Древнегреческий · Грамматики

J. N. Madvig, Syntax of the Greek Language: Chapter I, Agreement of Subject and Predicate

Syntax of The Greek Language, especially of the Attic dialect, for the use of schools, Dr. J. N. Madvig, professor in the university of Copenhagen. Translated from the German by the rev. Henry Browne, M. A and edited by the rev. Thomas Kerchever Arnold, M. A, late rector of Lyndon, and formerly fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Together with an Appendix on the Greek Particles, by the Translator. 2nd edition. Rivingstons: London, Oxford, and Cambridge, 1873.

Английский Грамматика Продвинутый 19 век J. N. Madvig

Pages 1–7 of the book.

Chapter I.

On the agreement of the Subject and Predicate; of the Substantive and Adjective and on the Impersonal form of expression.

a) The verb of the predicate conforms to the subject in person and number. But with a plural subject of the neuter gender, the verb stands in the singular. With a dual subject of the masculine or feminine gender, the verb not unfrequently stands in the plural, when no stress is laid on the fact of there being precisely two. (The first person of the dual is not used in prose.) Τὼ ξένω τώδε σοφὼ καὶ φίλω ἐστὸν ἐμώ (Pl. Gorg. 487). Ὦ Λάχης καὶ Νικία, εἴπατον ἡμῖν, τίνι δὴ δεινοτάτῳ συγγεγόνατον περὶ τῆς τῶν νεῶν τροφῆς (Pl. Lach. 186). Γένος καὶ μέρος οὐ ταὐτόν ἐστον (Pl. Pol. 263). - Ὅπλα οὐ πάρεστιν. Τὰ καλὰ τὴν ψυχὴν εὐφραίνει. - Δότε παράδειγμα ἡμῖν, ὦ Λάχης καὶ Νικία, τίνας ἐκ φαύλων καλούς τε καὶ ἀγαθοὺς ἐποιήσατε (Pl. Lach. 187). Οὕτω διάκεισθον σύ τε καὶ ὁ ἀδελφός, ὥσπερ εἰ τὼ χεῖρε, ἃς ὁ θεὸς ἐπὶ τῷ συλλαμβάνειν ἀλλήλαιν ἐποίησεν, ἀφεμένω τούτου τράποιντο ἐπὶ τὸ διακωλύειν ἀλλήλω (Xen. Mem. 2, 3, 18). Θερσαγόρας καὶ Ἐξήκεστος ᾤκουν ἐν Λέσβῳ (Dem. 23, 143). Οὐ χρώμεθα τούτοις ἐγὼ καὶ ὁ ἀδελφός (Pl. Euthyd. 273).

Rem. 1. The occurrence of a plural verb with a plural subject of the neuter gender is a rare exception: Φανερὰ ἦσαν καὶ ἵππων καὶ ἀνθρώπων ἴχνη πολλά (Xen. Anab. 1, 7, 17). Τὰ τέλη Λακεδαιμονίων (the Lacedaemonian authorities) Βρασίδαν ἐξέπεμψαν (Thuc. 4, 88).

Rem. 2. Now and then we meet with the plural of a substantive with reference to two objects: e.g. Δύο ἄνδρας ἔχω (Xen. Anab. 4, 1, 22). Δυοῖν ὀνόμασι χρώμεθα (Pl. Soph. 244), ἀμφοτέρω τὼ παῖδε and οἱ στρατηγοὶ ἀμφότεροι, and then a plural subject of this kind may take its verb either in the dual or in the plural (or, if it be of the neuter gender, in the singular): Δύο τμήματά ἐστον (Pl. Pol. 282). Ἔστι δύο ταῦτα κακῶν ἐν τῇ ψυχῇ γένη (Pl. Soph. 228). [1]

[1]: Ἔστι καὶ ἐν ταῖς ἄλλαις πόλεσιν ἄρχοντές τε καὶ δῆμος (Pl. Rep. 5, 463; there are -). So in a few instances ἔστι, γίγνεται, in the poets also ἦν, before a masculine or feminine subject in the plural.

