J. N. Madvig, Syntax of the Greek Language: Chapter II, On the Use of the Article

Chapter II.

On the Use of the Article.

The Greek article (like the English definite article, the) represents the substantive before which it is placed, as the name or designation of a certain definite and known object (as opposed to a representation of some one or other indefinite object amongst several of the same kind). It stands, therefore, 1) before the generic names of objects which are, in their own nature, isolated and definite [1]; 2) before substantives which denote the whole class designated by the substantive (or substantive with its adjective), not any individual object; 3) before the names of persons or things, a) which are sufficiently distinguished from others by some appended specification (adjective, participle, genitive, preposition with its case), or b) which have been already mentioned, or follow immediately from what has been said, or c) of which it is easily understood, from the circumstances under which they are spoken of, that they, and no others, are the objects intended: Ὁ οὐρανός, ἡ γῆ: ὁ ἥλιος, ἡ θάλασσα. - Οἱ ἱππεῖς. Τὰ θηρία. Οἱ ἵπποι καλλίους τῶν ὄνων εἰσίν. Ὁ συκοφάντης (the sycophant, as a class [2]). Οἱ σοφοὶ ἄνδρες. Αἱ καλαὶ γυναῖκες. Οἱ ἄλλοι ἄνθρωποι. (Ἀγαθοὶ ἄνδρες, good men, ἄλλοι ἄνθρωποι, other men). - Ὁ πρεσβύτερος ἀδελφός. Οἱ προτεταγμένοι ἱππεῖς. Ἡ ἐπὶ τῷ ποταμῷ πόλις. Ἡ τοῦ πατρὸς οἰκία. - Ὁ ἀνὴρ οὔπω ἥκει. Ποῦ οἱ ἵπποι (the horses, which have been spoken of, and are here meant). Κῦρος ἀναβὰς ἐπὶ τὸν ἵππον τὰ παλτὰ εἰς τὰς χεῖρας ἔλαβεν (Xen. Anab. 1, 8, 8, the javelins = his javelins, it being supposed a known thing, that javelins made a part of his equipment). Οἶνος ἐν τῷ πίθῳ οὐκ ἔστιν (in the cask, the cask in use). Ξέρξης ἀγείρας τὴν ἀναρίθμητον στρατιὰν ἦλθεν ἐπὶ τὴν Ἑλλάδα (Xen. Anab. 3, 2, 18, the well-known, numerous army).

[1]: Bp. Middleton's "monadic nouns."

[2]: Where, however, our idiom allows us to say "a sycophant," taking one as the type of the class.

Rem. 1. The article stands more frequently than in English, to denote an object that is defined by its relation to another (subject, object, or relational-object in the sentence): in such cases we generally use a possessive pronoun in English: Οἱ πλούσιοι τοῖς χρήμασιν ἐξωνοῦνται τοὺς κινδύνους (Lys. 24, 17). Τοὺς τοιούτους πατέρας οὐδὲ οἱ παῖδες αἰδεῖσθαι δύνανται. Ἴσμεν ὑμᾶς εἰθισμένους τοῖς εὐεργέταις μεγίστην χάριν ἀποδιδόναι (Isocr. Plat. 1).

Rem. 2. With certain words in certain connexions (without an adjective) the article is occasionally omitted in Greek (as in some similar instances in English), although a definite notion is denoted, some peculiarity in the nature or conception of the notion having caused, in particular instances, the retention of the old manner of expression, when the use of the article was not yet become general, and firmly established. Such words are:

a) The names of the large and peculiar portions of external nature (οὐρανός, γῆ, θάλασσα, ὠκεανός, ἥλιος), especially when a particular point or particular manifestation of them is contemplated: Ἐπὶ θαλάττῃ, on the sea. Ὕδωρ ἐξ οὐρανοῦ πολύ. Ἥλιος ἀνατέλλει, ἥλιος ἐδύετο, περὶ ἡλίου δυσμάς (at sunset = the setting of the sun); further, sometimes θεοί and ἄνθρωποι, when it is precisely the generic term, that is to be made prominent: Τὰ ἐν ἀνθρώποις (Xen. Cyr. 2, 2, 7), human affairs and institutions. Τῶν ὄντων ἀγαθῶν καὶ καλῶν οὐδὲν ἄνευ πόνου καὶ ἐπιμελείας θεοὶ διδόασιν ἀνθρώποις (Xen. Mem. 2, 1, 28), and the names of naturally-defined times (ἅμα ἕῳ, at day-break; with the dawn; at the break of day; even when a particular day is meant; but also ἅμα τῷ ἕῳ).

b) The term βασιλεύς, when the Persian king is intended (βασιλεὺς ὁ μέγας). Οἱ πρόγονοι οἱ βασιλέως. (Here the article is nearly always omitted.)

c) The names of virtues, vices, sciences, arts, and occupations, when they are considered as general conceptions, which may be exhibited in a different form in different persons: Πάντα τὰ καλὰ καὶ ἀγαθὰ ἀσκητά ἐστιν, οὐχ ἥκιστα δὲ σωφροσύνη (Xen. Mem. 1, 2, 23, moderation, or temperance). Οὐδέποτ' ἄρα λυσιτελέστερον ἀδικία δικαιοσύνης (Pl. Rep. 1, 354, but also Λυσιτελέστερον ἡ ἀδικία τῆς δικαιοσύνης, Pl. ib. as a single definite notion). Ἀνδρὶ καλῷ τε κἀγαθῷ ἐργασία καὶ ἐπιστήμη κρατίστη γεωργία (Xen. Oec. 6, 8).

