A Short Historical Latin Grammar: Chapter XI: Formation of Words

English Grammar Advanced 19th century W. M. Lindsay

Pages 160-174 of the book.

Stem suffixes.

For the forming of words we find sounds combined into ‘roots,’ and these developed into ‘stems.’ Thus the sounds t, e, and g are combined into the root tĕg-, ‘to cover’ (Lat. teg-o, teg-men, tectus for *teg-tus, tog-a with O-grade of root, ch. x. § 12), which is further developed into the stems tŏgā- (Lat. Nom. Sg. tŏgă, earlier tŏgā, Gen. Pl. togā-rum, &c.), tegmen- (Lat. Nom. Sg. tegmen, Gen. Sg. tegminis, earlier *teg-men-es, &c.) by the addition to the root of the stem-suffixes -ā-, -men-. It is these stem-suffixes, used in the making of Nouns and Adjectives, which will be treated in §§ 2–19.

Ŏ-, which should rather be called the Ĕ-Ŏ-suffix, since it alternates with -ĕ- (e.g. I.-Eur. Voc. Sg. of Masc. O-stems ended in -ĕ, e.g. ekwĕ, ‘O horse,’ Lat. equĕ), was associated with the Masc. and Neut. Gender. Ā-, which should rather be called the Ă-Ā-suffix, since it alternates with ă (e.g. I.-Eur. Voc. Sg. of Fem. A-stems ended in -ă, e.g. ekwă, ‘O mare’) was associated with the Fem. Gender. Hence the O- and A-suffixes were used in Adjectives, e.g. I.-Eur. nĕwŏ- Masc. and Neut., nĕwā- Fem. (Lat. novos, novom, nova). The A-suffix is very common in Abstract Nouns (Nomina Actionis), e.g. I.-Eur. bhugā, ‘the action of fleeing’ (Gk. φυγή), Lat. fuga, from the weak grade (ch. x. § 12) of the root bheug-, ‘to flee’ (Gk. φεύγω; cf. Lat. fugio). The O-suffix is used in a great variety of ways. An example of its use in Nomina Agentis is Lat. procus, a suitor, from the O-grade (ch. x. § 12) of the root prĕk-, ‘to ask’ (cf. Lat. precor). Other examples of the suffix are: parcus, sparing, from parco, I spare; dolus, a stratagem, from the O-grade of a root dĕl-, ‘to deceive’; jugum, a yoke, from the weak grade of the root yeug-, ‘to join.’

These I.-Eur. suffixes were used to form (a) Verbal Adjectives, especially Gerundives, the Neuter and Fem. being often employed as Verbal Nouns, e.g. socius from the O-grade of the root seqᵘ-, ‘to accompany’ (Lat. sequor); eximius, which had originally the sense of eximendus (e.g. Ter. Hec. 66: utin eximium neminem habeam? ‘am I to make no exception?’); studium from studeo; exuviae from exuo; pluvia from pluo. (b) Adjectives derived from Nouns, especially Compound Adjectives, the Neuter and Fem. being often used as Abstract Nouns, e.g. patrius from pater; somnium, a dream, from somnus, sleep; falsi-jurius from falsus and jus; jurg(i)um from jus and ago; litigium from lis and ago; judicium from jus and dico; aedificium from aedes and facio; vindemia from vinum and demo. (c) Adjectives which have a sense of comparison or distinction, indicating a special locality, direction, &c., e.g. I.-Eur. mĕdhyo- (Gk. μέ(σ)σος), Lat. medius; I.-Eur. alyo- (Gk. ἄλλος), Lat. alius. Gk. δεξιός has this suffix, while Lat. dexter (Gk. δεξίτερος) has the TERO-suffix, which has the same force (§ 8). Also some Ordinal Numbers, e.g. Lat. tertius.

A notable use of this suffix in Latin is in the formation of Proper Names. While in all, or most, of the other I.-Eur. languages Compounds were used for Proper Names, the son taking a Compound slightly varied from the father’s (e.g. Gk. Δεινο-κράτης, son of Δεινο-κλῆς, Germ. Walt-bert, son of Wald-ram), the Latins used simple stems with this IO-suffix, e.g. Lūcius, Stātius, which correspond to some contracted or pet-names in the other I.-Eur. nations, e.g. Gk. Ζεύξιᾱς, for the more ceremonious Ζεύξ-ιππος, Λεύκις beside Λεύκ-ιππος.

The ending -eus (from -ŏ-yŏ-s) arose from the addition of this IO-suffix to O-stems, e.g. aureus, made of gold, from aurum (stem aurŏ-, aurĭ-, gold), and came to acquire the sense of material, ‘made of,’ ‘composed of.’ It was in time assigned to any stem; e.g. in flammeus, made of fire, it is added to an A-stem; in vitineus, made of a vine, to an I-stem; in corneus, made of horn, to a U-stem. The ending -tōrium, which arose from the addition of the IO-suffix to TER-stems (see below), indicated the place or instrument of an action, e.g. audi-torium, ‘the place of hearing,’ deversorium for *devert-torium (ch. x. § 17), ‘a lodging-place,’ scalp-torium, ‘an instrument for scratching,’ and corresponds to Gk. -τήριον of βουλευ-τήριον, ἐργασ-τήριον, both indicating place, καυσ-τήριον, ‘instrument for burning,’ κρι-τήριον, ‘means of judging.’ Similarly we have -monium, -monia from MEN-stems (see below), e.g. ali-monia and ali-monium (cf. ali-men-tum), flamonium from flamen, an ending extended to tristi-monia, sancti-monia, &c.

A common ending of Abstract Nouns is -itia (often -ities, ch. iii. § 13), e.g. laetitia from laetus (stem laeto-), -itium, e.g. servitium from servus (stem servo-), flagitium, lanitium. These are formed on the type of militia from miles (stem milit-). From N-stems we have, e.g. colonia, in O. Lat. ‘a dwelling place’ (Plaut. Aul. 576: ut conmutet coloniam).

This suffix is much used in Adjectives denoting colour, e.g. helvus (Engl. yellow from I.-Eur. ghĕl-wŏ-), furvus (older *fus-uos; cf. fus-cus; on the change of s to r see ch. x. § 19), flavus, ravus. Greek Verbal Adjectives in -τέος for -τεϝος, with Gerundive force, e.g. διωκτέος, requiring to be pursued, capable of being pursued, are in Latin represented by formations in -uus, e.g. caeduus, excipuus, praecipuus, conspicuus, pascuus, and aruus (Plaut. Truc. 149: non aruos hic sed pascuos ager est; whence arvum), while another class of Verbal Adjectives, derived from Verbal Noun TI-stems (see below) and denoting state or condition, end in -īvus, e.g. furtivus from the Verbal Noun-stem furti-, of which the Acc. Sg. survives in the Adverb furtim (ch. vii. § 3), nativus, captivus, votivus. Examples of Adjectives with the UO-suffix derived from Nouns are: annuus from annus; Minerva (O. Lat. Menerua of four syllables) for *Menes-ua from I.-Eur. mēnŏs Neut. (stem mēnĕs-), ‘intelligence’ (Gk. μένος); strenuus (cf. Gk. στρηνύς, health); patruus from pater.

This I.-Eur. suffix was chiefly used in the formation of Verbal Adjectives, usually with the force of a Perfect Participle Passive, e.g. Lat. plenus, lit. ‘filled,’ donum, lit. ‘a thing given.’ In Greek we find some Adjectives of Time in -ινός, derived from a Locative Case ending in ī, e.g. χειμερ-ινός, ἐαρ-ινός, ἑσπερ-ινός, and correspondingly in Latin hibernus, vernus, vesperna, the evening meal. Adjectives in -īnus in Latin, like faginus, junipinus, show an I.-Eur. suffix -īnŏ-, denoting material or origin, e.g. Gk. φήγ-ινος, made of beech-wood, βύβλινος, made of papyrus, &c. The suffix -ῖνος in Greek, denoting species, occurs frequently with the names of animals, e.g. δελφακ-ῖνη from δέλφαξ, κορακ-ῖνος from κόραξ; and similarly in Latin we have bovinus, equinus, suinus (Engl. swine), fibrinus, &c., the feminine often being employed with ellipse of caro, flesh, e.g. vitulina, veal, suina, pork. Latin -īnus is often due to the addition of the NO-suffix to IO-stems, e.g. Latinus from Latium (though, when the suffix -īno-, and not -no-, is added, we have -iēnus, e.g. alienus, from alius, laniena from lanius), or to I-stems, e.g. marinus from mare, piscina from piscis. The suffix -tinus of diu-tinus, cras-tinus, pris-tinus, &c., is more strictly the second part of a Compound than a suffix, representing a word for ‘time’ derived from the root ten-, ‘to stretch,’ just as -gnus of prīvi-gnus represents a word derived from the root gen-, ‘to produce.’ The -gnus of ilignus, salignus, larignus, on the other hand, shows the suffix -no-, the g being the development before n (ch. x. § 18) of the final c of the stems ilic-, salic-, laric-, and was by their analogy extended to other tree-adjectives like abiegnus from abies (stem abiet-). Similarly -ānus, the ending of Adjectives formed with the NO-suffix from A-stems (e.g. silvanus from silva, arcanus from arca, decimanus from decima, sc. pars, the tenth part, tithe, e.g. ager decimanus, land paying tithes, an Adjective which somehow acquired the sense of ‘large,’ ‘huge,’ e.g. decimanus acipenser, ‘a huge sturgeon’) is extended to Adjectives from other stems, e.g. urbanus from urbs (stem urbi-). By the addition of this NO-suffix to Nomina Agentis in -or we get -urnus, e.g. taciturnus, while ES-stems give -ēnus (ch. x. § 19), e.g. aēnus from aes; venenum, lit. ‘philtre,’ ‘love-potion,’ from Venus (stem venes-); egenus (cf. eges-tas): we have -ūnus after an U-stem in lacuna. A common use of the NO-suffix in Latin is to form Distributive Numerals, e.g. quaterni, bini, trini, terni (ch. iv. § 5). The termination -na is found in sarcina from sarcio, pagina from pango (cf. compages), angina from ango.