Rem. 3. In the poets, the plural of the first person is sometimes used instead of the singular: in prose this occurs only when a writer speaks of himself as an author: Οὐ δικαίως, ἤν θάνω, θανούμεθα (Helen, Eur. Tr. 904). Ὅσα ἐπυθόμεθα περὶ Κύρου, ταῦτα πειρασόμεθα διηγήσασθαι (Xen. Cyr. 1, 1, 6). (In the masculine gender, even of a female, since there is no longer an accurate specification of the individual): Οὐκ ἄρ' ὡς θανουμένους μετῆλθες ἡμᾶς (Hecuba, Eur. Hec. 511).

b) The adjective or participle of the predicate conforms to the subject in number, gender, and case: in the same way every adjective (participle) conforms to the substantive to which it is, whether attributively or appositively, attached: Τὼ ἄνδρε τούτω (Κριτίας καὶ Ἀλκιβιάδης) φύσει φιλοτιμοτάτω πάντων Ἀθηναίων ἐγενέσθην (Xen. Mem. 1, 2, 14). Πάρεσμεν ὡς ἐπιδείξοντε καὶ διδάξοντε, ἐάν τις ἐθέλῃ μανθάνειν (Pl. Euthyd. 274). Χρήματα ἄνευ νοῦ βλαβερὰ γίγνεται. Πάντα καλλίω γίγνεσθαι φιλεῖ θεραπείας τυγχάνοντα.

Rem. 1. With dual subjects a participle, as apposition or predicate (but not as attributive), sometimes stands in the plural: Ἐγελασάτην ἄμφω βλέψαντες εἰς ἀλλήλους (Pl. Euthyd. 273).

Rem. 2. With a dual subject of the feminine gender there is sometimes found a participle of the masculine: δύο τινὲ ἰδέα ἄρχοντε καὶ ἄγοντε (Pl. Phaed. 237). [2]

[2]: For the dual forms of the article and certain pronouns that are common to the masculine and feminine gender, see the Accidence.

Rem. 3. A masculine or feminine subject, or a neuter subject in the plural number, may take a predicative adjective in the neuter of the singular, when it denotes, in a general way, the essence of a certain class of objects: Πονηρὸν ὁ συκοφάντης ἀεί (Dem. 18, 242). Ἀσθενέστερον γυνὴ ἀνδρός (Pl. Rep. 5, 455). Οἱ τοιοῦτοι ἄνθρωποι χρησιμώτερον νομίζουσι χρήματα ἢ ἀδελφούς (Xen. Mem. 2, 3, 1).

Rem. 4. When a neuter adjective with the verb ἐστί is predicated of an infinitive, it sometimes (especially in the older writers) stands in the plural: Θέρους δι' ἀνυδρίαν ἀδύνατα ἦν ἐπιστρατεύειν ταῖς Αἰόλου νήσοις (Thuc. 3, 88). Also in impersonal expressions, especially with the gerundives, the adjective is sometimes used in the plural of the neuter gender: πολεμητέα ἐστίν (Thuc. 1, 88).

Rem. 5. Instead of a predicative noun with εἰμί, γίγνομαι, a demonstrative or relative pronoun of the neuter gender may also be used, to indicate a preceding predicate: for two, ἀμφότερον, οὐδέτερον, ἀμφότερα, οὐδέτερα may also be used: Ὁ μὲν δίκαιος φρόνιμός τε καὶ ἀγαθός, ὁ δὲ ἄδικος οὐδέτερα (Pl. Rep. 1, 349). The words last mentioned may also be referred to verbs: λέγειν ἢ γράφειν ἢ ἀμφότερα ("or both").

Rem. 6. The verb εἶναι is connected, not only with local adverbs (e.g. μακρὰν εἶναι, to be far off or away, χωρὶς εἶναι, to be apart, by itself), but also with the adverb: μάτην, e.g. μάτην ἐστὶ τὸ μεμνῆσθαι περὶ τούτων (Isocr. Paneg. 5). (Ἅλις ἐστίν.) In the same way the impersonal ἐστίν, it is = it is going on (well, ill, &c.) is used with adverbs, e.g. καλῶς ἔσται, ὁποτέρως ἔσται. With local adverbs γίγνεσθαι also is used, e.g. ἐγγύτερον γίγνεσθαι, to come nearer, χωρὶς γ., δίχα γίγνεσθαι, to separate (to come into the state of being found at two places).

a) When two or more subjects of different persons are spoken of together, they are connected with the first or second person of the plural [with the first, if any one of them is of that person]: Τὴν τέχνην ταύτην ἐγώ τε καὶ ὁ πατὴρ ἀσκοῦμεν. Καὶ σὺ καὶ οἱ ἀδελφοὶ παρῆστε, except when peculiar prominence is to be given to the nearest subject (by making the verb conform to it): Ταῦτα καὶ σὺ καὶ πάντες οἱ τότε παρόντες ἴσασιν. (Σύ τε Ἕλλην εἶ καὶ ἡμεῖς. Xen. Anab. 2, 1, 16.)