d) Πόλις, ἄστυ, ἀγρός, ἀγορά, τεῖχος, πεδίον, and other local designations, when they denote oppositions between the parts of a given and presupposed principal locality, and are governed by prepositions [1]: Ἑσπέρας γενομένης ἡ διαδοχὴ τῇ πρόσθεν φυλακῇ ἔρχεται ἐκ πόλεως (Xen. Cyr. 1, 3, 17). Δοκεῖτέ μοι πρὸς ἄστυ ὡρμῆσθαι (Pl. Rep. 1, 327, to the city, Athens, from the Piraeus; but shortly before ἀπῇμεν πρὸς τὸ ἄστυ). Ἔξω Ἰσθμοῦ (Thuc. 1, 62, beyond the Isthmus of Corinth, but in the same chap. ἐν τῷ Ἰσθμῷ). Ἐκτὸς τείχους and ἐκτὸς τοῦ τείχους (of the wall of the city). In the same way sometimes also στρατός, στρατιά, στράτευμα, στρατόπεδον (and with adjectives as one word, δεξιὸν κέρας, εὐώνυμον κέρας, the right, the left wing: Κορινθίοις τὸ μὲν δεξιὸν κέρας αἱ Μεγαρίδες νῆες εἶχον καὶ αἱ Ἀμπρακιώτιδες, εὐώνυμον δὲ κέρας αὐτοὶ οἱ Κορίνθιοι εἶχον, Thuc. 1, 48). (Ἀπὸ δεξιᾶς, etc.)

[1]: Bp. Middleton considers government by a preposition to favour the omission of the article generally.

e) Names of relationship in certain connexions with an emphatic prominence given to the generic term of the relationship: Οὔτε πατρὸς οὔτε μητρὸς φείδεται. Οἱ Καρδοῦχοι ἔχοντες γυναῖκας καὶ παῖδας ἔφευγον ἐπὶ τὰ ὄρη (Xen. Anab. 4, 1, 8, with their wives and children).

f) And in general, the article is sometimes omitted when, by the combination of two or more opposed members, the expression of the whole is brought out with a certain emphasis [2]: Λύσις καὶ χωρισμὸς ψυχῆς ἀπὸ σώματος (Pl. Phaed. 67, as in English, body and soul; but, 64: ἡ τῆς ψυχῆς ἀπὸ τοῦ σώματος ἀπαλλαγή. Παυσανίας συγκαλέσας πολεμάρχους καὶ πεντηκοστῆρας ἐβουλεύετο (Xen. Hell. 3, 5, 22). Ἀπὸ τελευτῆς ἐπ' ἀρχήν [3] (cf. note 1).)

[2] This belongs to Bp. Middleton's head of enumeration.

[3] Ὁ ὁπλίτης δραχμὴν ἐλάμβανε τῆς ἡμέρας (Thuc. 3, 17, received a drachma a day = every day); but also δέκα, εἷς ἀπὸ φυλῆς (Xen. Hell. 2, 4, 24, ten, one from each Phyle), εἷς ἀπὸ πόλεως (id. 4, 2, 8).

Rem. 3. A superlative (or other adjective) with a predicative noun, or a superlative standing alone as the predicate, never takes the article in Greek: nor does it stand with a substantive and the "superlative of eminence" (denoting only a very high degree, and therefore not distinguishing any particular object as belonging to the highest degree of all): Ἀνδρὶ καλῷ κἀγαθῷ ἐργασία κρατίστη ἐστὶ γεωργία (Xen. Oec. 6, 8). (Οὗτοι φανερά ἐστι διαφθορὰ τῶν συγγιγνομένων, are evidently the ruin of -: Pl. Men. 91, 5.) Πάντων φιλομαθέστατος Κῦρος ἦν. Οἱ Φασηλῖταί εἰσι πονηρότατοι ἀνθρώπων καὶ ἀδικώτατοι (Dem. 35, 2). (Τοῦτο βαρύτατόν ἐστι τοῦ στρατεύματος, Xen. Cyr. 5, 3, 37, the most heavily-armed division. Διὰ βραχυτάτων, in the shortest way I can.)

Rem. 4. The Attic poets often omit the article where it must have stood in prose, as well before substantives undefined by any added specification, as before such as have a genitive or adjective (possessive pronoun) with them: e.g. θύματος ἐπιστάτης ἐπέστη τοῦδε παῖς Ἀχιλλέως (Eur. Hec. 224). Παῖδα σὴν κτενοῦσιν. Πέμπουσί με δισσοὶ Ἀτρεῖδαι (Eur. Hec. 810). (Ἑκάβη κεῖται κόνει φύρουσα δύστηνον κάρα (Eur. Hec. 496). In the old poets (Homer, Hesiod) the usage is still more fluctuating.

a) The adjective or participle by which the substantive is defined, stands, with any appended notion dependent on it, either between the article and its substantive, or, with the article repeated, after the substantive: Ὁ ἀγαθὸς ἀνήρ. Ὁ πάντων κάλλιστος καὶ πᾶσι φίλτατος ἀνήρ. Οἱ στρατηγικοὶ νομιζόμενοι ἄνδρες. Αἱ ἄρισται δοκοῦσαι εἶναι φύσεις (Xen. Mem. 4, 1, 3). - Αἱ τιμαὶ αἱ πολιτικαί. Οἱ στρατηγοὶ οἱ ταῦτα βεβουλευκότες. (Τὰς μεγάλας ἡδονὰς καὶ τὰ ἀγαθὰ τὰ μεγάλα ἡ πειθὼ καὶ ἡ καρτερία καὶ οἱ ἐν καιρῷ πόνοι παρέχονται. Xen. Cyr. 8, 3, 8.) The latter position, that with the article repeated, is, however, the more rare, especially in the Attic writers, and is usually employed only when the object is first mentioned, as a notion sufficiently defined in and by itself, and then has a nearer specification added to it besides: Τὸ τεῖχος περιεῖλον τὸ καινόν (Thuc. 4, 51). Ἐπὶ τῆς νεὼς τῆς διαφθαρείσης (Dem. 34, 2).