This suffix was used in the Middle or Passive Participles of Thematic Tenses of the I.-Eur. Verb (e.g. Gk. φερό-μενος); and although these Participles were lost in Latin, traces of this formation remain in the 2 Pl. Pres. Ind., e.g. legimini for legimini estis (ch. vi. § 17); perhaps also the 2 Pl. Pres. Imper., e.g. legimini; alumnus, ὁ τρεφόμενος; femina from the root dhē-, ‘to suckle’; Vertumnus, the god of the changing seasons, from verto; calumnia from O. Lat. calvor, to deceive. Stems with this suffix often stand side by side with MEN-stems, e.g. columna beside columen, terminus beside termen and termo.

The ending -mnus in Latin often arises from the addition of the NO-suffix to a stem ending in a Labial (ch. x. § 16), e.g. somnus for *sop-nus (cf. sopor), damnum (cf. Gk. δαπάνη), scamnum (cf. scabellum), &c.

Of this suffix, used to form Adjectives, Nouns, especially Masculine Nouns but sometimes Fem., and Superlatives (ch. iv. § 2), Latin examples are: formus, warm (Gk. θερμός, Engl. warm), from the root ghᵘer-; fūmus (Gk. θυμός) from the root dheu-; animus (Gk. ἄνεμος); fama (Gk. φήμη); palma (Gk. παλάμη); minimus, summus for *supmus (ch. x. § 16). The suffix -tĕmŏ- (ch. iv. § 2) had a local rather than a ‘superlative’ meaning, e.g. maritimus, finitimus; but intimus, ultimus, citimus have acquired a superlative force; similarly optimus, if from ob. (But cf. p. 65.)

This suffix in its various forms was used to make Adjectives and Concrete Nouns, e.g. I.-Eur. rŭdhro-, ‘red,’ from the weak grade of the root reudh- (Gk. ἐ-ρυθρός), Lat. ruber; I.-Eur. ăgro-, ‘a field,’ from the root ag-, ‘to drive’ (Gk. ἀγρός), Lat. ager. In Latin the Nom. Sg. ending -rŏs became after a short vowel -er (ch. iii. § 6), as is seen in these two examples, but not after a long vowel, e.g. plērus (ch. vii. § 3), gnārus, mātūrus (cf. pēnuria). The suffixes -ĕRŎ-, -TĔRŎ- became Comparative Suffixes in Greek (ch. iv. § 2), though their original sense was rather that of likeness, of equal than of greater degree (cf. Hom. Gk. θηλύτερος, feminine, not ‘more feminine’). Latin Adverbs in -iter have the TERO-suffix (ch. vii. § 2), e.g. breviter (Gk. βραχύτερος); so have magis-ter, minis-ter, ci-ter, ex-ter; while with a prefixed -as- (cf. Gk. -αδ- of πελειάς, -άδος, a wild dove) we have -aster, a suffix implying imitation, e.g. oleaster, a wild olive, ‘like the true olive,’ and often used in a contemptuous sense for ‘a poor imitation,’ e.g. peditaster, with Dim. peditastellus in Plaut. Mil. 54:

at peditastelli quia erant, siui uiuerent,

‘they were tag-rag and bob-tail infantry; so I spared their lives.’

The local sense of the TERO-suffix (Gk. ὀρέστερος, living in the hills, ἀγρότερος, living in the country) appears in -ter of paluster, telluster, and -ester of campester, silvester. The same suffix is used in Possessive Pronouns in Latin, e.g. vester, as in Gk., e.g. ὑμέτερος, and in various pronominal and locative Adjectives, with the sense of ‘like,’ ‘in the direction of,’ e.g. alter, uter, i-terum, citer (Engl. hither), exter (cf. dexter, δεξί-τερος, sinister), to which Adverbs with -tro- correspond, e.g. citro, citra, extra.

This suffix -TERO- must be distinguished from the suffix -TRO-, which was used to form Neuter Nouns indicating an instrument, &c., e.g. aratrum, ‘an instrument for ploughing,’ a plough, and from the Latin suffix -cro-, which represents the stem cĕro-, making, from the root cer-, to make (cf. Lat. creare), e.g. lūdi-cer, or stands by Assimilation for -clo- when an l precedes, e.g. involū-crum for *involu-clum. This -clo- (I.-Eur. -TLO-, § 9) is a suffix closely associated with -tro-, forming Neuter Nouns which indicate a tool or instrument. Another suffix, -DHRO-, (Lat. -bro-) is used in the same way, though in Latin it affects also the Feminine gender, -bra, e.g. terebra, a gimlet, borer, from tero, to bore; cribrum, a sieve, from cerno, to sift. But Lat. -bro-, -bra represents an original -sro-, -sra- (ch. x. § 19) in tenebrae from *temus, darkness, whence temere (ch. vii. § 4), cerebrum. Lat. -ōrus of honorus, decorus, canorus, odorus, &c., stands for -ōsus (ch. x. § 19), arising from the addition of the O-suffix to S-stems; we have -ērus in e.g. severus, procerus.

This suffix in its various forms was used for Nomina Agentis (Nouns and Adjectives), and often came to denote an instrument, while as a secondary suffix it was specially used to form Diminutives. Thus Engl. shovel, literally ‘an instrument with which one shoves,’ meant originally ‘the shover’; Engl. throstle is a Diminutive. Latin examples are: lĕgŭlus, a picker, from lego; pendulus, hanging, from pendo, pendeo; vinculum, a bond, ‘an instrument for binding,’ from vincio; cistula, a little chest, from cista. The Diminutive suffix is added a second time in cistella, a jewel-box, &c. A common Diminutive suffix is -culo-, a combination of the two Diminutive suffixes -KO- (§ 11) and -LO-, e.g. auri-cula, a little ear, cor-culum, a little heart, which when added to Adjectives, esp. Comparatives, gives the sense of ‘somewhat,’ e.g. meliusculus, somewhat better. From Diminutive -culum must be distinguished the -culum, [1] -clum from I.-Eur. -TLO-, used to form Neuter Nouns denoting the instrument with which an action is performed or the place of its performance, e.g. vehi-clum (vehiculum), ‘that by which one is carried,’ po-clum (poculum), ‘that out of which one drinks,’ cubi-clum (cubiculum), ‘the place where one lies down.’ The suffix -DHLO- (in Latin -būlum) had much the same function, e.g. stā-bulum, ‘a place for standing.’ The presence of an l in the first part of the word causes a dissimilation of -clum to -crum, -blum to -brum, in ambulā-crum, ‘a place for walking,’ &c. Nouns in -ēla, like querela, sequela, are derived from Neuter ES-stems, so that querela stands for *queresla, sequela for *sequesla (ch. x. § 19).

[1]: This is the form with the Parasitic Vowel (ch. ii. § 12).

This suffix was used to form (1) Verbal Adjectives, which in Latin became Perfect Participles Passive, e.g. geni-tus from the root gen- (see ch. vi. § 17). (2) Ordinal Numbers, e.g. quin(c)tus (ch. iv. § 5). Abstract Nouns in -TĀ- are found beside Perf. Participles Pass. in -to-, e.g. Gk. γενετή, birth, Lat. deprensa (for *deprend-ta, ch. x. § 17). The TO-suffix is often added to the MEN-suffix (§ 15) in neuter nouns, e.g. Lat. cognomen-tum beside cognomen, such forms being apparently the Neuter of Participles, formed not from verbs but from nouns (cf. Engl. ‘crested,’ ‘horned’); e.g. cognomentum points to a *cognōmentus beside cognominatus, like sceles-tus beside scelera-tus. The forms with -mentum are, as a rule, those used by prose writers, the forms with -men being relegated to poetry. With -mentum, Plur. -menta has been compared the Greek Plur. -ματα, e.g. στρώματα (Lat. strāmenta), κασσύματα (cf. Lat. assumenta). Similar are arbus-tum, salic-tum, while arboretum is a quasi-participle from arboresco, like acetum, vinegar, from acesco; so nuc-etum, ilic-etum, &c. The -cētum of ilicētum, &c., and the -ctum of salictum, &c., were extended by false analogy, e.g. bu-cetum, vire-ctum.

