A Short Historical Latin Grammar: Chapter VII: Adverbs

I.-Eur. Adverbs were for the most part cases of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns. The cases most frequently found in Latin are the Accusative (cf. Gk. πρότερον Acc. Sg. Neut., μακράν Acc. Sg. Fem., κρύφα Acc. Pl. Neut.), the Ablative (or Instrumental? cf. Gk. ἄλλῃ, λάθρᾳ), and Locative (cf. Gk. οἴκοι, ἀναιμωτί, ἑκουτί). Often we find Latin Adverbs retaining case-forms which have become obsolete in the ordinary declension. Thus -im, the original form of the Acc. Sg. ending of I-stems (ch. iii. § 8), which in classical Latin was replaced by the -em of Consonant-stems (e.g. partem from the stem parti-, like militem from the stem milit-), is retained in Adverbs like partim, and in the Adverbial Accusatives of Verbal Noun I-stems. Examples of these are: raptim from an old raptis, -is Gen. [1] (Verbal Noun of rapio), sensim from sensis (Verbal Noun of sentio), uni-versim from versis (Verbal Noun of verto). Again nox, an old equivalent of noctu, seems to be an early by-form of noctis Gen.; -ē (older -ēd), the suffix by which Adverbs derived from Adjective O-stems are formed in Latin, is an Abl. Sg. suffix (parallel with -ō, earlier -ōd, ch. iii. § 6), which has been reserved for Adverbs alone. The Adverbial suffix -tus (I.-Eur. -tōs) of fundī-tus, divinī-tus, &c., is in some I.-Eur. languages used to form the Abl. case of Nouns.

[1]: These old Verbal Nouns in -tis, -sis became obsolete and were replaced by ION-stems, raptio, -onis Gen., sensio, -onis Gen., versio, -onis Gen. (ch. xi. § 12).

The Adverbs derived from Pronouns, e.g. ibi, illinc (i.e. illim with the Particle -ce, ch. v. § 4), are not easily referred to their proper cases, owing to our ignorance of the full number of the case-suffixes used in the I.-Eur. declension of the Pronoun (cf. ch. v. § 4).

Often an independent word has been relegated to the function of an Adverbial suffix. Thus versus and versum (older vorsus, vorsum, ch. x. § 8), the Nom. and Acc. Sg. of the Perf. Part. Pass. of verto, appear in quāquāversus (-m), aliōvorsum (contracted aliorsum, ch. ii. § 12), retro-vorsum (contracted retrorsum, retrōsum), rursus (-m) for reversus (-m). Tenus of hactenus, aliquatenus, &c., is the Acc. Sg., used adverbially, of the old neuter noun tenus, a stretching (ch. xi. § 18), used by Plautus in the sense of a string or snare (ch. viii. § 39). In the Romance languages mente, Abl. of mens, is the chief Adverbial suffix, and is often added to already formed Adverbs, e.g. Ital. quasimente.

Adverbs like aliōvorsum, aliquatenus are thus really composed of two independent words aliō vorsum, aliqua tenus. Other examples of Adverbial word-groups are (1) Prep. and Noun: ad-fātim, sufficiently, lit. "to weariness" (cf. fatigo), ad-mōdum, de-nuo for de novo (ch. ii. § 14), sēdulo from se, an old by-form of sine (ch. viii. § 36) and dolo, ī-lico from in and sloco (old form of loco, ch. x. § 19); (2) Verb and Verb: ī-licet, scī-licet, vide-licet; (3) Conj. and Verb dum-taxat (ch. v. § 7 n.), etc.

The Comparative Degree of the Adverbs derived from Adjectives is in Latin, as in Greek, expressed by the Acc. Sg. Neut. of the Comparative of the Adjective, e.g. pejus, longius (Gk. σοφώτερον); the Superlative by the old Abl. Sg. in -ē (older -ēd) of the Superl. of the Adj., e.g. pessime, longissime (in Greek by the Acc. Pl. Neut., e.g. σοφώτατα). Adjectives (and Participles) of the Second Declension (O-stems) form their Adverbs in -um (Acc. Sg. Neut.), -ē (Abl. Sg.) or -ō (Abl. Sg.); Adjectives of the Third Declension, in -ter (Nom. Sg. Masc., § 2), e.g. multum, amice, subito, breviter; but in the earlier literature Adverbs in -ter from O-stem Adjectives are common, e.g. amiciter. Cicero in his earlier writings used humaniter, but finally discarded it for humane.