Rem. 1. When the participle has itself a specification (by means of dependent words), it not uncommonly happens, that only this nearer specification, or only the participle itself, is placed between the article and its substantive: Αἱ πρὸ τοῦ στόματος (before the mouth of the harbour) νῆες ναυμαχοῦσαι (Thuc. 7, 23). Αἱ ὑπ' Αἰσχίνου βλασφημίαι εἰρημέναι (Dem. 18, 126). Ὁ κατειληφὼς κίνδυνος τὴν πόλιν (Dem. 18, 220). [^1]

[^1] Μετὰ τὸν ὕστερον πόλεμον τῆς καθαιρέσεως τῶν Ἀθήνησι τειχῶν (Xen. Hell. 5, 1, 35. The specification of an adjective appended to it after the substantive). The placing of a secondary specification before the article is a rare and poetical construction: Τούτων τὰ ἐναντία ἐπιφημίσματα (Thuc. 7, 75 = τὰ ἐν. τούτων ἐπιφημ.). (Ὅστις γὰρ ἦν ἐκεῖνον ὁ κτανών, Soph. Oid. T. 139.)

Rem. 2. The adjective may stand as an apposition, either before the article or after the substantive, without repetition of the article, see § 12. Otherwise ὁ ἀνὴρ καλός or καλὸς ὁ ἀνήρ signifies (with ἐστίν omitted) the man is handsome.

Rem. 3. Sometimes the article makes its first appearance before the following adjective (participle) or prepositional expression, the object being first placed as an undefined notion, and then more closely defined: Ἀρετῆς ἕνεκα καὶ προθυμίας τῆς ἐν ἐκείνοις τοῖς κινδύνοις γενομένης (Thuc. 2, 71), Σκεπτέον, πῶς ποτε ἡ ἄκρατος δικαιοσύνη πρὸς ἀδικίαν τὴν ἄκρατον ἔχει (Pl. Rep. 8, 535, is related to).

b) A preposition with its case is connected attributively with a substantive by means of an article, in the same way as an adjective: Ἡ ἐπὶ τῷ ποταμῷ πόλις. Αἱ ἀπὸ Ἀθηνῶν νῆες. Οἱ στρατιῶται οἱ ἐν τῇ πόλει. Τὸ τεῖχος τὸ παρὰ τὸν ποταμόν. This is also the case with adverbs of time and place, of what manifests itself at the time or place expressed: Οἱ πάλαι ἄνθρωποι, the men of former days; of the olden time. Ἡ τότε ταραχή. (Completely: Ἡ τότε ταραχὴ γενομένη.) Ἡ Αἰσχίνου τότε μισθαρνία (Dem. 18, 60). Ἡ ἄνω πόλις. Ἡ πρότερον ἀπραγμοσύνη (your former, or previous, inactivity; ἡ προτέρα, the former, of two). Οἱ ἄρχοντες οἱ Ἀθήνησι. Ἡ πόλις ἡ ὑπὸ τῷ ὄρει. In this way ἄγαν and λίαν are also used (ἡ ἄγαν ἐπιθυμία, Thuc. 6, 24) with πάνυ (ὁ πάνυ Περικλῆς, the celebrated Pericles): as are also a few other isolated adverbs, when no corresponding adjective exists, or with a peculiar meaning: Τὰ καταλογάδην συγγράμματα (Isocr. ap. Nic. 7, prose writings). Τὸ ἀληθῶς φῶς (Pl. Phaed. 109, the light which is truly light). (Also ὁ γόνῳ πατήρ, Lys. 13, 91, the natural father.)

Rem. Now and then a specification which would be properly attached to the substantive by an article, is referred less accurately to the verb: ὅσοι τῶν πραγμάτων πρὸς τοὺς Ἀθηναίους μάλιστα μετέσχον (Thuc. 4, 74).

The article stands in Greek with substantives that are defined by an appended genitive, either of a generic term with the article, or of a proper name: Ἡ τοῦ πατρὸς οἰκία, ἡ τοῦ ὑπὲρ τῶν Ἠλείων ὄρους κορυφή (Xen. Hell. 7, 4, 18), (οἱ Σόλωνος νόμοι), ἡ οἰκία τοῦ πατρός, ἡ οἰκία ἡ τοῦ πατρός. Of these forms the first (that of the genitive in the middle) is the most common; the second (the genitive following the substantive) is also common: the third (the genitive following the substantive with its article repeated, by means of which the specification is, as it were, returned for and appended with emphasis) is less common. Fourthly, the genitive may also precede, when it stands with emphasis on account of an opposition, or in a transition: Τῶν παλαιῶν ἡ φιλοσοφία (Pl. Prot. 343). Τοῦ χωρίου ἡ ἀπορία (Thuc. 4, 29). (Τὸ τῆς τοῦ ξαίνοντος τέχνης ἔργον, Pl. Rep. 381, after the first form. Περὶ τοῦ μισθοῦ τῆς ἀποδόσεως, Thuc. 8, 85, after the fourth [^1] )

[^1] But αἱ ἴδια ἡμῶν ἑκάστων πόλεις (Isocr. Plat. 8), and ἡ δοκοῦσα ἡμῶν πρότερον σωφροσύνη (Thuc. 1, 32), where the genitive attaches itself to another specification (Rem. 6).

Rem. 1. The partitive genitive very frequently precedes, and with this genitive the article can never be repeated: cf. § 50, Rem. 1.

Rem. 2. A substantive which governs a genitive with the article, itself stands without the article, when, in spite of the appended genitive, the object is undefined (especially in the case of the partitive and objective genitives: e.g. μέρος τῆς πόλεως, ἐπὶ βλάβῃ τῆς πόλεως (Thuc. 8, 72, for injury to the city [though we should say, to the injury of the city] μεγάλαι δαπάναι τῶν τε τριηράρχων καὶ τῆς πόλεως (Thuc. 6, 31), great outlays on the part of the trierarchs and the state): sometimes also, when it is wished to express a notion that in itself is definite, in a general and indefinite way: ἐν ἀρχῇ τοῦ λόγου (Dem. 37, 28), ὑπὸ πλήθους τῶν ἐπικειμένων νεῶν (Thuc. 8, 105). The article is always omitted, when the governing substantive is the predicate with εἰμί or γίγνομαι, or belongs to the predicate as an apposition: [^1] Ἡ τῶν πολεμίων βλάβη κέρδος τῆς πόλεως γίγνεται. Σωτὴρ γενοῦ τῆς πατρίδος. Μεγάλων κακῶν ἄγγελοι ἥκομεν. (Νόμοι πόλεως, laws of a state; περὶ ἀρίστου ὥραν, Thuc. 7, 81.)