I.-Eur. -ko-, the -y of Engl. ‘stony,’ ‘angry,’ &c., is used mainly in the formation of Adjectives from (1) Adverbs, e.g. anti-cus, of place, anti-quus, of time, posti-cus, reci-procus from rĕco- (Prep. rĕ-) and proco- (Prep. pro). (2) Nouns, e.g. belli-cus, civi-cus. The suffix had often a Diminutive sense, which in Latin was usually expressed by the compound suffix -KO-LO- (§ 9), e.g. seni-culus (but also sene-ca). Other forms are -icus, e.g. histriōn-icus, -ticus, e.g. rus-ticus, -īcus, e.g. am-īcus, -ācus, e.g. mĕr-ācus; and with addition of the YO-suffix (§ 3) -icius (Derivatives from Nouns and Adjectives), e.g. patricius, -ticius (Derivatives from Perf. Participles Pass.), e.g. dediticius (also novicius).

(Nouns and Adjectives of third Declension.) I-stems were closely associated with Adjectives; and a good many O-stem Adjectives in Latin have become I-stems, e.g. inermis (O. Lat. inermus), sterilis (sterilus Lucr. ii. 845), sublimis (sublimus Lucr. i. 340 sublimaque caeli). U-stem Adjectives have also become I-stems (ch. iv. § 1), e.g. brevis (Gk. βραχύς), levis (Gk. ἐλαχύς). Verbal Adjectives in -ilis are by-forms with Passive sense of Active Verbal Adjectives in -lus, e.g. bibilis, ‘easily drunk,’ beside bibulus, ‘easily drinking.’ So Verbal Adjs. in -bilis, connected with the DHLO-suffix, e.g. ama-bilis, no-bilis, sometimes derived from the P.P.P. stem, e.g. sensibilis, flexibilis. -TI- was the suffix of Verbal Nouns as -TO- of the Perfect Part. Pass. (§ 10), e.g. Gk. πίστις beside πιστός. These Nouns were of the Fem. gender and had, like the P.P.P., the weak grade (ch. x. § 12) of the root. Latin examples are: mens for men-ti-, from the root men-, ‘to think’; fors for bhᵉr-ti-, from the root bher-, ‘to bear’; mors for mᵉr-ti-, from the root mer-. In Latin, as in Celtic, we find this suffix enlarged by an EN-suffix (§ 15), e.g. mentio, Acc. mentionem; ratio, Acc. rationem; datio, Acc. dationem; and this compound suffix supplanted almost entirely the older TI-suffix. The suffix -TĀTI- (or -tāt-), used to form Fem. Abstract Nouns, derived from Adjectives and Nouns, and the similar suffix -TŪTI- (or -tūt-) exhibit this TI-suffix added to the TĀ- and TŪ-suffixes, e.g. Lat. juventas (cf. juventa), juventus. We find a form of the suffix -tut- augmented by an N-suffix, -tūdo, Gen. -tūdinis, e.g. servitūdo beside servitūs. The Ī-suffix was used in forming Feminines in I.-Eur. and appears augmented with c in Lat. genetrix, cornix, &c.

(Nouns of fourth Decl.) U-stem Adjectives passed in Latin, as we have seen (§ 12), into I-stems, e.g. gravis (Gk. βαρύς). The suffix -TU- (like the suffix -TI-, § 12) was used to form Verbal Nouns, e.g. spectātus, and its Acc. Sg. became the First Supine (ch. vi. § 16), e.g. spectatum ire, its Loc. Sg., the Second Supine (ibid.), e.g. spectatu pulcer. (On the passage of Fem. O-stems into the U-declension, see ch. iii. § 6.)

(Nouns of fifth Decl.) These have been already discussed in ch. iii. § 13.

(Nouns of third Decl.) An Adjective which is used as a Noun takes this suffix, [2] e.g. Rufo, ‘the Red,’ beside rufus, red (cf. Στραβῶν beside στραβός); and so we find many Latin nicknames in -ō, Gen. -ōnis, e.g. Naso, Capito, with terms of contempt like bibo, aleo. The more respectful formation was in -ōnus, [3] e.g. patronus.

[2]: This is the origin of the German ‘weak’ declension of the Adjective, where the Adj. is preceded by the Def. Article, e.g. des rothen, Gen. Sg., die rothen Nom. Acc. Pl.

[3]: Hence Gk. Λητώ (Dor. Λατώ) became Latona.

The MEN-suffix was used to form Neuter Verbal Nouns, e.g. teg-men, a covering, from tego, to cover. On the connection of cognomen and cognomentum, &c., see § 10; and on Verbal Nouns in -TI-EN-, e.g. captio, -ōnis Gen., see § 12.

(Nouns of third Decl.) I.-Eur. Neuters in -r (-ᵉr) seem to have substituted n for r in the oblique cases (cf. Lat. femur, Gen. feminis, ch. iii. § 1), which has led to such curious declensions in Latin as it-in-er-is, jec-in-or-is and joc-in-er-is. -TER- is the suffix used for forming (1) words of relationship, e.g. pa-ter, ma-ter, (2) Nomina Agentis, e.g. da-tor (Gk. δοτήρ and δώτωρ), which in Latin show the O-grade of the suffix (ch. x. § 12).

(Nouns of third Decl.) When a Verb-root ending in a vowel formed the second part of a compound the T-suffix was used, e.g. Lat. com-es (stem com-it-) from the root ei-, ‘to go,’ anti-stes from stā-, ‘to stand,’ sacer-dos from dō-, ‘to give.’ The NT-suffix (-ent-, -ont-) was used to form the Pres. Part. Act., e.g. ferent- (Gk. φέροντ-), sont- (Gk. ὄν; ch. vi. § 17).

The WENT-suffix, like our ‘-ful,’ was added to Noun stems to form Adjectives, with the sense ‘possessed of,’ ‘abounding in,’ and occasionally ‘resembling,’ e.g. Gk. χαρίεις for *χαρι-ϝεντ-s, possessed of grace, graceful. In Latin it is augmented by the TO-suffix (§ 10), e.g. dolosus (Gk. δολόεις) for *dolo-venssus, nivosus (Gk. νιφόεις) for *nivo-venssus, with ss for tt (ch. x. § 17). Older spellings of this suffix are -onsus, -ossus (ch. x. § 19 n.).

Examples of Guttural Suffixes in Latin are Adjectives in -āx, expressing tendency or character, e.g. bibāx, dicāx, rapāx, pervicāx (cf. -ācus, § 11). (On Fem. -trix see § 12.)

(Nouns and Adjectives of third Decl.) The ES-suffix (varying with -ŏs-, &c., ch. x. § 12) was used to form Neuter Abstract Nouns with E-grade of root (ch. x. § 12) and accent on the root, e.g. I.-Eur. gĕnos Nom. Sg., gĕnĕs- in oblique Cases (Gk. γένος, γένε(σ)ος; Lat. genus, older *genos, generis, from *geneses, ch. iii. § 8). These Neuter-stems became Adjectives by transferring the accent to the suffix and substituting -ēs for -ŏs in Nom. Sg. Masc., -ĕs in Nom. Sg. Neut., e.g. Gk. εὐγενής Masc., -νές Neut. Beside them we find occasionally Masc. or Fem. Nouns with -ōs in Nom. Sg., a formation which came into great favour in Latin, e.g. tenor Masc. (from *tenōs, p. 52) beside tenus Neut. (Gk. τένος, a string) from the root ten-, ‘to stretch.’ But Adjective S-stems were avoided in Latin (cf. degener, bicorpor), the usual way of making an Adj. from a Neuter S-stem being to add the TO-suffix (§ 10), e.g. sceles-tus, funes-tus, jus-tus. A case of these Neuters was used as an Infinitive in various I.-Eur. languages, e.g. Lat. gignerĕ (Loc. Sg.), amari (Dat. Sg.) (see ch. vi. § 15). The YES-suffix was used to form Comparatives, Lat. -ior Nom., -iōris Gen., e.g. melior, melioris (from melios, *melios-es) (ch. iv. § 2).

Nouns formed directly from the root, without any suffix except those of the cases, are especially frequent as the second element of a Compound, and take in this position the function of a Nomen Agentis, e.g. au-spex, ‘seer of birds,’ from the root spec-, to see; parti-ceps, ‘taking a share.’ They are also found independently, e.g. Lat. dux, a leader. The Lat. Third Conj. Inf. Pass., e.g. agi, seems to be the Dat. of a suffixless Verbal Noun (ch. vi. § 15).

Compounds are seldom resolvable into two intact words like Gk. Διόσ-κουροι, Lat. juris-jurandi, patres-familiarum. The same is true of Reduplicates, which arose out of the habit of repeating a word for the sake of emphasis (cf. ‘a great, great deed’) or mimicry (cf. Lat. mur-mur); for one element is reduced almost beyond recognition, either the second element (in ‘broken’ or curtailed Reduplication), e.g. Lat. bal-b-us, gur-g-es, or more usually the first, e.g. ci-cind-ela, a glow-worm. [4] So in Compounds the full stem without the case suffixes is generally used in the first part of the Compound, e.g. juri-dicus (contrasted with juris-jurandi), patri-cida (contrasted with patres familiarum).

