Elementary Greek Grammar: PART I. LETTERS, SYLLABLES, AND ACCENTS.

The Greek alphabet has twenty-four letters:

Remark. The Greek υ was represented by the Latin y, and was probably pronounced somewhat like the French u or the German ü. For remarks on pronunciation see the Preface.

Note. 1. At the end of a word the form ς is used, elsewhere the form σ; thus, σύστασις.

Note. 2. Two obsolete letters- Vaw or Digamma (F or 6) equivalent to V or W, and Koppa (7), equivalent to Q-and also the character San(2), a form of Sigma, are used as numerals (§ 76). The first of these had not entirely disappeared in pronunciation when the Homeric poems were composed, and the metre of many verses in these is explained only by admitting its presence. Many forms also which seem irregular are explained only on the supposition that F has been omitted: see § 53, 3, N. 1; § 54, N.; § 108, IL, 2.

§ 2

The vowels are α, ε, η, ι, ο, ω, and υ. Of these, ε and ο are always short; η and ω are always long; α, ι, and υ are sometimes short and sometimes long, whence they are called doubtful vowels.

Note. Α, ε, η, ο, and ω from their pronunciation are called open vowels; ι and υ are called close vowels.

§ 3

The diphthongs (δί-φθογγοι, double sounds) are αι, αυ, ει, ευ, οι, ου, ηυ, υι, ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ. These are formed by the union of an open vowel with a close one; except υι, which is formed of the two close vowels. The union of a long vowel (ᾱ, η, ω) with ι forms the (so called) improper diphthongs ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ. The Ionic dialect has also a diphthong ωυ.

Note. In ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ, the ι is now written below the first vowel, and is called iota subscript. But with capitals it is written in the line; as in ΤΗΙ ΚΩΜΩΙΔΙΑΙ, τῇ κωμῳδίᾳ, and in Ὤιχετο, ᾤχετο. This was written as an ordinary letter as long as it was pronounced, that is, until the first century B.C.

1. Every vowel or diphthong at the beginning of a word has either the rough breathing (῾) or the smooth breathing (᾿). The rough breathing shows that the vowel is aspirated, i.e. that it is preceded by the sound of h; the smooth breathing shows that the vowel is not aspirated. Thus ὁρῶν, seeing, is pronounced hŏrōn; but ὀρῶν, of mountains, is pronounced ŏrōn.

Note 1. A diphthong takes the breathing (like the accent) upon its second vowel. But ᾳ, ῃ, and ῳ take it upon the first vowel, even when the ι is written in the line. Thus οἴχεται, εὐφραίνω, Αἵμων; but ᾤχετο or Ὤιχετο, ᾄδω or Ἄιδω, ᾔδειν or Ἤιδειν. On the other hand, the breathing of ἀΐδιος (Ἀΐδιος) shows that α and ι do not form a diphthong.

Note 2. The rough breathing was once denoted by H. When this character was taken to denote long e (which once was not distinguished from e), half of it Ͱ was used for the rough breathing; and afterwards the other half Ͱ was used for the smooth breathing. From these fragments came the later signs ῾ and ᾿.

2. The consonant ρ is generally written ῥ at the beginning of a word. In the middle of a word ρρ is often written ῤῥ. Thus ῥήτωρ (rhetor), orator; ἄῤῥητος, unspeakable; Πύῤῥος, Pyrrhus (ῤῥ = rrh).

§ 5

1. The consonants are divided into

2. The double consonants are ξ, ψ, ζ. Ξ is composed of κ and σ; ψ, of π and σ. Ζ generally arises from a combination of δ with a soft s sound (originally dj); hence it has the effect of two consonants in lengthening a preceding vowel (§ 19, 2).

§ 6

By another classification, the consonants are divided into semivowels and mutes.

1. The semivowels are λ, μ, ν, ρ, and σ; of which the first four are called liquids, and σ is called a sibilant. Μ and νare also called nasals; to which must be added γ before κ, γ, χ, or ξ, where it has the sound of ν, as in ἄγκυρα (ancora), anchor.

2. The mutes are of three orders:—

• smooth mutes, π, κ, τ,
• middle mutes, β, γ, δ,
• rough mutes, φ, χ, θ.

These again correspond in the following classes:—

• labial mutes, π, β, φ,
• palatal mutes, κ, γ, χ,
• lingual mutes, τ, δ, θ.

