).

Si, O. Lat. sei, is a Loc. Sg. of the Pronoun stem so-, seen in Lat. ip-se, ip-sa (ch. v. § 3). Sic, so, is the same word with the enclitic -c(e) appended (ch. v. § 4). Nisi is a compound of the Negative ne (§ 17) with si, and means literally "not if." Ni, I.-Eur. nei, perhaps the Negative ne with the deictic particle -i of Gk. οὑτοσί, &c., had originally the sense of non or ne, as in quid-ni, quippi-ni, and still retains this sense in Virgil's line: ni teneant cursus (A. iii. 686). It came however to acquire the sense of nisi from its use in such phrases as si in ius uocat, ni it XII Tab., "if he summons him (and) he does not go"; id ni fit, pignus dato Plaut., "lay me a wager in the event of that not happening," lit. "that does not happen, lay me a wager." Sin is a compound of si and ne, not the Negative ne, for the negative sense of sin, "if not," is hardly attached to the word in the time of Plautus, but the Demonstr. suffix seen in alioquin beside alioqui, &c. (§ 15). On sive and seu see ch. ii. § 12. Modo is the adverbial Abl. (Instr.?) Sg. of modus, "measure," "limit" (cf. Hor. quis desiderio sit pudor aut modus?), "only," and dum-modo, "while only." A common sense of the word is the temporal sense, "only a little while ago." [1]

[1]: This was emphasized in the Praenestine dialect by the addition of tam (tum modo mihi quom conuenisti in via, tam modo, "e'en now, as Praenestine folk say," Plaut. Trin. 609).

§14

(13) Concessive. Etsi, quamquam, quamvis, licet.

(13) Concessive. Etsi, quamquam, quamvis, licet.

The formation of all these words is evident: et-si, "even if," quam-quam (reduplicated), quam-vis, "how you wish" (like quantum-vis, "however much you wish," or quam-libet, "how you please"), licet, "it is allowed," "granted."

The formation of all these words is evident: et-si, "even if," quam-quam (reduplicated), quam-vis, "how you wish" (like quantum-vis, "however much you wish," or quam-libet, "how you please"), licet, "it is allowed," "granted."

§15

(14) Final. Ut, quo, quominus, quin, ne, neve, neu, nedum.

(14) Final. Ut, quo, quominus, quin, ne, neve, neu, nedum.

On ut see § 11. Quo is the Abl. (Instr.?) Sg. Neut. of the Relative, used with comparatives, quo facilius like eo facilius. Quominus adds to quo the Comparative minus, "less," used in a negative sense (cf. minime, "by no means," parum sciens, "ignorant"). Quin as a Final Conjunction, is composed of qui, how (Abl.?, Loc.?, Instr.?) and the Negative Particle ne. In some instances it represents qui (Nom. Sg. Masc.) with Negative ne, e.g. nemo fuit quin sciret (qui ne sciret); and the same form was extended to sentences like nulla mulier fuit quin sciret, just as potis Masc. Sg. is universalized in the phrase potis est and used with Neuter or Plural subjects (ch. vi. § 23). Quin in affirmations, e.g. hercle quin recte dicis, Plaut., is merely the Adverb qui of hercle qui, &c. (§ 4) with the Demonstrative suffix -ne (so atquin and atqui, alioquin and alioqui, ceteroquin and ceteroqui). Quin in commands, originally with Ind. (and so usually in Plautus), e.g. quin dicis?, then by constructio ad sensum with Imper. (so usually in Terence), e.g. quin die, is the Adverb qui with the Interrogative Particle -ne, "how not?", "why not?"

Quin in a sentence like Plaut. Trin. 360:

quin comedit quód fuit? quod nón fuit?

i.e. eumne dicis qui comedit? &c., is qui Nom. Sg. with the same particle (cf. Mil. 13 quemne ego seruaui? "I mean the man whose life I saved?"). Ne is I.-Eur. ne, a variety of I.-Eur. nē (§ 1). Neve adds to this the enclitic -ve, "or," which in neu is reduced by Syncope (ch. ii. § 12). For nedum (especially used by Livy, also by Cicero, but rarely by the other authors) ne alone is occasionally found. An early instance of the word, which is not employed by Plautus, is Ter. Haut. 454:

satrapa si siet Amator, numquam sufferre eius sumtus queat, nedum tu possis,

lit. ne(dum) tu te posse credas, dico satrapam non posse, or "satrapa non potest, nondum tu potes," with which we may compare Plaut. Amph. 330:

uix incedo inanis, ne ire posse cum onere existumes.

Nedum is related to ne, as vixdum to vix, nondum to non; cf. Liv. xxiv. 4. 1 puerum vixdum libertatem, nedum dominationem modice laturum.