[4]: Lat. gur-gul-io, the throat, quer-quer-us, shivering, give equal prominence to both elements.

In Latin, owing to the weakening of unaccented vowels (ch. ii. § 14), every vowel in the final syllable of such a stem was liable to change under the early accentuation of the first syllable of each word (ch. ii. § 12), the usual reduction of a short vowel being to ĭ (ch. ii. § 14). Ĭ is thus the Latin ‘Composition-Vowel’ par excellence, usually representing I.-Eur. ŏ, which is found not only with O-stems, e.g. Gk. ἱππό-δαμος (cf. Lat. belli-ger), but also often with A-stems, e.g. Gk. νῑκό-μαχος beside νῑκη-φόρος (cf. Lat. ali-ger), N-stems, e.g. Gk. ἀκμό-θετον (cf. Lat. homi-cida), and appended to many Consonant-stems, e.g. Gk. δρακόντ-ό-μαλλος (Lat. pedi-sequus). [5]

[5]: Cf. silvifragus, used by Lucretius, who however complains that the ‘patrii sermonis egestas’ prevented him from reproducing the Greek compound ὁμοιομέρεια, i. 832.

Composition does not play so great a part in Latin as in Greek (cf. Liv. xxvi. 11. 4 quos ‘androgynos’ vulgus, ut pleraque, faciliore ad duplicanda verba Graeco sermone, appellat). The early dramatists and other imitators of Greek poetry incurred the censure of Quintilian for their attempts to reproduce Greek compounds like κυρταύχην in Latin, as in Pacuvius’ description of dolphins:

Nērei repāndirostrum, incuruiceruicum pecus;

and Virgil uses a periphrasis like (Averna) sonantia silvis (A. iii. 442), where an earlier poet might have employed a compound like silvisonus. The compound Proper Names of other I.-Eur. languages are, as we have seen (§ 3), replaced in Latin (and the other Italic languages) by Adjective IO-stems, such as Lūcius.

Tense-stems.

The formation of the Present-stem of the Verb has been discussed in §§ 2–5 of ch. vi. We have seen that the Derivative Verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations, that is to say, derivatives from Ā-stems, O-(Ē-)stems, and I-stems, exhibit a Y-suffix; e.g. fugo from fuga (stem fugā-) represents *fugā-yo, as Gk. τιμῶ from the A-stem τιμή represents *τιμά-yω and τιμῶμεν represents *τιμάyομεν; similarly clareo stands for *clarē-yo, finio for *fini-yo. Similar Derivatives from U-stems belong to the Third Conjugation, e.g. statuo for *statu-yo, which includes a large number of varied Present-forms, especially (1) Reduplicated, e.g. gi-gn-o from the root gĕn-. (2) With N-suffix or N-infix, e.g. ster-n-o from the root stĕr-, li-n-qᵘ-o from the root leiqᵘ- (Gk. λείπω). (3) With SKO-suffix, e.g. (g)nō-sco from the root gnō-; while a large number show the ordinary form of the root with no addition but the thematic vowel, e.g. lĕg-o from the root lĕg-.

The formation of the Perfect-stem has been treated in § 10 of the same chapter, with enumeration of the chief Latin types. (1) The Reduplicated Perfect, e.g. me-min-i (Gk. μέ-μον-α) from the root men-, the Reduplication being often dropped, sometimes at a recent stage, e.g. class. Lat. tuli for O. Lat. te-tul-i, sometimes as far back as the I.-Eur. period, e.g. vīd-i (Gk. (ϝ)οῖδα). The Long-vowel Perfects like ēgi from ago, pēgi (beside pe-pigi) from pango (root pag-) may be included in this class. (2) The S-Perfect, corresponding to the Greek First Aorist, e.g. dixi (O. Lat. deix-ei) like Gk. ἔ-δειξ-α, from the root deic-. (3) The V-Perfect, peculiar to Latin, e.g. al-u-i from the root al-, fuga-v-i, fini-v-i, statui (O. Lat. statu-v-i), re-plē-v-i from the root plē-, clar-u-i for *clarē-v-i, monui for *monē-v-i (ch. ii. § 15 fin.), and perhaps cāvi, fāvi, etc., if their āv stands for av, *cav-v-i, *fav-v-i. [6] The difference between Present and Perfect of the same Latin Verb, e.g. sino, sīvi, which so often puzzles the beginner, is due to the fact that a separate stem was used for either Tense, it being the exception and not the rule that a Present-stem formation should be retained throughout the conjugation of the verb, e.g. Perf. junxi (but Gk. ἔ-ζευξ-α) with the N-infix of the Present ju-n-g-o (cf. Gk. ζεύγ-νυ-μι).

[6]: Hence not, e.g. *cāram like fūgeram, *cassem like fugassem.

Examples of the relation of the Perfect- to the Present-stem in Latin are:

I. Reduplicated Perfect

(a) With Reduplicated Present, bibo, bibi; sisto, stiti; sido (for *si-s(ĕ)d-o), sedi. (b) With N-Present, ta-n-go, te-tig-i (cf. Hom. Gk. τεταγών); tu-n-do, tu-tud-i; pu-n-go, pu-pug-i; pello (for *pel-n-o), [7] pe-pul-i. The n of tondeo belongs to the root, for it is a Causative from the root tend- (Gk. τένδω). (c) With SKO-Present, disco (for *dic-sco, ch. x. § 20), di-dic-i. (d) With Y-Present, par-i-o, pe-per-i. Tuli, which has drifted apart from its original N-Present tollo (for *tol-n-o) and associated itself with fero, while tollo has adopted as its Perfect the compound su(b)s-tuli, was in O. Lat. a Reduplicated Perfect, te-tul-i. The Reduplication Syllable has likewise dropped off in scidi (O. Lat. sci-cid-i), fidi with their N-Presents sci-n-do, fi-n-do (from the I.-Eur. root bheid-, Engl. bite), and some verbs whom the loss of their Reduplication has left in a form resembling the Present-stem, e.g. verto, verti; cūdo, cūdi, while others retain distinctive features, e.g. rūp-i from ru-m-po, where the N-Present has the weak-grade of the root reup- (Engl. be-reave); similarly fūd-i from fu-n-do (root gheud-, Germ. giessen), vīc-i from vi-n-co (root weik-), līqu-i (cf. Gk. λέ-λοιπ-α) from li-n-qᵘ-o (root leiqᵘ-, Gk. λείπω); fūg-i (Gk. πέ-φευγ-α) beside fug-i-o, a Y-Present with the weak grade of the root bheug- (Gk. φεύγω); similarly sēdi beside sĕdeo (cf. Gk. ἕζομαι for *sĕd-yo-mai, a Y-Present), lēgi [8] beside lĕgo, a Root-Present. The absence of Reduplication in vīd-i, O. Lat. veidei (from woid-ai, ch. x. § 8), dates from I.-Eur. times (Gk. οἶδα for ϝοῖδ-α), and must have been equally old in Verbs beginning with a vowel, like ēdi from ĕdo, ēmi from ĕmo. We cannot settle the exact age of forms with ē in Perfect and ă in Present (cf. ago, ēgi), like făc-i-o, fēc-i (Gk. ἔ-θηκ-α), jăc-i-o, jēc-i, căp-i-o, cēp-i, O. Lat. apio (coepio), *epi (co-epi, class. coepi, a disyllable). These have Y-Presents, while fra-n-go, frēg-i, pā-n-go, pēg-i have N-Presents.

[7]: Pulsus should be *pultus (I.-Eur. pĕl-to-), and probably was in O. Lat., for pulto is Plautus’ form of the Frequentative.

[8]: The -lego of neg-lego (ch. ix. § 17), ‘I do not care for,’ di-ligo (*dis-lego), ‘I care for exceedingly,’ has been referred to a different Verb (cf. Gk. ἀ-λέγω, I care for), which took an S-Perfect, -lexi. Hence neg-lexi, di-lexi, but e-legi, de-legi, col-legi. Intellexi however offers a difficulty. The difference in the Perfect of the compounds of emo, ‘I take,’ has been referred to a discrimination between emo with its acquired sense, ‘I buy,’ and emo with its original sense, ‘I take.’ Hence coemi, ‘I bought up,’ beside compsi, dempsi, prompsi, sumpsi (S-Perfects).