Note. Mutes of the same order are called co-ordinate; those of the same class are called cognate. The smooth and rough mutes, with σ, ξ, and ψ, are called surd (hushed sounds); the other consonants and the vowels are called sonant.

§ 7.

The only consonants which can stand at the end of a Greek word are ν, ρ, and ς. If others are left at the end in forming words (cf. § 46, 1), they are dropped.

Note. The only exceptions are found in the proclitics (§ 29) ἐκ and οὐκ (or οὐχ), which have other forms, ἐξ and οὐ. Final ξ and ψ (κσ and πσ) are no exceptions.

COLLISION OF VOWELS. HIATUS.

§ 8.

A succession of two vowel sounds, not forming a diphthong, was generally displeasing to the Athenians. In the middle of a word this could be avoided by contraction (§ 9). Between two words—where it is called hiatus, and was especially offensive—it could be avoided by crasis (§ 11), by elision (§ 12), or by adding a movable consonant (§ 13) to the former word.

CONTRACTION OF VOWELS.

§ 9.

Two successive vowels, or a vowel and a diphthong, are often united by contraction in a single long vowel or a diphthong; as φιλέω, φιλῶ; φίλεε, φίλει; τίμαε, τίμα. It seldom takes place unless the former vowel is open (§ 2, Note).

The regular use of contraction is one of the characteristics of the Attic dialect. It follows these general principles:—

1. Two vowels which can form a diphthong (§ 3) simply unite in one syllable; as τείχεϊ, τείχει; γέραϊ, γέραι; ῥάϊστος, ῥᾷστος.

2. If one of the vowels is ο or ω, they are contracted into ω. But εο, οο, and οε give ου. Thus δηλόητε, δηλῶτε; φιλέωσι, φιλῶσι; τιμάομεν, τιμῶμεν; τιμάωμεν, τιμῶμεν; δηλόω, δηλῶ;—but γένεος, γένους; πλόος, πλοῦς; νόε, νοῦ.

Note. In contract adjectives in οος (§ 65) ο is dropped before α and η, αι and ῃ; as ἁπλόα, ἁπλᾶ; ἁπλόη, ἁπλῆ; ἁπλόαι, ἁπλαῖ; ἁπλόῃ, ἁπλῇ.

3. If the two vowels are α and ε (or η), the first vowel sound prevails, and we have ᾱ or η. Αα gives ᾱ, εη or ηε gives η; but εε gives ει. Thus, ἐτίμαε, ἐτίμα; τιμάητε, τιμᾶτε; τείχεα, τείχη; μνάα, μνᾶ; φιλέητε, φιλῆτε; τιμήεντος, τιμῆντος; ἐφίλεε, ἐφίλει.

Note. In the first and second declensions, εα becomes ᾱ in the dual and plural, and in all numbers after a vowel or ρ (§§ 38, 65); it also becomes ᾱ in the third declension whenever it follows a vowel (§ 52, 2, N. 2; § 53, 3, N. 3). In the dual of the third declension εε sometimes becomes η (§ 52, 2; § 53, 1, N. 2). In the accusative plural of the third declension εας generally becomes εις (§ 51, 2).

4. A vowel disappears by absorption before a diphthong beginning with the same vowel. Further, ε is always absorbed before οι, and in contract nouns and adjectives also before αι. In other cases, a simple vowel followed by a diphthong is contracted with the first vowel of the diphthong, and the second vowel disappears unless it can be retained as iota subscript (§ 3) in ᾳ, ῃ, or ῳ. Thus, μνάαι, μναῖ; μνάᾳ, μνᾷ; φιλέει, φιλεῖ; φιλέῃ, φιλῇ; δηλόοι, δηλοῖ; νόῳ, νῷ; δηλόου, δηλοῦ; χρύσεοι, χρυσοῖ; χρύσεαι, χρυσαῖ (cf. ἁπλόαι, ἁπλαῖ); τιμάει, τιμᾷ; τιμάῃ, τιμᾷ; τιμάοι, τιμῷ; τιμάου, τιμῶ; φιλέου, φιλοῦ; λύεαι, λύῃ (v. Note 1); λύηαι, λύῃ; μεμνήοιο, μεμνῷο; πλακόεις, πλακοῦς (v. N. 2).

Note 1. In the second person singular of the passive and middle, εαι (for εσαι) gives a form in ει as well as that in ῃ; as λύεαι, λύῃ or λύει. (See § 113, 2, N. 1.)