[^1]: So, often, αἴτιος, αἴτιον &c., used substantively in the predicate, = the cause.

Rem. 3. Now and then the article does not stand with the substantive itself, but is not placed till before the following genitive:[^2] Ἐπὶ σκηνὴν ᾔεσαν τὴν Ξενοφῶντος (Xen. Anab. 2, 2, 19). Τισσαφέρνης ἤδει τοὺς Μιλησίους ἐς τὴν Λακεδαίμονα πορευομένους ἐπὶ καταβοῇ τῇ αὑτοῦ μάλιστα (Thuc. 8, 85).

[^2]: Observe that in both the instances substantives are under the government of prepositions.

Rem. 4. With respect to the position of the article with the governing substantive, the genitive of a personal or possessive pronoun has the same effect as the genitive of a substantive with the article. The genitive of the personal pronoun stands either before the article or after the substantive (enclitically). Ἡμῶν ἡ πόλις, ἡ πόλις ἡμῶν. Τοῦτό σοι δίδωμι ὅτι μου τὴν μητέρα (τὴν μητέρα μου) τιμᾷς. The genitive of a demonstrative or reflexive pronoun either stands in the middle, or follows with the article repeated: ὁ τούτου ἀδελφός, ὁ ἀδελφὸς ὁ τούτου (Dem. 35, 15). Τὴν ἑαυτῶν συκοφαντίαν δηλοῦσιν. Παρὰ τὸν τρόπον τὸν ἑαυτῶν (Thuc. 5, 68). (Partitively also: Ἑαυτῶν τοὺς βελτίστους αἱροῦνται, and τοὺς βελτίστους αἱροῦνται ἑαυτῶν.)

Rem. 5. In the case of substantives with possessive pronouns, the article stands as in the case of substantives with adjectives: Ὁ ὑμέτερος πατήρ, ὁ πατὴρ ὁ σός. Τοὺς οἴκους τοὺς ὑμετέρους αὐτῶν, or τοὺς ὑμετέρους αὐτῶν οἴκους ἀσφαλῶς κεκτῆσθαι βούλεσθε. (But δοῦλος ὑμέτερος, one of your slaves; a slave of yours. Σοὶ δοῦλοί ἐσμεν.)

Rem. 6. When two specifications are appended to a substantive (adjective, participle, preposition, adverb, or genitive), the one of which bears such a relation to the other, that the two are blended into one (complex) specification, they are usually comprehended under one article: when, however, they are taken, each by itself, as two co-ordinated specifications, the article is used with each: and this is sometimes done even in the first case, especially if both are adjectives, particularly in the instance of ἄλλος: Τὰ ἐν τῇ ἠπείρῳ Αἰολικὰ πολίσματα (Thuc. 4, 52). Ὁ Ἀλκιβιάδου τούτου νεώτερος ἀδελφός (Pl. Prot. 320). Μέμνησθε τῆς ἐν Σαλαμῖνι πρὸς τὸν Πέρσην ναυμαχίας (Aesch. 2, 74). Εἰς τὰς ἄλλας Ἀρκαδικὰς πόλεις (Xen. Hell. 7, 4, 38). Αἱ ἀπὸ τῆς Σικελίας Πελοποννησίων ἑκκαίδεκα νῆες (Thuc. 8, 13). Τὰ ἐκ τῆς Ἰάσου μεγάλα χρήματα διαρπασθέντα (Thuc. 8, 36; the participle removed according to § 9, a. Rem. 1). - Ἡ σεμνὴ αὕτη, ἡ τῆς τραγῳδίας ποίησις (Pl. Gorg. 502). Ἡ ἄνω ἡ πρὸς τῷ τείχει ἀπόληψις τῶν ὁπλιτῶν (Thuc. 7, 54). Αἱ πέντε καὶ εἴκοσι νῆες τῶν Κορινθίων αἱ τοῖς Ἀθηναίοις ἀνθορμοῦσαι (Thuc. 7, 31). Τὸ ἐν Ἀρκαδίᾳ τὸ τοῦ Διὸς τοῦ Λυκαίου ἱερόν (Pl. Rep. 8, 565). Κατὰ τὴν Ἀττικὴν τὴν παλαιὰν φωνήν (Pl. Crat. 398). Τεκμαίρομαι ἐκ τοῦ ἄλλου τοῦ ὑμετέρου τρόπου (Pl. Rep. 2, 368). (Also where the other adjective or participle stands substantively: Οἱ ἄλλοι οἱ παρόντες τῶν στρατιωτῶν, Xen. Anab. 6, 4, 7.) (It is seldom, that one of the specifications follows without the repeated article: ἡ τῆς πόλεως ἀνάλωσις δημοσία, Thuc. 6, 31. Μετὰ τὴν τῶν τυράννων κατάλυσιν ἐκ τῆς Ἑλλάδος, Thuc. 1, 18. Τὸν πρεσβύτατον υἷον ἑαυτοῦ, Xen. Mem. 2, 2, 1.)

The article stands with substantives (appellatives), that are connected with a demonstrative pronoun, οὗτος, ὅδε, or ἐκεῖνος. The demonstrative stands before the article or after the substantive: Οὗτος ὁ ἀνήρ. Ἥδε ἡ πόλις. Κατὰ τοὺς νόμους ἐκείνους. Ἐκτῶντο τὴν τιμὴν ταύτην (Isocr. Phil. 107). If, however, besides the pronoun, an adjective or the like is also added, the pronoun may either attach itself to this (the more usual case), or retain its own peculiar position: Ἡ στενὴ αὕτη ὁδός (Xen. Anab. 4, 2, 6). Αἱ πρὸς τοὺς τυράννους αὗται λίαν ὁμιλίαι (Dem. 6, 21). - Οἱ ἀλαζόνες λόγοι ἐκεῖνοι (Pl. Rep. 8, 560). Ἐκείνη ἡ ὑψηλοτάτη πλάτανος (Pl. Phaed. 229). (Αὐτός, self, has no influence on the use of the article.[^1])

[^1]: Ἡμεῖς οἱ στρατηγοί. Ἐγὼ ἡ τάλαινα.