b) When several connected subjects of the singular number are living creatures, especially persons, they usually take the predicate in the plural; two in the dual: if they are of different genders, the predicate, if capable of distinction of sex, is masculine: Κριτίας καὶ Ἀλκιβιάδης Σωκράτει ὡμιλείτην (Xen. Mem. 1, 2, 40). Καὶ ἡ γυνὴ καὶ ὁ ἀνὴρ ἀγαθοί εἰσιν (Pl. Men. 73). The singular, however, is also used when the predicate is a single verb and precedes the subjects, only the nearest subject being then regarded: Ἴσως ἀναβήσεται καὶ συνερεῖ τῇ βουλῇ Φίλιππος καὶ Ἀντιγένης καὶ ὁ ἀντιγραφεύς (Dem. 22, 38). Ἧκεν ὁ Θερσαγόρας καὶ ὁ Ἐξήκεστος εἰς Λέσβον καὶ ᾤκουν ἐκεῖ (Dem. 23, 143). (Ἐκ τῶν πατρῴων θρέψεται (ὁ τύραννος) αὐτός τε καὶ οἱ συμπόται τε καὶ ἑταῖροι καὶ ἑταῖραι; Pl. Rep. 8, 568).

c) If the connected subjects are things and impersonal notions, then the predicate may either conform only to the nearest subject (so that all the subjects are conceived as one, or, it may be, the nearest is rendered prominent), or be placed in the plural, the plurality and distinction being both alike regarded. (For several subjects of the neuter gender, the verb always stands in the singular, according to § 1, a.) Τῶν ἡμετέρων κακῶν ἡ τῶν πολιτῶν στάσις καὶ ὁ πόλεμος αἴτιός ἐστιν. Οἱ ἐμοὶ πλάνοι καὶ ταλαιπωρίαι καὶ τὰ πολλὰ ψηφίσματα τοῦτο ἀπειργάσατο (Dem. 18, 218). Σοφία καὶ νοῦς ἄνευ ψυχῆς οὐκ ἄν ποτε γενοίσθην (Pl. Phil. 30). If, in the last case, the predicate is such a verb as expresses no independent notion, with an adjective or participle, if the subjects are of different genders, the predicate is always neuter: if they are of the same gender (masculine or feminine) it is most commonly neuter (the subjects in general being regarded as things, objects), and then the verb also stands in the singular: Πόλεμος καὶ στάσις ὀλέθρια ταῖς πόλεσίν ἐστιν. Κάλλος καὶ ἰσχὺς δειλῷ καὶ κακῷ ξυνοικοῦντα ἀπρεπῆ φαίνεται (Pl. Men. 246). Φθόνος καὶ ἔρως ἐναντία ἐστίν. (Less commonly: φθόνος καὶ ἔρως ἐναντίοι.) [1]

[1]: Ἡ καλλίστη πολιτεία τε καὶ ὁ κάλλιστος ἀνὴρ λοιπά ἐστιν ἡμῖν διελθεῖν, Pl. Rep. 8, 562 (a non-personal notion and a person).

d) If several plural subjects of different genders are connected, then, with respect to the gender of the predicate, the rule given under b and c holds good: Εἶδον νέους τε καὶ νέας ὁμιλοῦντας φιλοφρόνως ἀλλήλοις (Pl. Legg. 9, 835). Τῶν δυνατῶν καὶ οἱ φθόνοι καὶ οἱ ἔρωτες δεινοί. Πόλεμοι καὶ στάσεις ὀλέθρια ταῖς πόλεσιν. Also, when the subjects are of the same gender (masculine or feminine), the predicate may be neuter (denoting things, in a general way, according to c): Ταραχαὶ καὶ στάσεις ὀλέθρια ταῖς πόλεσιν (are ruinous things).

Rem. 1. When of several subjects the nearest (to the verb) is in the singular (or in the plural, but of the neuter gender), the rest in the plural, then the predicate may conform either to the nearest alone, or to all of them: Ἀθήνησι καὶ οἱ πένητες καὶ ὁ δῆμος πλέον ἔχει τῶν γενναίων καὶ τῶν πλουσίων (Xen. Ath. Pol. 1, 2). Σάρκες καὶ νεῦρα ἐξ αἵματος γίγνεται (Pl. Tim. 82). Αἱ τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων ἁμαρτίαι καὶ παρασκευὴ ὑπὸ τῆς ὕλης οὐ δῆλα ἦν τοῖς Ἀθηναίοις (Thuc. 4, 29). (Now and then the predicate conforms to a more remote subject, which is at the same time the most important one: Βασιλεὺς καὶ οἱ σὺν αὐτῷ εἰσπίπτει εἰς τὸ Κύρειον στρατόπεδον, Xen. Anab. 1, 10, 1.)[^3]

Rem. 2. If the subjects are connected by the disjunctive ἤ, the predicate, as a general rule, conforms only to the nearest; sometimes, however, it is referred to both. With ἤ-ἤ, οὔτε-οὔτε, the predicate nearly always conforms only to the nearest subject.