Note 2. In verbs in όω, οει and οῃ give οι; as δηλόεις, δηλοῖς; δηλόῃ, δηλοῖ (cf. ἁπλόῃ, ἁπλῇ, 2, Note). Infinitives in άειν and όειν lose ι in the contracted form; as τιμάειν, τιμᾶν; δηλόειν, δηλοῦν (§ 98, N. 5).

5. The close vowels (ι and υ) are contracted with a following vowel in some forms of nouns in ις and υς of the third declension. (See § 53, 1, N. 3; § 53, 2.)

Remark. In some classes of nouns and adjectives of the third declension, contraction is confined to certain cases; see §§ 53, 67. For exceptions in the contraction of verbs see § 98, Notes 1, 2, 3.

SYNIZESIS.

§ 10.

In poetry, two successive vowels, not forming a diphthong, are sometimes united in pronunciation for the sake of the metre, without being contracted. This is called synizēsis (συνίζησις, settling together). Thus, θεοί may make but one syllable in poetry; στήθεα or χρυσέῳ may make but two.

CRASIS AND ELISION.

§ 11.

1. A vowel or diphthong at the end of a word is often contracted with one at the beginning of the following word. This is called crasis (κρᾶσις, mixture). The corōnis (᾽) is placed over the contracted syllable. The first of the two words is generally an article, a relative pronoun, or καί.

Crasis generally follows the laws of contraction (§ 9), but with these modifications: —

(a.) A diphthong at the end of the first word drops its last vowel before crasis takes place.

(b.) The article drops its final vowel or diphthong in crasis before α. The particle τοί drops οι before α; and καί drops αι before η, αυ, ευ, ου, and the words εἰ, εἷς, οἱ, αἱ.

2. The following are examples of crasis: —

Τὸ ὄνομα, τοὔνομα; τὰ ἀγαθά, τἀγαθά; τὸ ἐναντίον, τοὐναντίον; ὁ ἐκ, οὑκ; ὁ ἐπί, οὑπί; τὸ ἱμάτιον, θοἰμάτιον (§ 17, 1); ἃ ἄν, ἅν; καὶ ἄν, κἄν; καὶ εἶτα, κᾆτα; — ὁ ἀνήρ, ἁνήρ; οἱ ἀδελφοί, ἁδελφοί; τῷ ἀνδρί, τἀνδρί; τὸ αὐτό, ταὐτό; τοῦ αὐτοῦ, ταὐτοῦ; — τοι ἄν, τἄν (μέντοι ἄν, μεντἄν); τοι ἄρα, τἄρα; — καὶ αὐτός, καὐτός; καὶ αὕτη, χαὕτη (§ 17, 1); καὶ εἰ, κεἰ; καὶ οὐ, κοὐ; καὶ οἱ, χοἱ; καὶ αἱ, χαἱ. So ἐγὼ οἶδα, ἐγᾦδα; ὦ ἄνθρωπε, ὤνθρωπε; τῇ ἐπαρῇ, τῇπαρῇ; προέχων, προὔχων.

Note 1. If the first word is an article or relative with the rough breathing, this breathing is retained on the contracted syllable, taking the place of the coronis; as in ἅν, ἁνήρ.

Note 2. In crasis, ἕτερος takes the form ἅτερος, — whence θατέρου, θατέρῳ, &c. (§ 11, 1, b; § 17, 1.)

Note 3. Crasis, like contraction (§ 10), may be left to pronunciation in poetry. Thus, μὴ οὐ makes one syllable in poetry; so μὴ εἰδέναι, ἐπεὶ οὐ.

Note 4. A short vowel at the beginning of a word is sometimes dropped after a long vowel or a diphthong. This is called aphaeresis (ἀφαίρεσις, taking off). Thus, μὴ 'γώ for μὴ ἐγώ; ποῦ 'στιν for ποῦ ἐστιν; ἐγὼ 'φάνην for ἐγὼ ἐφάνην.

Note 5. Crasis is much more common in poetry than in prose.

§ 12.

1. A short final vowel may be dropped when the next word begins with a vowel. This is called elision. An apostrophe (') marks the omission. E.g.

Δι' ἐμοῦ for διὰ ἐμοῦ; ἀντ' ἐκείνης for ἀντὶ ἐκείνης; λέγοιμ' ἄν for λέγοιμι ἄν; ἀλλ' εὐθύς for ἀλλὰ εὐθύς, ἐπ' ἀνθρώπῳ for ἐπὶ ἀνθρώπῳ. So ἐφ' ἑτέρῳ; νύχθ' ὅλην for νύκτα ὅλην (§ 17, 1; 16, 1).