Rem. 1. The article is omitted, when the substantive is properly a predicative noun, or an apposition (connected with the predicate) to the pronoun, which last, instead of standing independently, conforms in gender, according to the Greek practice, to the substantive (is attracted by it): Αὕτη ἐστὶν ἀνδρὸς ἀρετή (Pl. Men. 71, this is the virtue of a man). Κίνησις αὕτη μεγίστη τοῖς Ἕλλησιν ἐγένετο (Thuc. 1, 1). Ταύτην τέχνην ἔχει (Lys. 6, 7). Ταύτῃ ἀπολογίᾳ χρῆται (Dem. 49, 68, he uses this as an excuse). Ὡς οἱ περὶ Κλεόμβροτον ἐκράτουν τῇ μάχῃ, σαφεῖ τούτῳ τεκμηρίῳ γνοίη ἄν τις (Xen. Hell. 6, 4, 13; from this as from a certain indication, or proof); and in the same way, where the pronoun refers to something following, by which the notion is defined for the first time: Οὗτοι, οὓς ὁρᾶτε, βάρβαροι, πολέμιοι ἡμῖν ἔσονται (Xen. Anab. 1, 5, 16). Μενεκλῆς ἐδεῖτο ὑμῶν δοῦναι χάριν ταύτην αὑτῷ, ἐκδοῦναι ἄλλῳ τὴν ἀδελφήν (Isae. 1, 14; to have the kindness to -). (In the poets, the article is omitted with demonstratives in other cases; especially in the case of ὅδε, a thing of rare occurrence in prose, with a definite pointing out of the object, "here": Φέρε λαβὼν χιτῶνας τουτουσὶ τοῖς τῶν δορυφόρων ἡγεμόσι, κασᾶς δὲ τούσδε τοὺς ἐφιππείους τοῖς τῶν ἱππέων ἡγεμόσι, καὶ τῶν ἁρμάτων τοῖς ἡγεμόσι ἄλλους τούσδε χιτῶνας, Xen. Cyr. 8, 3, 6.)

Rem. 2. In the same way, ἑκάτερος, ἄμφω, ἀμφότεροι are always accompanied by the article: Ἀμφοῖν τοῖν χεροῖν. With ἕκαστος it may be either expressed or omitted: Κατὰ τὴν ἡμέραν ἑκάστην and καθ' ἡμέραν ἑκάστην. Ἐν ἑκάστῃ τῇ πόλει and ἐν ἑκάστῃ πόλει.

Rem. 3. With the adjectives τοιοῦτος, τοιόςδε, τοσοῦτος (τηλικοῦτος, τηλικόςδε) the article may stand (before them, as in the case of other adjectives), when the notion of a definite class of such a kind is to be rendered prominent: Τί οὐκ ἂν πράξειεν ὁ τοιοῦτος ἀνήρ; (Dem. 34, 29, such a man = the man who acts in this way.) (Τὸ τοιόνδε λέγω, Pl. Gorg. 476, I mean the following relation.)

Rem. 4. Πᾶς, every, stands without the article (Πᾶσα πόλις. Πᾶς ἀνήρ); but πάντες, all, usually with the article (of a definite class): Πάντα τὰ ἀγαθά. (Πᾶν τὸ καλῶς ἔχον, Pl. Rep. 2, 381, all that is good.) Ἡ Σπάρτη πασῶν τῶν πόλεων ἀρετῇ διαφέρει (Xen. Pol. Lac. 10, 4). Πᾶσαι αἱ καλαὶ πράξεις (not after the article), but also without it: Πάντα ἀγαθά, all good things. Πασῶν πόλεων Ἀθῆναι μάλιστα πεφύκασιν ἐν εἰρήνῃ αὔξεσθαι (Xen. de Vect. 5, 2). (Πάντες θεοί, πάντες ἄνθρωποι.) Πᾶς, whole, stands with the article, usually on the outside of the article and its substantive; that is to say, either before the article or after the substantive (as apposition, cf. § 12): Πᾶσα ἡ πόλις, ἡ πόλις πᾶσα (the whole city, the latter properly, the city, all of it), so also ὅλος (ὅλη ἡ πόλις, ἡ πόλις ὅλη). (Without the article ὅλη πόλις, πόλις ὅλη, seldom πόλις πᾶσα, an entire city, the whole of a city.) Πᾶς, however, and especially ὅλος, also stands after the article, like other adjectives: Ἡ πᾶσα Σικελία (Thuc. 4, 61, the whole of Sicily, Sicily as a whole). Ἡ σύμπασα Ἑλλάς (Isocr. Paneg. 8, 3). Τὸ πᾶν πλῆθος τῶν ὁπλιτῶν (Thuc. 8, 98). Τὸ ὅλον πρόσωπον (Pl. Prot. 329). Τὸ ὅλον γένος (Pl. Crat. 392). In the same way we also meet with in the plural: Τὰ πάντα μέρη, all the portions together, οἱ πάντες ἄνθρωποι (Xen. Anab. 5, 6, 7), μόνη τῶν πασῶν πόλεων (Dem. 8, 64), and always οἱ πάντες, = in all, e.g. δέκα ταῖς πάσαις ναυσίν. (Σύμπαντες ἑπτακόσιοι ὁπλῖται, in all; together, Thuc. 4, 129.)

Rem. 5. The article also stands with the interrogative pronominal adjective ποῖος, to denote that the enquiry is made about the property of an object named or otherwise indicated: Τὴν ποίαν κατάστασιν πολιτείας ὀλιγαρχίαν λέγεις; (Pl. Rep. 8, 550). Θέλω σοι πάνυ μεγαλόφρονα τῆς γυναικὸς ἔργα διηγήσασθαι. Τὰ ποῖα; (Xen. Oec. 10, 1.)