II. S-Perfect

(a) With Root-Present, dico (O. Lat. deic-o), dixi (O. Lat. deix-ei, Gk. ἔ-δειξ-α); -leg-o, -lex-i (Gk. ἔ-λεξ-α); reg-o, rex-i (Gk. ὤ-ρεξ-α); teg-o, tex-i (Gk. ἔ-στεξ-α); duco (O. Lat. douco from deuc-o), duxi. In ūro (O. Lat. *ouro from *euso, Gk. εὕω for *εὔσω), us-si (cf. Gk. εὗσα for *eus-s-a) the S-Perfect has the weak-grade of the root. (b) With N-Present, (1) N-infix, jungo, junxi (cf. Gk. ἔζευξα); pingo, pinxi; plango, planxi; stringo, strinxi; exstinguo, exstinxi; fingo, finxi. They all retain this n in the Perfect, though not always in the P.P.P., e.g. junctus, exstinctus, planctus, but pictus, strictus, fictus; (2) N-suffix, temno, tempsi for tem-s-i. (c) With Y-Present, saep-i-o, saep-si; haurio (for *aus-i-o), hausi (for *auss-i, ch. ii. § 9); haereo (for *haesio), haesi (for *haes-s-i); a-spic-i-o (Gk. σκέπτομαι for *skep-yo-mai, p. 92), a-spex-i (Gk. ἐ-σκεψ-άμην); maneo, man-s-i. On the forms fulsi for *fulc-si from fulcio, fulsi for *fulg-si from fulgeo, mulsi for *mulc-si from mulceo, mulsi for *mulg-si from mulgeo, and with similar loss of Guttural in the Consonant-group, arsi, mersi, farsi, sparsi, tersi, torsi, ursi, see ch. x. § 20. The Assimilation (ch. x. § 20) of a Dental to the s of the Perfect produced ss, e.g. con-cuss-i from concutio, jussi from jubeo with b for original dh (ch. x. § 17), which after a long vowel or diphthong was by the Phonetic Law of classical Latin (ch. ii. § 9) reduced to single s, e.g. clausi (older claussi), vasi (older vassi), suasi (older suassi), laesi (older laessi). The same happened in the case of roots ending in s, e.g. gessi from the root ges (Pres. gero with r for intervocalic s, ch. x. § 19), jussi (see above), hausi and haesi (see above). Prēs-s-i shows us that prēmo must have had a by-form *prēso (cf. Gk. πρέσω and τρέ(σ)ω). The apparent discrepancy between vivo and vixi is due to the fact that the root ends in gᵘ (ch. x. § 18), which in Latin became v except before and after a consonant. Hence vivo for gᵘeigᵘō (cf. Engl. ‘quick,’ in the sense of ‘living’), but vixi for *vig-si, victus Noun for *vig-tus. Similarly veho (vexi, vectus) has an intervocalic gh in its normal Latin form h (ch. x. § 18). Cf. fruor, fructus sum; fluo, fluxi; struo, struxi.

III. U-Perfect

This is the Perfect par excellence of Vowel-Verbs, e.g. re-plē-v-i from the root plē-, fugā-v-i from the Derivative of the stem fugā-. But we find it also with roots ending in l, e.g. alo, alui; colo, colui; molo, molui; con-sulo, con-sului; sal-i-o (Gk. ἅλλομαι for *sal-yo-mai), salui. Cf. gem-ui, gen-ui, rap-ui, ap-er-ui, and op-er-ui (see ch. vii. §§ 2, 23). We have (a) a SKO-Present in (g)nō-sco (Gk. γι-γνώ-σκω); (g)nō-vi; pā-sco, pā-vi; crē-sco, crē-vi; quiē-sco, quiē-vi; sci-sco, scī-vi; (b) an N-Present in si-n-o (root sei-), sī-vi, of which one Compound de-sino retains the true Perfect desīvi or, with loss of intervocalic v (p. 14 n.), desii, but another, pōno for *pŏ-s(i)no (ch. vii. § 2), came in the classical period to assume a new Perfect posui through the influence of the P.P.P. positus; [9] li-n-o (root lei-), lē-vi; sper-n-o (from root sper-), sprē-vi (from a by-root sprē-); ster-n-o (from root ster-), strāvi (from a by-root strā-); cer-n-o, crē-vi; (c) a Reduplicated Present in sero (for *si-sō; cf. Gk. ἵημι for *si-sē-mi), sē-vi from the root sē-. The Perfects arcessivi, lacessivi, petivi, &c., point, as we have seen (ch. vi. § 4), to a by-form of the Present, *arcessio, *lacessio, *petio, like pinsio beside pinso. Quaesivi from *quaessio, a similar by-form of O. Lat. quaes(s)o (e.g. Enn. mari quaesentibu’ uitam) has become associated with a related Present quaero from *quaiso (with single s). Quaeso, prythee, is not the same form as quaero (ch. x. § 19).

[9]: Pŏ-si-tus was regarded as pos-itus with Verb-stem pōs-; and so a Perfect pos-ui was coined on the type of al-ui, al-itus, mon-ui, mon-itus, &c. But the older writers have invariably posīvi, e.g. Catullus xxxiv. 7: quam mater prope Deliam Deposivit olivam.

The other Tense-stems are discussed in ch. vi. §§ 8, 9, 11, 12, and the Mood-stems in § 13 of the same chapter.

Of suffixes used in forming Verb-stems, as opposed to Tense-stems, may be mentioned (1) -dh-, e.g. Gk. κνή-θ-ω beside κνίω. (2) -d-, e.g. Gk. ἔλ-δο-μαι from the root wĕl- (Lat. volo), which may be nothing but the Verb-stems dhē-, ‘to put,’ and dō-, ‘to give.’ Thus Lat. crēdo (with d for I.-Eur. dh, ch. x. § 17) meant originally ‘I set the heart to,’ the first part of the word being connected with cor, the heart. (3) -t-, e.g. Gk. πέκ-τ-ω (Lat. pec-t-o) beside πέκ-ω, which seems connected with the P.P.P. suffix -to-. (4) -s-, e.g. Gk. δέψω beside δέφω, τρέ-(σ)-ω beside τρέ-μ-ω, which seems the same as the ES-suffix of Nouns, e.g. Gk. τέλος, stem τελεσ- (Gk. τελέ(σ)ω, τε-τέλεσ-ται). Latin examples are: gau-d-eo (Gk. γήθομαι and γηθέω) for *gāvi-d-eo (cf. gāvisus), sallo for *sal-do (Engl. to salt), plec-to (Gk. πλέκ-τ-ω beside πλέκ-ω), vīso, older veisso, for weid-so, in-cesso for *in-ced-so (cf. cedo). (5) -ss- of capesso, incipisso (Plaut.), facesso, lacesso sometimes called ‘Intensives’ or ‘Desideratives’ of capio, incipio, facio, lacio, is connected with the Tense-formation (amasso, &c.) discussed in ch. vi. § 12. Other Latin endings are: (6) -lo and -illo of Diminutive Verbs, e.g. conscribillo Catull. (7) -co of albico, fodico, &c., another Diminutive suffix (§ 9). (8) -ro of lamb-ero, con-sid-ero, is like -ro of the Derivative temperare from tempus. (9) -igo of navigo, &c., is nothing but the Verb ago, as -fico of aedifico [1], etc., is the Verb facio, both having the form of Derivatives from Compound Verbal Nouns (cf. remigo from remex, Gk. οἰκοδομέω from οἰκοδόμος). Verbs in -lo, -illo, -co, -ro similarly show the Derivative Verb type and follow the First Conjugation. On Iteratives or Frequentatives in -to (-so), derivatives from Perf. Part. Pass. stems, see ch. vi. § 2, and on Desideratives in -turio (-surio), derivatives from Verbal Nouns in -tor, see ch. vi. § 5, on Verbs in -urio, -urrio, e.g. ligurrio, derivatives from Verbal Nouns in -ūru, see ch. vi. § 5.

[1]: A Compound Verb, composed of a Noun and a Simple Verb, takes in Latin the form of a First Conj. Derivative, e.g. aedifico from aedificus, in Greek the form of a Second Conj. Derivative, e.g. οἰκοδομέω from οἰκοδόμος.

§21

II. Verb-stems

II. Verb-stems

Tense-stems.

The formation of the Present-stem of the Verb has been discussed in §§ 2–5 of ch. vi. We have seen that the Derivative Verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations, that is to say, derivatives from Ā-stems, O-(Ē-)stems, and I-stems, exhibit a Y-suffix; e.g. fugo from fuga (stem fugā-) represents *fugā-yo, as Gk. τιμῶ from the A-stem τιμή represents *τιμά-yω and τιμῶμεν represents *τιμάyομεν; similarly clareo stands for *clarē-yo, finio for *fini-yo. Similar Derivatives from U-stems belong to the Third Conjugation, e.g. statuo for *statu-yo, which includes a large number of varied Present-forms, especially (1) Reduplicated, e.g. gi-gn-o from the root gĕn-. (2) With N-suffix or N-infix, e.g. ster-n-o from the root stĕr-, li-n-qᵘ-o from the root leiqᵘ- (Gk. λείπω). (3) With SKO-suffix, e.g. (g)nō-sco from the root gnō-; while a large number show the ordinary form of the root with no addition but the thematic vowel, e.g. lĕg-o from the root lĕg-.