2. A short final vowel is generally elided also when it comes before a vowel in forming a compound word. Here no apostrophe is used. E.g.

Ἀπ-αιτέω (ἀπό and αἰτέω), δι-έβαλον (διά and ἔβαλον). So ἀφ-αιρέω (ἀπό and αἱρέω, § 17, 1); δεχ-ήμερος (δέκα and ἡμέρα).

Note 1. The poets sometimes elide αι in the verbal endings μαι, σαι, ται, and σθαι. So οι in οἴμοι, and rarely in μοι.

Note 2. The prepositions περί and πρό, the conjunction ὅτι, that, and datives in ι of the third declension, are not elided in Attic Greek. The form ὅτ' stands for ὅτε, when.

Note 3. The poets sometimes cut off a short vowel even before a consonant. Thus in Homer we find ἄρ, ἄν, κάτ, and πάρ, for ἄρα, ἀνά, κατά, and παρά. In composition, κάτ assimilates its τ to a following consonant and drops it before two consonants; as κάββαλε and κάκτανε, for κατ-έβαλε and κατ-έκτανε; — but κατθανεῖν for καταθανεῖν (§ 15, 1).

Note 4. Elision is often neglected in prose, especially by certain writers (as Thucydides). Others (as Isocrates) are more strict in its use.

1. Most words ending in σι, and all verbs of the third person ending in ε, add ν when the next word begins with a vowel. This is called ν movable. E.g.

Πᾶσι δίδωσι ταῦτα; but πᾶσιν ἔδωκεν ἐκεῖνα. So δίδωσί μοι; but δίδωσιν ἐμοί.

Note 1. Ἐστί takes ν movable, like third persons in σι. The Epic κέ (for ἄν) adds ν before a vowel. The enclitic νύν has an Epic form νῦ. Many adverbs in -θεν (as πρόσθεν) have poetic forms in -θε.

Note 2. Ν movable may be added at the end of a sentence or of a line of poetry. It may be added even before a consonant in poetry, to make position (§ 19, 2).

2. Οὐ, not, becomes οὐκ before a smooth vowel, and οὐχ before a rough vowel; as οὐκ αὐτός, οὐχ οὗτος. Μή inserts κ in μηκ-έτι, no longer, (like οὐκ-έτι).

Ἐκ, from, becomes ἐξ (ἐκς) before a vowel; as ἐκ πόλεως, but ἐξ ἄστεος.

3. Οὕτως, thus, and some other words may drop s before a consonant; as οὕτως ἔχει, οὕτω δοκεῖ.

1. Metathesis is the transposition of two letters in a word; as in κράτος and κάρτος, strength; θάρσος and θράσος, courage. (See § 109, 7, a.)

2. Syncope is the omission of a vowel from the middle of a word; as in πατέρος, πατρός (§ 57); πτήσομαι for πετήσομαι (§ 109, 7, b).

Note 1. When μ is brought before ρ or λ by syncope or metathesis, it is strengthened by inserting β; as μεσημβρία, midday, for μεσημ(ε)ρία (μέσος and ἡμέρα); μέμβλωκα, Epic perfect of βλώσκω, go, from stem μολ-, μλο- (μλω-, § 109, 1), με-μλω-κα, μέ-μβλω-κα. At the beginning of a word such a μ is dropped before β; as in βροτός, mortal, from stem μορ-, μρο- (cf. Lat. morior, die), μβρο-τος, βροτός; so βλίττω, take honey, from stem μελιτ- of μέλι, honey (cf. Latin mel), by syncope μλιτ-, μβλιτ-, βλιτ-, βλίττω (§ 108, IV.).

Note 2. So δ is inserted after ν in the oblique cases of ἀνήρ, man (§ 57, 2), when the ν is brought by syncope before ρ; as ἀνδρός for ἀνέρος, ἀν-ρος.

§ 15.

1. A rough consonant (§ 6, 2) is never doubled; but πφ, κχ, and τθ are always written for φφ, χχ, and θθ. Thus Σαπφώ, Βάκχος, κατθανεῖν, not Σαφφώ, Βάχχος, καθθανεῖν (§ 12, N. 3). So in Latin, Sappho, Bacchus.