Rem. 6. Where parts of a whole are stated in numbers, the article is sometimes prefixed to the numeral (to denote the definiteness of the relation): Αἱ ἑκκαίδεκα τῶν νεῶν (Thuc. 1, 116). Τὰ δύο μέρη. In like manner it is said: Ἀμφὶ τοὺς εἴκοσι, about twenty. (But on the other hand: ὑπὲρ ἥμισυ [^1] τοῦ στρατεύματος, Xen. Anab. 5, 10, 10, above half, or the half.)

[^1]: Cf. note 1, p. 9.

The article stands in Greek with substantives to which an adjective is added as an apposition (outside of the article) and belonging to the predicate, to intimate that the notion of the substantive follows of itself, and is assumed (as something given and existing), so that the only question is about the property. (In English we usually put the substantive with the adjective indefinitely: but if we wish to express the definiteness of the substantive, we give the words a different turn, or have recourse to a periphrasis.) Οἱ ἄνθρωποι ὑπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου καταλαμπόμενοι τὰ χρώματα μελάντερα ἔχουσιν (Xen. Mem. 4, 7, 7, acquire a darker hue, or, come to have their hue darker, or, their hue becomes darker). Πόσον ἄγει τὸ στράτευμα; (Xen. Cyr. 2, 1, 2, how great is the army which he leads?) Τὸ σῶμα θνητὸν ἅπαντες ἔχομεν (Isocr. Phil. 134). Ἀπ' ὀρθῆς καὶ δικαίας τῆς ψυχῆς τὰ πάντα μοι πέπρακται (Dem. 18, 298, with an upright and honest mind; in the uprightness and integrity of my mind). (Αὐτὸς ἀγαθὸς σὺν ἀγαθοῖς τοῖς παρ' ἐμοί, Xen. Cyr. 8, 6, 12, with those about me good, with good people about me.) Οἱ παρ' ἐμοί, substantively, cf. § 14, b. [^2] (Ὁ λιμὴν τὸ στόμα εἶχε ὀκτὼ σταδίων, Thuc. 7, 59, with the descriptive genitive.)

[^2] Τίνας λέγεις, τὰς τέσσαρας πολιτείας; (Pl. Rep. 8, 544, what are the four polities you are speaking of?)

Rem. The same position (outside the article) is also taken by the adjective and participle in other cases, when they are in apposition (i.e. used, not attributively, but appositively): Οἱ Κερκυραῖοι ἐνέπρησαν τὰς σκηνὰς ἐρήμους (Thuc. 1, 49, left with none to defend them). Ὁ ποταμὸς διὰ μέσης τῆς πόλεως ῥεῖ (Xen. Cyr. 7, 5, 8). Ἄκραις ταῖς χερσίν. Ἅμα τῷ ἦρι ἀρχομένῳ. On the adjective, see § 86, and on the participle, § 181, R. 7.

a) Proper names do not require the article (which is accordingly omitted even where a demonstrative is annexed: οὑτοσὶ Ἀπατούριος, this A. here); but they may take it, if the person or object is made prominent, as having been previously named, and as being essential to the matter in hand, or as being so generally known and presupposed, that the scope of the discourse naturally leads one to expect the mention; sometimes without any particular emphasis: Ταῦτα λαβὼν ὁ Παυσανίας τὰ γράμματα πολλῷ μᾶλλον ἦρτο (Thuc. 1, 130, in the continuation of an account of Pausanias.) - Καὶ ἐκ τοῦ Βυζαντίου βίᾳ ἐκπολιορκηθεὶς (Παυσανίας) ἐς μὲν τὴν Σπάρτην οὐκ ἀνεχώρει, ἐς δὲ Κολωνὰς τὰς Τρωϊάδας ἱδρύθη (Thuc. 1, 131; Byzantium, mentioned before as the place where Pausanias was residing; Sparta, his well-known home. But shortly afterwards: ἀνεχώρει ἐς Σπάρτην). Ἐν δὲ τῇ Πύλῳ - ἐν δὲ ταῖς Ἀθήναις (Thuc. 4, 26, 27, the narrative now passing on to these before-mentioned cities). Ἡ Θεμιστοκλέους ἀρετή, ἡ ἀρετὴ ἡ Θεμιστοκλέους (by § 10), but not ἡ ἀρετὴ Θεμιστοκλέους (though it may be ἡ ἀρετὴ τοῦ Θεμιστοκλέους with the article, and ἡ ἀρετὴ ἡ τοῦ Θεμ.). Εὕρημα Θεμιστοκλέους, an invention of Themistocles.

Rem. Ὁ μέγας Ἀλέξανδρος, Θῆβαι αἱ ἐν Βοιωτίᾳ, Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μακεδών, for distinction from others of the same name. Ὁ Σιλανὸς ὁ Ἀμβρακιώτης (Xen. Anab. 6, 4, 13), (the before-mentioned) S. the Ambraciote (who is recalled to one's thoughts here; otherwise Σιλανὸς ὁ Ἀμβρ.). When, to describe a person more exactly, the name of the father is added in the genitive, the governing word may take an article after it before the genitive, which makes the addition more prominent: Κλέων ὁ Κλεαινέτου, Περίβοια ἡ Ἀλκάθου, but also without the article: Κλέων Κλεαινέτου (in the business-style). (With appended designation of birthplace and district: Κάλλιππος ὁ Φίλωνος ὁ Αἰξωνεύς, or Καλλικλῆς Ἐπιτρέφους Θριάσιος, Dem. 50, 47.) [^1]

b) For names of nations, the same rule holds good, when they are used of the whole nation. (But always οἱ Ἕλληνες, in contradistinction to οἱ βάρβαροι. [^2]) Ὁ Ἀθηναίων δῆμος, ὁ δῆμος ὁ Ἀθηναίων (in public transactions this is the most usual) and ὁ δ. τῶν Ἀθηναίων. (Rarely ὁ δῆμος ὁ τῶν Ἀθηναίων.) When some of a nation are spoken of, it is οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι, οἱ Ἕλληνες, and Ἀθηναῖοι, Ἕλληνες, according to the general rules for the article. Ἕλληνές ἐσμεν. So Ἀθηναῖος and ὁ Ἀθηναῖος.