The formation of the Perfect-stem has been treated in § 10 of the same chapter, with enumeration of the chief Latin types. (1) The Reduplicated Perfect, e.g. me-min-i (Gk. μέ-μον-α) from the root men-, the Reduplication being often dropped, sometimes at a recent stage, e.g. class. Lat. tuli for O. Lat. te-tul-i, sometimes as far back as the I.-Eur. period, e.g. vīd-i (Gk. (ϝ)οῖδα). The Long-vowel Perfects like ēgi from ago, pēgi (beside pe-pigi) from pango (root pag-) may be included in this class. (2) The S-Perfect, corresponding to the Greek First Aorist, e.g. dixi (O. Lat. deix-ei) like Gk. ἔ-δειξ-α, from the root deic-. (3) The V-Perfect, peculiar to Latin, e.g. al-u-i from the root al-, fuga-v-i, fini-v-i, statui (O. Lat. statu-v-i), re-plē-v-i from the root plē-, clar-u-i for *clarē-v-i, monui for *monē-v-i (ch. ii. § 15 fin.), and perhaps cāvi, fāvi, etc., if their āv stands for av, *cav-v-i, *fav-v-i. [6] The difference between Present and Perfect of the same Latin Verb, e.g. sino, sīvi, which so often puzzles the beginner, is due to the fact that a separate stem was used for either Tense, it being the exception and not the rule that a Present-stem formation should be retained throughout the conjugation of the verb, e.g. Perf. junxi (but Gk. ἔ-ζευξ-α) with the N-infix of the Present ju-n-g-o (cf. Gk. ζεύγ-νυ-μι).

[6]: Hence not, e.g. *cāram like fūgeram, *cassem like fugassem.

Examples of the relation of the Perfect- to the Present-stem in Latin are:

I. Reduplicated Perfect

(a) With Reduplicated Present, bibo, bibi; sisto, stiti; sido (for *si-s(ĕ)d-o), sedi. (b) With N-Present, ta-n-go, te-tig-i (cf. Hom. Gk. τεταγών); tu-n-do, tu-tud-i; pu-n-go, pu-pug-i; pello (for *pel-n-o), [7] pe-pul-i. The n of tondeo belongs to the root, for it is a Causative from the root tend- (Gk. τένδω). (c) With SKO-Present, disco (for *dic-sco, ch. x. § 20), di-dic-i. (d) With Y-Present, par-i-o, pe-per-i. Tuli, which has drifted apart from its original N-Present tollo (for *tol-n-o) and associated itself with fero, while tollo has adopted as its Perfect the compound su(b)s-tuli, was in O. Lat. a Reduplicated Perfect, te-tul-i. The Reduplication Syllable has likewise dropped off in scidi (O. Lat. sci-cid-i), fidi with their N-Presents sci-n-do, fi-n-do (from the I.-Eur. root bheid-, Engl. bite), and some verbs whom the loss of their Reduplication has left in a form resembling the Present-stem, e.g. verto, verti; cūdo, cūdi, while others retain distinctive features, e.g. rūp-i from ru-m-po, where the N-Present has the weak-grade of the root reup- (Engl. be-reave); similarly fūd-i from fu-n-do (root gheud-, Germ. giessen), vīc-i from vi-n-co (root weik-), līqu-i (cf. Gk. λέ-λοιπ-α) from li-n-qᵘ-o (root leiqᵘ-, Gk. λείπω); fūg-i (Gk. πέ-φευγ-α) beside fug-i-o, a Y-Present with the weak grade of the root bheug- (Gk. φεύγω); similarly sēdi beside sĕdeo (cf. Gk. ἕζομαι for *sĕd-yo-mai, a Y-Present), lēgi [8] beside lĕgo, a Root-Present. The absence of Reduplication in vīd-i, O. Lat. veidei (from woid-ai, ch. x. § 8), dates from I.-Eur. times (Gk. οἶδα for ϝοῖδ-α), and must have been equally old in Verbs beginning with a vowel, like ēdi from ĕdo, ēmi from ĕmo. We cannot settle the exact age of forms with ē in Perfect and ă in Present (cf. ago, ēgi), like făc-i-o, fēc-i (Gk. ἔ-θηκ-α), jăc-i-o, jēc-i, căp-i-o, cēp-i, O. Lat. apio (coepio), *epi (co-epi, class. coepi, a disyllable). These have Y-Presents, while fra-n-go, frēg-i, pā-n-go, pēg-i have N-Presents.

[7]: Pulsus should be *pultus (I.-Eur. pĕl-to-), and probably was in O. Lat., for pulto is Plautus’ form of the Frequentative.

[8]: The -lego of neg-lego (ch. ix. § 17), ‘I do not care for,’ di-ligo (*dis-lego), ‘I care for exceedingly,’ has been referred to a different Verb (cf. Gk. ἀ-λέγω, I care for), which took an S-Perfect, -lexi. Hence neg-lexi, di-lexi, but e-legi, de-legi, col-legi. Intellexi however offers a difficulty. The difference in the Perfect of the compounds of emo, ‘I take,’ has been referred to a discrimination between emo with its acquired sense, ‘I buy,’ and emo with its original sense, ‘I take.’ Hence coemi, ‘I bought up,’ beside compsi, dempsi, prompsi, sumpsi (S-Perfects).

II. S-Perfect

(a) With Root-Present, dico (O. Lat. deic-o), dixi (O. Lat. deix-ei, Gk. ἔ-δειξ-α); -leg-o, -lex-i (Gk. ἔ-λεξ-α); reg-o, rex-i (Gk. ὤ-ρεξ-α); teg-o, tex-i (Gk. ἔ-στεξ-α); duco (O. Lat. douco from deuc-o), duxi. In ūro (O. Lat. *ouro from *euso, Gk. εὕω for *εὔσω), us-si (cf. Gk. εὗσα for *eus-s-a) the S-Perfect has the weak-grade of the root. (b) With N-Present, (1) N-infix, jungo, junxi (cf. Gk. ἔζευξα); pingo, pinxi; plango, planxi; stringo, strinxi; exstinguo, exstinxi; fingo, finxi. They all retain this n in the Perfect, though not always in the P.P.P., e.g. junctus, exstinctus, planctus, but pictus, strictus, fictus; (2) N-suffix, temno, tempsi for tem-s-i. (c) With Y-Present, saep-i-o, saep-si; haurio (for *aus-i-o), hausi (for *auss-i, ch. ii. § 9); haereo (for *haesio), haesi (for *haes-s-i); a-spic-i-o (Gk. σκέπτομαι for *skep-yo-mai, p. 92), a-spex-i (Gk. ἐ-σκεψ-άμην); maneo, man-s-i. On the forms fulsi for *fulc-si from fulcio, fulsi for *fulg-si from fulgeo, mulsi for *mulc-si from mulceo, mulsi for *mulg-si from mulgeo, and with similar loss of Guttural in the Consonant-group, arsi, mersi, farsi, sparsi, tersi, torsi, ursi, see ch. x. § 20. The Assimilation (ch. x. § 20) of a Dental to the s of the Perfect produced ss, e.g. con-cuss-i from concutio, jussi from jubeo with b for original dh (ch. x. § 17), which after a long vowel or diphthong was by the Phonetic Law of classical Latin (ch. ii. § 9) reduced to single s, e.g. clausi (older claussi), vasi (older vassi), suasi (older suassi), laesi (older laessi). The same happened in the case of roots ending in s, e.g. gessi from the root ges (Pres. gero with r for intervocalic s, ch. x. § 19), jussi (see above), hausi and haesi (see above). Prēs-s-i shows us that prēmo must have had a by-form *prēso (cf. Gk. πρέσω and τρέ(σ)ω). The apparent discrepancy between vivo and vixi is due to the fact that the root ends in gᵘ (ch. x. § 18), which in Latin became v except before and after a consonant. Hence vivo for gᵘeigᵘō (cf. Engl. ‘quick,’ in the sense of ‘living’), but vixi for *vig-si, victus Noun for *vig-tus. Similarly veho (vexi, vectus) has an intervocalic gh in its normal Latin form h (ch. x. § 18). Cf. fruor, fructus sum; fluo, fluxi; struo, struxi.

III. U-Perfect

This is the Perfect par excellence of Vowel-Verbs, e.g. re-plē-v-i from the root plē-, fugā-v-i from the Derivative of the stem fugā-. But we find it also with roots ending in l, e.g. alo, alui; colo, colui; molo, molui; con-sulo, con-sului; sal-i-o (Gk. ἅλλομαι for *sal-yo-mai), salui. Cf. gem-ui, gen-ui, rap-ui, ap-er-ui, and op-er-ui (see ch. vii. §§ 2, 23). We have (a) a SKO-Present in (g)nō-sco (Gk. γι-γνώ-σκω); (g)nō-vi; pā-sco, pā-vi; crē-sco, crē-vi; quiē-sco, quiē-vi; sci-sco, scī-vi; (b) an N-Present in si-n-o (root sei-), sī-vi, of which one Compound de-sino retains the true Perfect desīvi or, with loss of intervocalic v (p. 14 n.), desii, but another, pōno for *pŏ-s(i)no (ch. vii. § 2), came in the classical period to assume a new Perfect posui through the influence of the P.P.P. positus; [9] li-n-o (root lei-), lē-vi; sper-n-o (from root sper-), sprē-vi (from a by-root sprē-); ster-n-o (from root ster-), strāvi (from a by-root strā-); cer-n-o, crē-vi; (c) a Reduplicated Present in sero (for *si-sō; cf. Gk. ἵημι for *si-sē-mi), sē-vi from the root sē-. The Perfects arcessivi, lacessivi, petivi, &c., point, as we have seen (ch. vi. § 4), to a by-form of the Present, *arcessio, *lacessio, *petio, like pinsio beside pinso. Quaesivi from *quaessio, a similar by-form of O. Lat. quaes(s)o (e.g. Enn. mari quaesentibu’ uitam) has become associated with a related Present quaero from *quaiso (with single s). Quaeso, prythee, is not the same form as quaero (ch. x. § 19).