The Nom. Sg. Masc. of an Adjective might become an Adverb by being used without reference to number or gender. Just as potis, M. F., able (Gk. πόσις, a master), became crystallized, so to speak, when used with esse - potis sum, potis es, potis est ille, potis est illud (ch. vi. § 23), so rursus (reversus) gradually passed into an Adverb when it came to be used, not merely in phrases like rursus eo, rursus is, rursus it ille, but also in rursus it illa, rursus eunt illi. In the earlier literature rursum (Acc. Sg. Neut.) competes with rursus, prōrsum (prō-vorsum) with prorsus, sūrsus (sub-versus) with sursum, dēmus (cf. Gk. τῆμος) with demum, &c.; but by the classical period one of the rival forms generally has the monopoly, e.g. rursus, prorsus, sursum, demum. Such Latin Nom. Adverb forms end in (1) -s, e.g. rursus, and other compounds of versus; deinceps, in O. Lat. declined, deincipis Gen., deincipi Dat., &c., like princeps; eminus and comminus (ch. ii. § 10), compounds of manus, as Gk. αὐτόχειρ of χείρ; intrinsecus, extrinsecus, &c., compounds of an old Adj. secus, following (cf. secundus). (2) -r. This is a very numerous class, comprising all the Adverbs in -ter, e.g. breviter. These are Nominatives Singular of a formation with the suffix -tero- (ch. xi. § 8), which in Greek often assumed a Comparative sense (e.g. βραχύτερος, shorter), but not always, e.g. δεξιτερός, on the right, not "more on the right." Thus breviter corresponds exactly in formation to Gk. βραχύτερος, as ager to Gk. ἀγρός (ch. iii. § 6). The i before ter belonged properly to Adverbs from I-stem or O-stem Adjectives (e.g. brevi-ter from brevis, stem brevi-, humaniter for humano-ter, ch. ii. § 14, beside audac-ter from audax, stem audac-), but has been extended to Cons.-stem Adjectives too, e.g. fallaciter from fallax. NT-stems have -nter, e.g. vehementer, impudenter, by Dissimilation, for -nti-ter (ch. ii. § 12). On simulter from simli-ter, faculter from facli-ter, see ch. ii. § 12. Another example of an Adverb in -r is nūper, Nom. Sg. Masc. of an Adj. nupero-, for novi-pero-, from novus and paro. The Adj. is used by Plautus Capt. 718:

Recens captum hominem, nūperum, nouicium, "A man just captured, newly acquired, a newcomer."

The Adverbial use of the Accusative Case was a great feature of I.-Eur. syntax. In Homer, for example, we find that δεινόν, βαρύ, etc., are the usual Adverb forms, not δεινῶς, βαρέως. In Latin we have (1) Acc. Sg. Neut. of Adj. in -um, e.g. commodum (beside commode); plerumque from an old Adj. plerus, [2] connected with plenus, full; sursum, and other compounds of versum (see § 2); a few Superlatives like minimum (usually minime), potissimum; in -e, e.g. facile, an old form of which was facul (ch. ii. § 12), used by Lucilius in his description of the Roman patricians:

Peccare inpune rati sunt Posse, et nobilitate facul propellere iniquos,

simul (older semul), the Acc. Sg. Neut. of similis; impūne from impunis (in and poena, ch. xi. § 12), but I-stem Adjs. as a rule formed their Adverbs in -iter, the formation in -ē being reserved for poetry, e.g. dulce ridentem, ... dulce loquentem, Hor. (2) Acc. Sg. Fem. of Adj. in -am, e.g. perperam, falsely, wrongly (sc. viam), from perperus (per and paro), with the same sense of per as in perjurus, swearing falsely (Gk. πάρα of παρακόπτω, I forge money, etc.) (ch. viii. § 26). (3) Acc. Pl. Fem. in -as, e.g. alias (sc. vices). The Acc. Pl. Neut., e.g. torva tueri, is almost confined to poetry. (4) Acc. Sg. of Noun, in -tim, e.g. praesertim from sero, lit. "in the front row"; tolutim, at a trot (connected with tollo); passim from pando; statim, at once, lit. "standing," "on the spot" (like ilico, § 1); and many in -ātim derived from Nouns, e.g. guttatim, in drops, from gutta, gradatim from gradus. The Nouns in -tis have, as has been mentioned, become obsolete, being replaced by forms in -tio, e.g. statio. But the Nouns remain from which other Acc. Sg. Adverbs are derived, e.g. vicem, maximam partem, id genus (cf. Gk. χάριν, Acc. Sg. of χάρις). Virile secus (e.g. trecenti occisi sunt virile secus, "three hundred were killed of the male sex") is Acc. Sg. Adverbs in -fariam, indicating division, e.g. bi-fariam, quadri-fariam are Acc. Sg. Fem. of Adjs. in -farius (cf. Gk. -φάσιος from -φατιος, e.g. τριφάσιος).

[2]: E.g. Pacuvius: periere Danai, plera pars pessum datast, "the Danai are lost, the greater part gone down."