On ut see § 11. Quo is the Abl. (Instr.?) Sg. Neut. of the Relative, used with comparatives, quo facilius like eo facilius. Quominus adds to quo the Comparative minus, "less," used in a negative sense (cf. minime, "by no means," parum sciens, "ignorant"). Quin as a Final Conjunction, is composed of qui, how (Abl.?, Loc.?, Instr.?) and the Negative Particle ne. In some instances it represents qui (Nom. Sg. Masc.) with Negative ne, e.g. nemo fuit quin sciret (qui ne sciret); and the same form was extended to sentences like nulla mulier fuit quin sciret, just as potis Masc. Sg. is universalized in the phrase potis est and used with Neuter or Plural subjects (ch. vi. § 23). Quin in affirmations, e.g. hercle quin recte dicis, Plaut., is merely the Adverb qui of hercle qui, &c. (§ 4) with the Demonstrative suffix -ne (so atquin and atqui, alioquin and alioqui, ceteroquin and ceteroqui). Quin in commands, originally with Ind. (and so usually in Plautus), e.g. quin dicis?, then by constructio ad sensum with Imper. (so usually in Terence), e.g. quin die, is the Adverb qui with the Interrogative Particle -ne, "how not?", "why not?"

Quin in a sentence like Plaut. Trin. 360:

quin comedit quód fuit? quod nón fuit?

i.e. eumne dicis qui comedit? &c., is qui Nom. Sg. with the same particle (cf. Mil. 13 quemne ego seruaui? "I mean the man whose life I saved?"). Ne is I.-Eur. ne, a variety of I.-Eur. nē (§ 1). Neve adds to this the enclitic -ve, "or," which in neu is reduced by Syncope (ch. ii. § 12). For nedum (especially used by Livy, also by Cicero, but rarely by the other authors) ne alone is occasionally found. An early instance of the word, which is not employed by Plautus, is Ter. Haut. 454:

satrapa si siet Amator, numquam sufferre eius sumtus queat, nedum tu possis,

lit. ne(dum) tu te posse credas, dico satrapam non posse, or "satrapa non potest, nondum tu potes," with which we may compare Plaut. Amph. 330:

uix incedo inanis, ne ire posse cum onere existumes.

Nedum is related to ne, as vixdum to vix, nondum to non; cf. Liv. xxiv. 4. 1 puerum vixdum libertatem, nedum dominationem modice laturum.

§16

(15) Asseverative Particles. Ne (nae), -ne.

(15) Asseverative Particles. Ne (nae), -ne.

Ne is the better spelling, though there may have been a by-form nae (older nai), as the cognate Greek word νή had a by-form ναί (cf. δή and δαί). -Ne affirmative is found in the Dramatists with Personal and Demonstrative Pronouns, e.g. Plaut. Mil. 565:

egone si post hunc diem muttivero, etiam quod egomet certo sciam, dato excruciandum me.

(On ne and nē, see § 1; cf. ne and nē Negative, § 17.)

Ne is the better spelling, though there may have been a by-form nae (older nai), as the cognate Greek word νή had a by-form ναί (cf. δή and δαί). -Ne affirmative is found in the Dramatists with Personal and Demonstrative Pronouns, e.g. Plaut. Mil. 565:

egone si post hunc diem muttivero, etiam quod egomet certo sciam, dato excruciandum me.

(On ne and nē, see § 1; cf. ne and nē Negative, § 17.)

§17

(16) Negatives. In-, ne-, nec, non, haud, ve-.

(16) Negatives. In-, ne-, nec, non, haud, ve-.

Ne- (I.-Eur. ne) is prefixed, not only to Verbs, e.g. ne-queo (Engl. can-not), ne-scio, O. Lat. ne-vis (ch. vi. § 23), ne-pareunt, &c. (cf. O. Engl. nille, nolde), but also to other parts of speech, e.g. nefas, n(e)-utiquam, neuter (ne-, I.-Eur. ne, appears in nequiquam); in- (I.-Eur. n̥, Gk. ἀν-, ἀ-) and ve- (I.-Eur. we), a curtailment of I.-Eur. awe (ch. viii. § 2), only to Adjectives. [2] Non is O. Lat. noenum (for ne-oinom, i.e. ne unum, "not one," ch. iv. § 4), with the same loss of -um (originally before an initial vowel only) as is seen in nihil from nihilum. Noenu (e.g. Lucr. iii. 199 noenu potest) should be written noenus, and represents ne unus Nom. Sg. Masc. (cf. demus and demum, ch. vii. § 2). Haud, which is confined within narrower limits than non in O. Lat., being used especially with Adjectives and Adverbs, usually immediately before the negated word, and hau in questions, is (like Gk. οὐ) connected with I.-Eur. awe (cf. above), and should properly be spelt aud. The initial h- was added to distinguish the word from aut. (On the O. Lat. by-form haut, used before consonants, e.g. haut scio, see ch. ii. § 9.) Nec in O. Lat. has the sense of non. Thus Catullus (lxiv. 83) uses the phrase funera nec funera to express the Greek τάφοι ἄταφοι; the Laws of the Twelve Tables had ast ei custos nec escit (ch. vi. § 4), "si autem ei custos non erit"; Plautus (Most. 240) has nec recte si illi dixeris. The neg- of negotium, neglego (also spelt neclego) seems to be a trace of this usage.