[^1] Ὁ Μαίανδρος ποταμός (with different genders: ἐπὶ τῇ Αἴτνῃ τῷ ὄρει, or ἐπὶ τῷ ὄρει τῇ Αἴτνῃ), more rarely μέχρι Μαιάνδρου ποταμοῦ.

[^2]: Μόνος Ἑλλήνων καὶ βαρβάρων, of Greeks and barbarians, § 8, R. 2, f.

a) In the same manner as with substantives, the article stands with adjectives or participles when they are used substantively of persons or things (definite individuals or classes): Ὁ καλός, τὸ ἀγαθόν. Οἱ καλοί, τὰ ἀγαθά. Τὰ ἐν ἀνθρώποις ἀγαθά. (Οἱ πολλοί, the many; the multitude, the popular party: οἱ ὀλίγοι, the oligarchical party.) Οἱ πολεμοῦντες. Ὁ βουλόμενος, whoever will. Οἱ πρῶτοι ἐρχόμενοι. Ὁ ἄκων ἁμαρτάνων. Πᾶν τὸ καλῶς ἔχον (Pl. Rep. 381). Οἱ κινδυνεύειν ἐθέλοντες or οἱ ἐθέλοντες κινδυνεύειν. Ὁ τὸ τεῖχος ἑλών. Ὁ ἑλὼν τὸ τεῖχος.

Rem. 1. Where such a participle has a predicate nominative, this is usually placed between the article and the participle (ὁ φαῦλος νομιζόμενος), more rarely after the participle (ὁ νομιζόμενος φαῦλος). A case governed by the participle is rarely (by reason of special emphasis) placed before the article: Καὶ τὴν σοφίαν ὡσαύτως τοὺς ἀργυρίου πωλοῦντας σοφιστὰς ἀποκαλοῦσιν (Xen. Mem. 1, 6, 12).

Rem. 2. The Greeks sometimes put a participle substantively with the article, where we say indefinitely people who or people to -, see § 186, b. R. 1.

Rem. 3. Some such substantive expressions formed of the article with a neuter adjective, and denoting a relation of time, or an extent or amount, are used (in the accusative) as adverbs, e.g. τὸ ἀρχαῖον, τὸ παλαιόν, of old, τὸ πρῶτον (τὸ δεύτερον, πέμπτον, etc.), for the first time, τὸ τελευταῖον, lastly, at last, τὸ ὅλον, τὸ ξύμπαν, on the whole, τὸ μέγιστον, for the greatest part, τὰ πολλά, mostly, τὸ πλέον, τὰ πλείω, for the more part (in Thucyd. sometimes τὸ πλέον for the mere adverb πλέον), τὸ λοιπόν, τὰ λοιπά, for the future, τἄλλα, for the rest, τὰ τελευταῖα (Thuc. 1, 24), lastly.

b) In the same way, the article without a substantive is prefixed to a preposition and its case, or to an adverb of time or place (§ 9 b), to denote persons or things (definite individuals or classes), which are in the situation or relation assigned by the preposition or adverb: Οἱ ἐν τῇ πόλει, the people in the city, οἱ παρὰ Νικίου (the persons sent from N.), οἱ ἐφ' ἡμῶν, ἐμοῦ (our, my, contemporaries, people in our times), οἱ ἐπὶ τῶν πραγμάτων (Dem., those over the affairs, i.e. those who are at the head of them). Ὁ ἐν τῷ πλοίῳ (the men in the ship, of a person lately mentioned). Οἱ νῦν, οἱ ἐνθάδε, οἱ ἐκεῖ. Οἱ ἐγγυτάτω (γένους), the next of kin. Τὰ εἰς τὸν πόλεμον, what belongs to war, the preparations for war. Τὰ ἐφ' ἡμῖν, what is in our power. Τὰ κατὰ Σικελίαν, the Sicilian affairs. Τὰ ἐνθάδε, the affairs here.[^1]

[^1] Rarely τὸ σφόδρα, τὸ φανερῶς, and the like, with an infinitive understood: the putting it strongly, the vehement form, the speaking openly.

Rem. 1. In the singular of the neuter gender, some such expressions, governed by a preposition, serve to mark time and place. Ἐν τῷ τότε, at that time, ἐν τῷ πρὸ τοῦ, in the time preceding, ἐκ τοῦ ἐπὶ θάτερα, ἐκ τοῦ ἐπ' ἀριστερά, from the opposite side, from the left side, τὰ ἐν τῷ ἐπέκεινα τῆς ἄκρας γιγνόμενα (Thuc. 8, 104), what was doing on the other side of the promontory.

Rem. 2. Some such expressions, formed with the neuter article and a preposition, are used (in the accusative) as adverbs to denote a certain compass or extent, thus: τὸ ἀπὸ τοῦδε, from this time forth, τὸ ἐπ' ἐμοί, as far as it depends on me, for my part, τὸ καθ' ἑαυτόν, for his own part, as regards oneself, τὸ πρὸ τούτου, in former times. The article stands in this way even before adverbs of time, to denote a certain extent of time: τὸ πρίν, of yore, τὸ τήμερον, τὸ νῦν, τὰ νῦν (τοῦνῦν, τανῦν), now (τὰ νῦν τάδε), τό τε παραυτίκα καὶ τὸ ἔπειτα (Thuc.), both for the instant and for the future. (Τὰ μάλιστα, in the highest degree.)