2. Initial ρ is doubled when a vowel precedes it in forming a compound word; as in ἀναρρίπτω (ἀνά and ῥίπτω). So after the syllabic augment; as in ἔρριπτον (imperfect of ῥίπτω). But after a diphthong it remains single; as in εὔροος, εὔρους.

§ 16.

The following rules apply chiefly to euphonic changes made in the final consonant of a stem in adding the endings, especially in forming and inflecting the tenses of verbs: —

1. Before a lingual mute (τ, δ, θ), a labial or palatal mute must be of the same order (§ 6, Note), and another lingual must be changed to σ. E.g.

Τέτριπται (for τετριβ-ται), δέδεκται (for δεδεχ-ται), πλεχθῆναι (for πλεκ-θηναι), ἐλείφθην (for ἐλειπ-θην), γράβδην (for γραφ-δην). Πέπεισται (πεπειθ-ται), ἐπείσθην (ἐπειθ-θην), ἧσται (ἡδ-ται), ἴστε (ἰδ-τε).

Note 1. Ἐκ, from, in composition retains κ unchanged; as in ἔκ-δρομή, ἔκ-θεσις.

Note 2. No combinations of different mutes, except those here included and those mentioned in § 15, 1, are allowed in Greek. When any such arise, the first mute is dropped; as in πέπεικα (for πεπειθεκα). When γ stands before χ or κ, as in συγ-χέω (σύν and χέω), it is not a mute but a nasal (§ 6, 1).

2. No mute can stand before σ except π and κ (in ψ and ξ). Β and φ become π before σ; γ and χ become κ; τ, δ, and θ are dropped. E.g.

Τρίψω (for τριβ-σω), γράψω (for γραφ-σω), λέξω (for λεγ-σω), πείσω (for πειθ-σω), ᾄσω (for ᾀδ-σω), σώμασι (for σωματ-σι), ἐλπίσι (for ἐλπιδ-σι). So φλέψ (for φλεβ-ς), ἐλπίς (for ἐλπιδ-ς), νύξ (for νυκτ-ς). See examples under § 46, 2.

3. Before μ, a labial mute (π, β, φ) becomes μ; a palatal mute (κ, χ) becomes γ; and a lingual mute (τ, δ, θ) becomes σ. E.g.

Λέλειμμαι (for λελειπ-μαι), τέτριμμαι (for τετριβ-μαι), γέγραμμαι (for γεγραφ-μαι), πέπλεγμαι (for πεπλεκ-μαι), τέτευγμαι (for τετευχ-μαι), ἧσμαι (for ἡδ-μαι), πέπεισμαι (for πεπειθ-μαι).

Note. When γγμ or μμμ would thus arise, they are shortened to γμ or μμ; as ἐλέγχω, ἐλήλεγ-μαι (for ἐληλεγχ-μαι, ἐληλεγγ-μαι); κάμπτω, κέκαμ-μαι (for κεκαμπ-μαι, κεκαμμ-μαι); πέμπω, πέπεμμαι (for πεπεμπ-μαι, πεπεμμ-μαι). (See § 97, N. 2.) Ἐκ here also remains unchanged, as in ἐκ-μανθάνω.

4. In passive and middle endings, σ is dropped between two consonants. E.g.

Λέλειφθε (for λελειπ-σθε, § 16, 1), γέγραφθε (for γεγραφ-σθε), γεγράφθαι (for γεγραφ-σθαι), πεφάνθαι (for πεφαν-σθαι).

Note. In the verbal endings σαι and σο, σ is often dropped after εσ of the third declension also drop σ before a vowel or another σ. (See § 52, 1, Note.)

5. Before a labial mute (π, β, φ) ν becomes μ; before a palatal mute (κ, γ, χ) it becomes γ (§ 6, 1). E.g.

Ἐμπίπτω (for ἐν-πιπτω), συμβαίνω (for συν-βαινω), ἐμφανής (for ἐν-φανης). Συγχέω (for συν-χεω), συγγενής (for συν-γενης).

6. Before another liquid ν is changed to that liquid; before σ it is generally dropped and the preceding vowel is lengthened (ε to ει, ο to ου). E.g.

Ἐλλείπω (for ἐν-λειπω), ἐμμένω (for ἐν-μενω), συρρέω (for συν-ρεω). Μέλας (for μελαν-ς), εἷς (for ἑν-ς), λύουσι (for λυο-νσι, § 112, 2, Note). So ἔσπεισ-μαι (from σπένδω) for ἐσπενδ-μαι, ἐσπενσ-μαι (§ 16, 3).