[2]: Improbare, infiteri, ignoscere, "not to notice," "to overlook" (cf. Ter. Haut. 218 et cognoscendi et ignoscendi) are seeming exceptions.

Ne- (I.-Eur. ne) is prefixed, not only to Verbs, e.g. ne-queo (Engl. can-not), ne-scio, O. Lat. ne-vis (ch. vi. § 23), ne-pareunt, &c. (cf. O. Engl. nille, nolde), but also to other parts of speech, e.g. nefas, n(e)-utiquam, neuter (ne-, I.-Eur. ne, appears in nequiquam); in- (I.-Eur. n̥, Gk. ἀν-, ἀ-) and ve- (I.-Eur. we), a curtailment of I.-Eur. awe (ch. viii. § 2), only to Adjectives. [2] Non is O. Lat. noenum (for ne-oinom, i.e. ne unum, "not one," ch. iv. § 4), with the same loss of -um (originally before an initial vowel only) as is seen in nihil from nihilum. Noenu (e.g. Lucr. iii. 199 noenu potest) should be written noenus, and represents ne unus Nom. Sg. Masc. (cf. demus and demum, ch. vii. § 2). Haud, which is confined within narrower limits than non in O. Lat., being used especially with Adjectives and Adverbs, usually immediately before the negated word, and hau in questions, is (like Gk. οὐ) connected with I.-Eur. awe (cf. above), and should properly be spelt aud. The initial h- was added to distinguish the word from aut. (On the O. Lat. by-form haut, used before consonants, e.g. haut scio, see ch. ii. § 9.) Nec in O. Lat. has the sense of non. Thus Catullus (lxiv. 83) uses the phrase funera nec funera to express the Greek τάφοι ἄταφοι; the Laws of the Twelve Tables had ast ei custos nec escit (ch. vi. § 4), "si autem ei custos non erit"; Plautus (Most. 240) has nec recte si illi dixeris. The neg- of negotium, neglego (also spelt neclego) seems to be a trace of this usage.

[2]: Improbare, infiteri, ignoscere, "not to notice," "to overlook" (cf. Ter. Haut. 218 et cognoscendi et ignoscendi) are seeming exceptions.

§18

Interjections.

 Interjections.

Many Latin Interjections are borrowed from the Greek, especially the exclamations used at musical or other entertainments, e.g. euge, sophos, palin, as ours come from the Italian or French, e.g. bravo, da capo, encore. Of genuine Latin words, some are old Imperatives, [3] e.g. em, lo, Imper. of emo, I take (cf. em tibi, "take that!", "there's for you!") (cf. § 3 on vel). Em (not to be confused with hem, an Interjection of terror, grief, &c.) was later superseded by en (Gk. ἤν), which in the Republican writers is used only in rhetorical questions, e.g. en-unquam? Em joined with ille (in the Acc. Case) produced ellum, [4] ellos, &c. of the Comedians. So ecce, an Interjection of similar meaning, from the Pronoun stem eko-, eke- (ch. v. § 3), joined with the Acc. of hic (wanting the enclitic -c(e)) produced eccum (for ecce-hum), eccos (for ecce-hos), &c. Pro (wrongly spelt proh) is the Preposition or Adverb pro (ch. viii. § 30), forth, "away with it!" Vae, I.-Eur. wai, is the same word as our Noun "woe."

The names of deities occur in hercle, me-hercules (sc. juvet), me-dius fidius ("the god of good faith," from fides), pol (a curtailment of Pollux), &c.; eccere is either an invocation of Ceres, or ecce re, "lo indeed."

[3]: Our "lo" is Imper. of "look."

[4]: Ello is an Interjection used in parts of Italy at the present day.

Many Latin Interjections are borrowed from the Greek, especially the exclamations used at musical or other entertainments, e.g. euge, sophos, palin, as ours come from the Italian or French, e.g. bravo, da capo, encore. Of genuine Latin words, some are old Imperatives, [3] e.g. em, lo, Imper. of emo, I take (cf. em tibi, "take that!", "there's for you!") (cf. § 3 on vel). Em (not to be confused with hem, an Interjection of terror, grief, &c.) was later superseded by en (Gk. ἤν), which in the Republican writers is used only in rhetorical questions, e.g. en-unquam? Em joined with ille (in the Acc. Case) produced ellum, [4] ellos, &c. of the Comedians. So ecce, an Interjection of similar meaning, from the Pronoun stem eko-, eke- (ch. v. § 3), joined with the Acc. of hic (wanting the enclitic -c(e)) produced eccum (for ecce-hum), eccos (for ecce-hos), &c. Pro (wrongly spelt proh) is the Preposition or Adverb pro (ch. viii. § 30), forth, "away with it!" Vae, I.-Eur. wai, is the same word as our Noun "woe."

The names of deities occur in hercle, me-hercules (sc. juvet), me-dius fidius ("the god of good faith," from fides), pol (a curtailment of Pollux), &c.; eccere is either an invocation of Ceres, or ecce re, "lo indeed."

[3]: Our "lo" is Imper. of "look."

[4]: Ello is an Interjection used in parts of Italy at the present day.