c) The article in the plural masculine is put with the genitive of the name of a person to denote that person's people, train, troops, &c.: Κλέαρχος ἤλαυνεν ἐπὶ τοὺς Μένωνος (Xen. An. 1, 5, 13). But especially the article is put in the neuter with the genitive, and conveys a general substantive notion of that which belongs to, or arises from, or concerns a person or thing: Τὰ τῶν πολεμίων. Τὰ τῆς πόλεως, the concerns or affairs of the city. Ἡ Δίκη πάντα τὰ τῶν ἀνθρώπων ἐφορᾷ (Dem. 25, 11). Τὸ τῆς ἐπιτροπῆς ἐλέλυτο (Dem. 38, 19, the affair of the guardianship). Τὰ τῆς τύχης, the dispensations, dealings, of fortune. Τὰ τῶν Ἀθηναίων φρονεῖν, to think that which is for the interest of the Athenians, i.e. to take part with the Athenians. Τὸ τοῦ Θεμιστοκλέους (Pl. Rep. 1, 329, the expression of Th.; what Th. said). Δοκεῖς μοι τὸ τοῦ Ἰβυκείου ἵππου πεπονθέναι (Pl. Parm. 136, what befel the horse of Ibycus). (Sometimes little more than a mere periphrasis: Ἦν ἄδηλα τὰ τῆς σωτηρίας Χαριδήμῳ, Dem. 23, 163. Τὸ τῶν πρεσβυτέρων ἡμῶν, Pl. Legg. 2, 657, we elders, as for us elders. Τὰ βαρβάρων γὰρ δοῦλα πάντα πλὴν ἑνός, Eur. Hel. 276.)

a) The article is put with infinitives to mark that the notion of the action is conceived as a substantive (τὸ λέγειν, the speaking, τὸ κολάζεσθαι, the being punished); see on the Infinitive, § 154 f. Further, it is put with any other not substantive word which is used materialiter as substantive; and so, with a set of connected words. Τὸ ὑμεῖς, the word ὑ. Τὸ λέγεται. Τὸ γνῶθι σαυτόν. Ὑπερέβη τὸ "καὶ ἐὰν ἁλῷ φόνου" (Dem. 23, 220; he left out the words -). Ἰσχόμαχος ἐγέλασεν ἐπὶ τῷ "Τί ποιῶν καλὸς κἀγαθὸς κέκλησαι;" (Xen. Oec. 7, 3).

b) The article stands before a whole proposition in definite form (acc. with inf.), to denote that the matter of the proposition is conceived as a substantive; the circumstance that -, the fact of -, &c. See under Inf. § 170.

Rem. 1. Even the substance of a dependent proposition is sometimes put definitely by the article, and thereby brought into connexion with the primary sentence, especially in dependent interrogative propositions: Οὐ περὶ τοῦ ἐπιτυχόντος ὁ λόγος, ἀλλὰ περὶ τοῦ, ὅντινα τρόπον χρὴ ζῆν (Pl. Rep. 1, 352, but about the question, how -). Τὸ γὰρ ὡς τὰ ἄριστά τε ἔπραττον καὶ διὰ παντὸς εὔνους εἰμί, ἱκανῶς ἐκ τῶν εἰρημένων δεδηλῶσθαί μοι νομίζω (Dem. 18, 110).

Rem. 2. A short relative expression may be attached to a substantive by the article, even so as to obtain an adjective sense: Οὐ τὴν ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τοῦ δίφρου ἕδραν ἐπαινοῦμεν (Xen. Hipp. 7, 5, of a rider: a way of sitting upon a horse, as one would upon a chair). Ἀνθρώπων τῆς ὅπου βούλεσθε ὀλιγαρχίας ἀσελγέστερος γέγονεν (Dem. 22, 52, more insolent than an oligarchy be it where you will; - than any oligarchy). Σόλων ἐμίσει τοὺς οἷος οὗτος (ἐστὶν) ἀνθρώπους (Dem. 19, 254, cf. § 106, R. 9).

a) Where the same substantive (or word put substantively) with the article ought to be put twice (or oftener) with different adjuncts, it is sufficient merely to repeat the article: Ὁ τῶν ἰδιωτευόντων βίος αἱρετώτερος ἢ ὁ τῶν τυραννευόντων (Isocr. ad Nic. 4). Ἔχομεν Μοῦσαν τῆς τῶν χορῶν καλλίω καὶ τῆς ἐν τοῖς κοινοῖς θεάτροις (Pl. Legg. 2, 667). Ὑπὸ τῶν πεττεύειν δεινῶν οἱ μὴ (viz. πεττεύειν δεινοί) τελευτῶντες ἀποκλείονται (Pl. Rep. 6, 487). Καὶ παρὰ τῶν ὑμετέρων στρατιωτῶν καὶ παρὰ τῶν ἐνθάδε. Πολὺ κρείττων ἐστὶν ὁ τῆς ψυχῆς ἢ ὁ τοῦ σώματος ἔρως (Xen. Symp. 8, 12) [^1]. In like manner: Ἀνὴρ δόκιμος ὁμοῖα τῷ μάλιστα, viz. δοκίμῳ, Hdt. 7, 118. Σέβομαί τε ὁμοῖα τῷ μάλιστα, viz. σεβομένῳ, Hdt. 3, 8.

[^1] μεγάλη τις δύναμις ἡ τῶν εὖ λεγόντων, with the substantive drawn over to the predicate.

b) When two notions coupled by "and" so closely cohere that they together make one notion, or may be comprised under one head, the article is sometimes put only once: Οἱ στρατηγοὶ καὶ λοχαγοί (Xen. An. 3, 1, 29, (the chief officers, to wit) generals and captains: in other passages οἱ στρ. καὶ οἱ λοχ.). Ὁ ἥλιος καὶ σελήνη καὶ ἄστρα (Pl. Phaed. 111, the heavenly bodies, to wit). Τό τε δίκαιον καὶ τὸ ἄδικον καὶ καλὸν καὶ αἰσχρὸν καὶ ἀγαθὸν καὶ κακόν (Pl. Euthyph. 7, these moral conceptions, one and all). Ἔν τε τοῖς Ἀργείοις καὶ τοῖς ξυμμάχοις (Thuc. 5, 61). (Τῆς τε Ἰταλίας καὶ Σικελίας, Thuc. 1, 36, with two proper names, the west, viz. It. and Sic.)