[9]: Pŏ-si-tus was regarded as pos-itus with Verb-stem pōs-; and so a Perfect pos-ui was coined on the type of al-ui, al-itus, mon-ui, mon-itus, &c. But the older writers have invariably posīvi, e.g. Catullus xxxiv. 7: quam mater prope Deliam Deposivit olivam.

The other Tense-stems are discussed in ch. vi. §§ 8, 9, 11, 12, and the Mood-stems in § 13 of the same chapter.

Tense-stems.

The formation of the Present-stem of the Verb has been discussed in §§ 2–5 of ch. vi. We have seen that the Derivative Verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations, that is to say, derivatives from Ā-stems, O-(Ē-)stems, and I-stems, exhibit a Y-suffix; e.g. fugo from fuga (stem fugā-) represents *fugā-yo, as Gk. τιμῶ from the A-stem τιμή represents *τιμά-yω and τιμῶμεν represents *τιμάyομεν; similarly clareo stands for *clarē-yo, finio for *fini-yo. Similar Derivatives from U-stems belong to the Third Conjugation, e.g. statuo for *statu-yo, which includes a large number of varied Present-forms, especially (1) Reduplicated, e.g. gi-gn-o from the root gĕn-. (2) With N-suffix or N-infix, e.g. ster-n-o from the root stĕr-, li-n-qᵘ-o from the root leiqᵘ- (Gk. λείπω). (3) With SKO-suffix, e.g. (g)nō-sco from the root gnō-; while a large number show the ordinary form of the root with no addition but the thematic vowel, e.g. lĕg-o from the root lĕg-.

The formation of the Perfect-stem has been treated in § 10 of the same chapter, with enumeration of the chief Latin types. (1) The Reduplicated Perfect, e.g. me-min-i (Gk. μέ-μον-α) from the root men-, the Reduplication being often dropped, sometimes at a recent stage, e.g. class. Lat. tuli for O. Lat. te-tul-i, sometimes as far back as the I.-Eur. period, e.g. vīd-i (Gk. (ϝ)οῖδα). The Long-vowel Perfects like ēgi from ago, pēgi (beside pe-pigi) from pango (root pag-) may be included in this class. (2) The S-Perfect, corresponding to the Greek First Aorist, e.g. dixi (O. Lat. deix-ei) like Gk. ἔ-δειξ-α, from the root deic-. (3) The V-Perfect, peculiar to Latin, e.g. al-u-i from the root al-, fuga-v-i, fini-v-i, statui (O. Lat. statu-v-i), re-plē-v-i from the root plē-, clar-u-i for *clarē-v-i, monui for *monē-v-i (ch. ii. § 15 fin.), and perhaps cāvi, fāvi, etc., if their āv stands for av, *cav-v-i, *fav-v-i. [6] The difference between Present and Perfect of the same Latin Verb, e.g. sino, sīvi, which so often puzzles the beginner, is due to the fact that a separate stem was used for either Tense, it being the exception and not the rule that a Present-stem formation should be retained throughout the conjugation of the verb, e.g. Perf. junxi (but Gk. ἔ-ζευξ-α) with the N-infix of the Present ju-n-g-o (cf. Gk. ζεύγ-νυ-μι).

[6]: Hence not, e.g. *cāram like fūgeram, *cassem like fugassem.

Examples of the relation of the Perfect- to the Present-stem in Latin are:

I. Reduplicated Perfect

(a) With Reduplicated Present, bibo, bibi; sisto, stiti; sido (for *si-s(ĕ)d-o), sedi. (b) With N-Present, ta-n-go, te-tig-i (cf. Hom. Gk. τεταγών); tu-n-do, tu-tud-i; pu-n-go, pu-pug-i; pello (for *pel-n-o), [7] pe-pul-i. The n of tondeo belongs to the root, for it is a Causative from the root tend- (Gk. τένδω). (c) With SKO-Present, disco (for *dic-sco, ch. x. § 20), di-dic-i. (d) With Y-Present, par-i-o, pe-per-i. Tuli, which has drifted apart from its original N-Present tollo (for *tol-n-o) and associated itself with fero, while tollo has adopted as its Perfect the compound su(b)s-tuli, was in O. Lat. a Reduplicated Perfect, te-tul-i. The Reduplication Syllable has likewise dropped off in scidi (O. Lat. sci-cid-i), fidi with their N-Presents sci-n-do, fi-n-do (from the I.-Eur. root bheid-, Engl. bite), and some verbs whom the loss of their Reduplication has left in a form resembling the Present-stem, e.g. verto, verti; cūdo, cūdi, while others retain distinctive features, e.g. rūp-i from ru-m-po, where the N-Present has the weak-grade of the root reup- (Engl. be-reave); similarly fūd-i from fu-n-do (root gheud-, Germ. giessen), vīc-i from vi-n-co (root weik-), līqu-i (cf. Gk. λέ-λοιπ-α) from li-n-qᵘ-o (root leiqᵘ-, Gk. λείπω); fūg-i (Gk. πέ-φευγ-α) beside fug-i-o, a Y-Present with the weak grade of the root bheug- (Gk. φεύγω); similarly sēdi beside sĕdeo (cf. Gk. ἕζομαι for *sĕd-yo-mai, a Y-Present), lēgi [8] beside lĕgo, a Root-Present. The absence of Reduplication in vīd-i, O. Lat. veidei (from woid-ai, ch. x. § 8), dates from I.-Eur. times (Gk. οἶδα for ϝοῖδ-α), and must have been equally old in Verbs beginning with a vowel, like ēdi from ĕdo, ēmi from ĕmo. We cannot settle the exact age of forms with ē in Perfect and ă in Present (cf. ago, ēgi), like făc-i-o, fēc-i (Gk. ἔ-θηκ-α), jăc-i-o, jēc-i, căp-i-o, cēp-i, O. Lat. apio (coepio), *epi (co-epi, class. coepi, a disyllable). These have Y-Presents, while fra-n-go, frēg-i, pā-n-go, pēg-i have N-Presents.

[7]: Pulsus should be *pultus (I.-Eur. pĕl-to-), and probably was in O. Lat., for pulto is Plautus’ form of the Frequentative.

[8]: The -lego of neg-lego (ch. ix. § 17), ‘I do not care for,’ di-ligo (*dis-lego), ‘I care for exceedingly,’ has been referred to a different Verb (cf. Gk. ἀ-λέγω, I care for), which took an S-Perfect, -lexi. Hence neg-lexi, di-lexi, but e-legi, de-legi, col-legi. Intellexi however offers a difficulty. The difference in the Perfect of the compounds of emo, ‘I take,’ has been referred to a discrimination between emo with its acquired sense, ‘I buy,’ and emo with its original sense, ‘I take.’ Hence coemi, ‘I bought up,’ beside compsi, dempsi, prompsi, sumpsi (S-Perfects).

II. S-Perfect

(a) With Root-Present, dico (O. Lat. deic-o), dixi (O. Lat. deix-ei, Gk. ἔ-δειξ-α); -leg-o, -lex-i (Gk. ἔ-λεξ-α); reg-o, rex-i (Gk. ὤ-ρεξ-α); teg-o, tex-i (Gk. ἔ-στεξ-α); duco (O. Lat. douco from deuc-o), duxi. In ūro (O. Lat. *ouro from *euso, Gk. εὕω for *εὔσω), us-si (cf. Gk. εὗσα for *eus-s-a) the S-Perfect has the weak-grade of the root. (b) With N-Present, (1) N-infix, jungo, junxi (cf. Gk. ἔζευξα); pingo, pinxi; plango, planxi; stringo, strinxi; exstinguo, exstinxi; fingo, finxi. They all retain this n in the Perfect, though not always in the P.P.P., e.g. junctus, exstinctus, planctus, but pictus, strictus, fictus; (2) N-suffix, temno, tempsi for tem-s-i. (c) With Y-Present, saep-i-o, saep-si; haurio (for *aus-i-o), hausi (for *auss-i, ch. ii. § 9); haereo (for *haesio), haesi (for *haes-s-i); a-spic-i-o (Gk. σκέπτομαι for *skep-yo-mai, p. 92), a-spex-i (Gk. ἐ-σκεψ-άμην); maneo, man-s-i. On the forms fulsi for *fulc-si from fulcio, fulsi for *fulg-si from fulgeo, mulsi for *mulc-si from mulceo, mulsi for *mulg-si from mulgeo, and with similar loss of Guttural in the Consonant-group, arsi, mersi, farsi, sparsi, tersi, torsi, ursi, see ch. x. § 20. The Assimilation (ch. x. § 20) of a Dental to the s of the Perfect produced ss, e.g. con-cuss-i from concutio, jussi from jubeo with b for original dh (ch. x. § 17), which after a long vowel or diphthong was by the Phonetic Law of classical Latin (ch. ii. § 9) reduced to single s, e.g. clausi (older claussi), vasi (older vassi), suasi (older suassi), laesi (older laessi). The same happened in the case of roots ending in s, e.g. gessi from the root ges (Pres. gero with r for intervocalic s, ch. x. § 19), jussi (see above), hausi and haesi (see above). Prēs-s-i shows us that prēmo must have had a by-form *prēso (cf. Gk. πρέσω and τρέ(σ)ω). The apparent discrepancy between vivo and vixi is due to the fact that the root ends in gᵘ (ch. x. § 18), which in Latin became v except before and after a consonant. Hence vivo for gᵘeigᵘō (cf. Engl. ‘quick,’ in the sense of ‘living’), but vixi for *vig-si, victus Noun for *vig-tus. Similarly veho (vexi, vectus) has an intervocalic gh in its normal Latin form h (ch. x. § 18). Cf. fruor, fructus sum; fluo, fluxi; struo, struxi.