Note 1. The combinations ντ, νδ, νθ, are often dropped together before σ (§ 16, 2 and 6), and the preceding vowel is lengthened, as above (§ 16, 6); as πᾶσι (for παντ-σι), γίγας (for γιγαντς), λέουσι (for λεοντ-σι), τιθεῖσι (dat. plur. for τιθεντ-σι), τιθείς (for τιθεντ-ς), δούς (for δοντ-ς), σπείσω (for σπενδ-σω), λύουσα (for λυοντ-σα), λυθεῖσα (for λυθεντ-σα), πᾶσα (for παντ-σα).

Note 2. Ν standing alone before σι of the dative plural is dropped without lengthening the vowel; as δαίμοσι (for δαιμον-σι). Compare πᾶσι (for παντ-σι), N. 1. So ντ in adjectives in εις, but never in participles; as χαρίεσι (for χαριεντ-σι); but τιθεῖσι, as given above.

Note 3. The preposition ἐν is not changed before σ, ρ, or ζ. Σύν becomes συσ- before σ and a vowel, but συ- before σ and a consonant or before ζ. Thus, ἐνράπτω, σύσσιτος, σύζυγος.

Note 4. Some verbs in νω change ν to σ before μαι in the perfect middle (§ 109, 6, Note) as φαίνω, πέφασ-μαι (for πεφαν-μαι); and the ν reappears and is retained before σαι in the second person, as in πέφαν-σαι. (See § 97, 4, with N. 2.)

7. The following changes occur when ι, representing an original j of the root ja (pronounced ya), follows the final consonant of a stem.

(a) Palatals (κ, γ, χ) and rarely other mutes with such an ι become σσ (later Attic ττ); as φυλάσσ-ω (stem φυλακ-) for φυλακ-ι-ω; ἥσσων, worse, for ἡκ-ι-ων (§ 73); τάσσ-ω (ταγ-), for ταγ-ι-ω; ἐλάσσων, less, for ἐλαχ-ι-ων (comp. of μικρός, § 73); ταράσσ-ω (ταραχ-), for ταραχ-ι-ω; κορύσσ-ω (κορυθ-), for κορυθ-ι-ω.

(b) Δ (sometimes γ or γγ) with ι forms ζ; as φράζ-ω (φραδ-), for

φραδ-ι-ω; κομίζ-ω (κομιδ-), for κομιδ-ι-ω; κράζ-ω (κραγ-), for κραγ-ι-ω; μέζων (Ion.) or μείζων (comp. of μέγας, great), for μεγ-ι-ων (§ 73).

(c) Λ with ι forms λλ; as μᾶλλον, more (comp. of μαλ-α), for μαλ-ι-ον; στέλλ-ω (στελ-), for στελ-ι-ω; ἅλλο-μαι (ἁλ-), leap, for ἁλ-ι-ομαι (cf. Lat. salio); ἄλλος, other, for ἀλ-ι-ος (cf. Lat. alius).

(d) Ν and ρ with ι undergo metathesis (§ 14, 1), and ι is then contracted with the preceding vowel; as φαίν-ω (φαν-), for φαν-ι-ω (cf. Lat. fug-i-o from stem fug-); τείν-ω (τεν-), for τεν-ι-ω; ἀμείνων (ἀμεν-), better, for ἀμεν-ι-ων; χείρων (stem χερ-), worse, for χερ-ι-ων (§ 73); κείρω (κερ-), for κερ-ι-ω; κρίνω (κριν-), for κριν-ι-ω (ῐ becoming ῑ); ἀμύνω (ἀμυν-), for ἀμυν-ι-ω; σύρω for συρ-ι-ω (ῠ becoming ῡ). So μέλαινα (fem. of μέλας, black, stem μελαν-) for μελαν-ι-α (§ 67); σώτειρα (fem. of σωτήρ, saving, saviour, stem σωτερ-), for σωτερ-ι-α.

§ 17.

1. When a smooth mute (π, κ, τ) is brought before a rough vowel (either by elision or in forming a compound word), it is itself made rough. E.g.