From O-Stem Adjs. we have Abl. Adverb forms in (1) -ē, older -ēd, e.g. facillime, which is written on the S. C. Bacch. FACILVMED; this is the usual formation of Superlative Adverbs; valde (valide Plaut.), ferme, Superl. of fere; (2) -ō, older -ōd, e.g. certo (beside certe), vero (beside vere). (On cito, modo, bene, male, see ch. ii. § 16.) From O-Stem Nouns we have, e.g. vulgo (from vulgus), principio. The Third Declension "Abl." (originally a Consonant-stem Locative, ch. iii. § 8) in -ē appears in forte, sponte, opere of magnopere (for magno opere), tantopere, &c., temere, lit. "in the dark," from a lost Neuter temus, -eris, darkness. The Abl. Pl. in -is is seen in gratis (gratiis Plaut.), for nothing, lit. "for mere thanks" (cf. Ter. si non pretio, at gratiis); foris, outside, lit. "at the doors" from fora, a door (Gk. θύρα), used with verbs of rest, e.g. foris manete, while foras, the Acc. Pl., is used in a phrase like foras exire, to go outside. Of Abl. Sg. Fem. in -ā examples are eādem (sc. opera), at the same time, dextera (sc. parte), on the right, recta (sc. via), directly, extrā, suprā, contrā. The Abl. Sg. Neut. of the last is seen in contro-versia.

These show various suffixes: (1) -bi (older -bei) with locative sense, e.g. ibi, ubi (on ibi, ubi see ch. ii. § 16); (2) *-ī- (older -ei), the Locative O-stem suffix, e.g. O. Lat. illi, isti, there, which in classical Latin always have the particle -ce appended (ch. v. § 4), illi-c, isti-c; (3) -ō (older -ōd), the Abl. Sg. Neut., to indicate motion to (originally route or direction), e.g. eo, quo, isto, alio, porro. O. Lat. hoc, istoc, illoc are probably Acc. Sg. Neut., for class. Lat. huc, istuc, illuc points to -oc with short o, but with c doubled in pronunciation (ch. v. § 3); (4) -ā (older -ad), the Abl. Sg. Fem., to indicate direction, manner, &c., e.g. qua, ea, praeter-ea; (5) -im, to indicate motion from, e.g. illim, istim, which in class. Lat. always append the particle -ce, illinc, istinc (cf. hinc, dehinc); (6) -nde, with similar sense, in unde, inde; this inde is shortened by Syncope of the final vowel (ch. ii. § 12) to -in in the Compounds proin, dein, exin, &c. Other endings like -dam of quondam (cf. quidam, ch. v. § 7), -dem of quidem, tandem, with the sense of "exactly," "precisely" in ibi-dem, tanti-dem (cf. idem for is-dem, ch. v. § 3, and is demum), -tem of item, -ta for i-ta, are apparently case-forms of pronominal stems (cf. ch. v. § 3), as -quam of unquam, usquam (cf. quisquam, ch. v. § 7) appears to be Acc. Sg. Fem. of the stem quo- (ch. v. § 6). Saltim, lit. "by a leap," Acc. Sg. of an old Verbal Noun saltis from salio (§ 3), became in class. Lat. saltem on the analogy of autem, item, &c.

Other examples are: (1) in -per, parum-per, from parum, Acc. Sg. Neut. of parus, little, a by-form of parvus, and the Preposition per; sem-per from sem "one," Acc. Sg. Neut. (Gk. ἕν for sem) and the same Preposition; [3] so paulis-per, tantis-per, aliquantis-per, and in O. Lat. topper, immediately (for tod-per). (On tod, Gk. τό(δ), Acc. Sg. Neut. of Demonstr. stem to-, see ch. v. § 3.) (On nuper, see § 2.)

From ob-viam was formed the Adj. obvius, as from sē-dulo (cf. se dulo malo on an old Agrarian Law), the Adj. sedulus. Like obviam (and inter-vias with vias Acc. Pl.) is ob-iter, a word regarded with suspicion by purists, though the Emperor Augustus gave it his sanction, and reproved Tiberius for using per viam instead. Ilicet, scilicet, videlicet have in the earlier writers the construction of ire licet, scire licet, videre licet, [4] e.g. Plautus Capt. 469:

Ilicet parasiticae arti maxumam malam crucem, "The profession of diner-out may go hang itself on the highest possible gallows."

Lucretius i. 210:

Esse videlicet in terris primordia rerum.

Virgil revived the use of ilicet, but gave it curiously the sense of ilico, e.g. Aen. xi. 468:

Ilicet in muros tota discurritur urbe.

A Preposition with a Noun (or Adj.) appears also in in-cassum, in vain, lit. "into the empty" (cf. cassa nux Plaut.); im-primis and cum-primis. Actutum is merely actu, lit. "on the act," followed by tum, then.

[3]: The Adj. sempiternus stands for semperternus as praestigiae for praestrigiae (ch. ii. § 8).

[4]: So also fortasse, an S-Aorist Imperative (ch. vi. § 12) of a lost verb fortare from fortis (like affirmare from firmus) meaning "to assert." Cf. Plaut. Asin. 36 te fortasse dicere, "perhaps you say."