III. U-Perfect

This is the Perfect par excellence of Vowel-Verbs, e.g. re-plē-v-i from the root plē-, fugā-v-i from the Derivative of the stem fugā-. But we find it also with roots ending in l, e.g. alo, alui; colo, colui; molo, molui; con-sulo, con-sului; sal-i-o (Gk. ἅλλομαι for *sal-yo-mai), salui. Cf. gem-ui, gen-ui, rap-ui, ap-er-ui, and op-er-ui (see ch. vii. §§ 2, 23). We have (a) a SKO-Present in (g)nō-sco (Gk. γι-γνώ-σκω); (g)nō-vi; pā-sco, pā-vi; crē-sco, crē-vi; quiē-sco, quiē-vi; sci-sco, scī-vi; (b) an N-Present in si-n-o (root sei-), sī-vi, of which one Compound de-sino retains the true Perfect desīvi or, with loss of intervocalic v (p. 14 n.), desii, but another, pōno for *pŏ-s(i)no (ch. vii. § 2), came in the classical period to assume a new Perfect posui through the influence of the P.P.P. positus; [9] li-n-o (root lei-), lē-vi; sper-n-o (from root sper-), sprē-vi (from a by-root sprē-); ster-n-o (from root ster-), strāvi (from a by-root strā-); cer-n-o, crē-vi; (c) a Reduplicated Present in sero (for *si-sō; cf. Gk. ἵημι for *si-sē-mi), sē-vi from the root sē-. The Perfects arcessivi, lacessivi, petivi, &c., point, as we have seen (ch. vi. § 4), to a by-form of the Present, *arcessio, *lacessio, *petio, like pinsio beside pinso. Quaesivi from *quaessio, a similar by-form of O. Lat. quaes(s)o (e.g. Enn. mari quaesentibu’ uitam) has become associated with a related Present quaero from *quaiso (with single s). Quaeso, prythee, is not the same form as quaero (ch. x. § 19).

[9]: Pŏ-si-tus was regarded as pos-itus with Verb-stem pōs-; and so a Perfect pos-ui was coined on the type of al-ui, al-itus, mon-ui, mon-itus, &c. But the older writers have invariably posīvi, e.g. Catullus xxxiv. 7: quam mater prope Deliam Deposivit olivam.

The other Tense-stems are discussed in ch. vi. §§ 8, 9, 11, 12, and the Mood-stems in § 13 of the same chapter.

§22

Verb-stems

Verb-stems

Of suffixes used in forming Verb-stems, as opposed to Tense-stems, may be mentioned (1) -dh-, e.g. Gk. κνή-θ-ω beside κνίω. (2) -d-, e.g. Gk. ἔλ-δο-μαι from the root wĕl- (Lat. volo), which may be nothing but the Verb-stems dhē-, ‘to put,’ and dō-, ‘to give.’ Thus Lat. crēdo (with d for I.-Eur. dh, ch. x. § 17) meant originally ‘I set the heart to,’ the first part of the word being connected with cor, the heart. (3) -t-, e.g. Gk. πέκ-τ-ω (Lat. pec-t-o) beside πέκ-ω, which seems connected with the P.P.P. suffix -to-. (4) -s-, e.g. Gk. δέψω beside δέφω, τρέ-(σ)-ω beside τρέ-μ-ω, which seems the same as the ES-suffix of Nouns, e.g. Gk. τέλος, stem τελεσ- (Gk. τελέ(σ)ω, τε-τέλεσ-ται). Latin examples are: gau-d-eo (Gk. γήθομαι and γηθέω) for *gāvi-d-eo (cf. gāvisus), sallo for *sal-do (Engl. to salt), plec-to (Gk. πλέκ-τ-ω beside πλέκ-ω), vīso, older veisso, for weid-so, in-cesso for *in-ced-so (cf. cedo). (5) -ss- of capesso, incipisso (Plaut.), facesso, lacesso sometimes called ‘Intensives’ or ‘Desideratives’ of capio, incipio, facio, lacio, is connected with the Tense-formation (amasso, &c.) discussed in ch. vi. § 12. Other Latin endings are: (6) -lo and -illo of Diminutive Verbs, e.g. conscribillo Catull. (7) -co of albico, fodico, &c., another Diminutive suffix (§ 9). (8) -ro of lamb-ero, con-sid-ero, is like -ro of the Derivative temperare from tempus. (9) -igo of navigo, &c., is nothing but the Verb ago, as -fico of aedifico [1], etc., is the Verb facio, both having the form of Derivatives from Compound Verbal Nouns (cf. remigo from remex, Gk. οἰκοδομέω from οἰκοδόμος). Verbs in -lo, -illo, -co, -ro similarly show the Derivative Verb type and follow the First Conjugation. On Iteratives or Frequentatives in -to (-so), derivatives from Perf. Part. Pass. stems, see ch. vi. § 2, and on Desideratives in -turio (-surio), derivatives from Verbal Nouns in -tor, see ch. vi. § 5, on Verbs in -urio, -urrio, e.g. ligurrio, derivatives from Verbal Nouns in -ūru, see ch. vi. § 5.

[1]: A Compound Verb, composed of a Noun and a Simple Verb, takes in Latin the form of a First Conj. Derivative, e.g. aedifico from aedificus, in Greek the form of a Second Conj. Derivative, e.g. οἰκοδομέω from οἰκοδόμος.

Of suffixes used in forming Verb-stems, as opposed to Tense-stems, may be mentioned (1) -dh-, e.g. Gk. κνή-θ-ω beside κνίω. (2) -d-, e.g. Gk. ἔλ-δο-μαι from the root wĕl- (Lat. volo), which may be nothing but the Verb-stems dhē-, ‘to put,’ and dō-, ‘to give.’ Thus Lat. crēdo (with d for I.-Eur. dh, ch. x. § 17) meant originally ‘I set the heart to,’ the first part of the word being connected with cor, the heart. (3) -t-, e.g. Gk. πέκ-τ-ω (Lat. pec-t-o) beside πέκ-ω, which seems connected with the P.P.P. suffix -to-. (4) -s-, e.g. Gk. δέψω beside δέφω, τρέ-(σ)-ω beside τρέ-μ-ω, which seems the same as the ES-suffix of Nouns, e.g. Gk. τέλος, stem τελεσ- (Gk. τελέ(σ)ω, τε-τέλεσ-ται). Latin examples are: gau-d-eo (Gk. γήθομαι and γηθέω) for *gāvi-d-eo (cf. gāvisus), sallo for *sal-do (Engl. to salt), plec-to (Gk. πλέκ-τ-ω beside πλέκ-ω), vīso, older veisso, for weid-so, in-cesso for *in-ced-so (cf. cedo). (5) -ss- of capesso, incipisso (Plaut.), facesso, lacesso sometimes called ‘Intensives’ or ‘Desideratives’ of capio, incipio, facio, lacio, is connected with the Tense-formation (amasso, &c.) discussed in ch. vi. § 12. Other Latin endings are: (6) -lo and -illo of Diminutive Verbs, e.g. conscribillo Catull. (7) -co of albico, fodico, &c., another Diminutive suffix (§ 9). (8) -ro of lamb-ero, con-sid-ero, is like -ro of the Derivative temperare from tempus. (9) -igo of navigo, &c., is nothing but the Verb ago, as -fico of aedifico [1], etc., is the Verb facio, both having the form of Derivatives from Compound Verbal Nouns (cf. remigo from remex, Gk. οἰκοδομέω from οἰκοδόμος). Verbs in -lo, -illo, -co, -ro similarly show the Derivative Verb type and follow the First Conjugation. On Iteratives or Frequentatives in -to (-so), derivatives from Perf. Part. Pass. stems, see ch. vi. § 2, and on Desideratives in -turio (-surio), derivatives from Verbal Nouns in -tor, see ch. vi. § 5, on Verbs in -urio, -urrio, e.g. ligurrio, derivatives from Verbal Nouns in -ūru, see ch. vi. § 5.

[1]: A Compound Verb, composed of a Noun and a Simple Verb, takes in Latin the form of a First Conj. Derivative, e.g. aedifico from aedificus, in Greek the form of a Second Conj. Derivative, e.g. οἰκοδομέω from οἰκοδόμος.