Ἀφίημι (for ἀπ-ίημι), καθαιρέω (for κατ-αιρέω), ἀφ' ὧν (for ἀπὸ ὧν), νύχθ' ὅλην (for νύκτα ὅλην, § 12, 1; § 16, 1). So in crasis, where the rough breathing may affect even a consonant not immediately preceding it. (See examples in § 11, 2.)

Note. The Ionic dialect does not observe this principle, but has (for example) ἀπ' οὗ, ἀπίημι (from ἀπό and ἵημι).

2. In reduplications (§ 101, 1) an initial rough mute is always made smooth, to avoid two rough consonants in successive syllables. E.g.

Πέφυκα (for φέφυκα), perfect of φύω; κέχηνα (for χέχηνα), perf. of χάσκω; τέθηλα (for θέθηλα), perf. of θάλλω. So in τί-θημι (for θί-θημι), § 121, 3.

Note. A similar change takes place in a few verbs which originally had two rough consonants in the stem; as τρέφω (stem τρεφ- for θρεφ-), nourish, fut. θρέψω, aor. pass. ἐθρέφθην; τρέχω (τρεχ- for θρεχ-), run, fut. θρέξομαι; ἐτάφην, from θάπτω (ταφ- for θαφ-), bury; see also θρύπτω, τύφω, and stem (θαπ-), in the Catalogue of Verbs. So in ἐτύθην (for ἐθύθην) from θύω, and ἐτέθην (for ἐθέθην) from τίθημι. So in θρίξ, hair, gen. τριχός (stem τριχ- for θριχ-); and in ταχύς, swift, comparative θάσσων for θαχ-ι-ων, § 16, 7, a). Here the first aspirate reappears whenever the second is lost. See § 110, VI. N. 3.

3. The ending θι of the first aorist imperative passive becomes τι after θη- of the tense stem (§ 116, 3); as λύθητι (for λύθη-θι), φάνητι (for φανη-θι), but φάνη-θι.

1. A Greek word has as many syllables as it has separate vowels or diphthongs. The syllable next to the last is called the penult (pen-ultima, almost last); the one before the penult is called the antepenult.

2. A pure syllable is one whose vowel or diphthong immediately follows another vowel or diphthong; as the last syllable of φιλέω, οἰκία, χρύσεος.

Note. In most editions of the Greek authors, the following rules are observed in dividing syllables at the end of a line: —

1. Single consonants, combinations of consonants which can begin a word (which can be seen from the Lexicon), and mutes followed by μ or ν, are placed at the beginning of a syllable. Other combinations of consonants are divided: thus, ἔ-χω, ἐ-γώ, ἑ-σπέ-ρα, νέ-κταρ, ἀ-κμή, δε-σμός, μι-κρόν, πράγ-μα-τος, πράσ-σω, ἐλ-πίς, ἐν-δόν.

2. Compound words are divided into their original parts; but when the final vowel of a preposition has been elided in composition, the compound is divided like a simple word: thus προσ-ά-γω (from πρός and ἄγω); but πα-ρά-γω (from παρά and ἄγω).

§ 19.

1. A syllable is long by nature when it has a long vowel or a diphthong; as in τιμή, κτείνω.

2. A syllable is long by position when its vowel is followed by two consonants or a double consonant; as in ὄρτυξ.

3. When a vowel short by nature is followed by a mute and a liquid, the syllable is common (i.e. either long or short); as in τέκνον, ὕπνος, ὕβρις. But in Attic poetry such a syllable is generally short; in other poetry it is generally long.

Note 1. A middle mute (β, γ, δ) before λ, μ, or ν generally lengthens a preceding vowel by position; as in ἀγρός, βιβλίον, δόγμα.

Note 2. Ε in ἐκ is long when a liquid follows, either in composition or in the next word; as ἐκλέγω, ἐκ νεῶν (both — ⏑ —).

§ 20.

The quantity of most syllables can be seen at once. Thus η and ω and all diphthongs are long by nature; ε and ο are short by nature. (See § 2.)

When α, ι, and υ are not long by position, their quantity must generally be learned by observation. But it is to be remembered that

1. Every vowel arising from contraction or crasis is long; as α in γέρα (for γέραα), ἄκων (for ἀέκων), and κἄν (for καὶ ἄν).

2. The endings ας and υς are long when ν or ντ has been dropped before σ (§ 16, 6, and N. 1).

3. The accent often shows the quantity of a vowel. (See § 21, 1; § 22.)

The quantity of the terminations of nouns and verbs will be stated below in the proper places.