Sometimes the natural quality and character of the predicate is more regarded, than the grammatical form of the word employed.

a) In the case of a collective, denoting living beings, the predicate sometimes refers to the individuals comprehended under it, and stands in the plural, and in the natural gender (i.e. that of the objects designated): Ἀθηναίων τὸ πλῆθος Ἵππαρχον οἴονται ὑφ' Ἁρμοδίου καὶ Ἀριστογείτονος τύραννον ὄντα ἀποθανεῖν (Thuc. 1, 20). Πολὺ γένος ἀνθρώπων τοῖς μὲν ἐκ τῆς γῆς φυομένοις εἰς τροφὴν οὐ χρῶνται, ἀπὸ δὲ βοσκημάτων γάλακτι καὶ τυρῷ καὶ κρέασι τρεφόμενοι ζῶσι (Xen. Anab. 4, 3, 10). So also a participle, added appositively, stands in the plural: Τὸ στράτευμα ἐπορίζετο σῖτον, ὅπως ἐδύνατο, ἐκ τῶν ὑποζυγίων, κόπτοντες τοὺς βοῦς καὶ ὄνους (Xen. Anab. 2, 1, 6).

b) If persons are denoted figuratively by neuter substantives, or men by feminine substantives, the predicate (or a participle as apposition) is sometimes added in the plural: Ἔδοξε τοῖς Λακεδαιμονίοις, τὰ τέλη (that the authorities) καταβάντας ἐς τὸ στρατόπεδον βουλεύειν (Thuc. 4, 15). Πεντήκοντα τριήρεις τῶν Ἀθηναίων πλέουσαι εἰς Αἴγυπτον ἴσχον (landed) κατὰ τὸ Μενδήσιον κέρας, οὐκ εἰδότες τῶν γεγενημένων οὐδέν (Thuc. 1, 110). (Ἀλκιβιάδης ἑώρα τὴν πόλιν ἑαυτῷ εὔνουν οὖσαν καὶ στρατηγὸν αὐτὸν ᾑρημένους, Xen. Hell. 1, 4, 12, - and that they, namely, the Athenians, -.)

c) A subject in the singular, to which another personal name is attached by σύν or μετά, is sometimes considered as a plural subject, when stress is to be laid on the community of action: Δημοσθένης μετὰ τῶν ξυστρατηγῶν σπένδονται Μαντινεῦσιν (Thuc. 8, 109).

When the predicate consists of a substantive (or a word used substantively), with εἰμί, γίγνομαι, or any of the other verbs that cannot express a complete predicate, the verb nearly always conforms to the substantive, and is generally placed close by it: Οἱ σοφισταὶ φανερά ἐστι λώβη τε καὶ διαφθορὰ τῶν συγγιγνομένων (Pl. Men. 91). Αἴτιον ἐγένετο τῆς ἀποστολῆς τῶν νεῶν οἱ πολλοὶ τῶν Χίων οὐκ εἰδότες τὰ πρασσόμενα (Thuc. 8, 9, the reason of the ships being sent was -). Τὸ χωρίον τοῦτο πρότερον ἐννέα ὁδοὶ ἐκαλοῦντο (Thuc. 4, 102). Πάντα, ὅσα ὑπὸ ποιητῶν λέγεται, διήγησις οὖσα τυγχάνει ἢ γεγονότων ἢ ὄντων ἢ μελλόντων (Pl. Rep. 3, 392). Τὴν ἡδονὴν διώκετε ὡς ἀγαθὸν ὄν (Pl. Prot. 354).

A more special distinction by means of the words ἄλλος, ἄλλο (ἄλλοθεν, &c.), ὁ μὲν - ὁ δὲ, ἕκαστος (of two, ἑκάτερος) is often attached to a plural subject without exerting any influence upon the predicate; sometimes, however, the predicate conforms to this apposition (only, however, when it follows it): Ὡς εἶδόν μ' εἰσιόντα, εὐθὺς, πόρρωθεν ἠσπάζοντο ἄλλος ἄλλοθεν (Pl. Charm. 153). Ἐγώ τε καὶ σὺ μακρὸν λόγον ἑκάτερος ἀπετείναμεν (Pl. Prot. 361). - Πελοποννήσιοι πάντες ἰσόψηφοι ὄντες καὶ οὐχ ὁμόφυλοι τὸ ἐφ' ἑαυτὸν ἕκαστος σπεύδει (Thuc. 1, 141). Οὗτοι ἄλλος ἄλλα λέγει (Xen. Anab. 2, 1, 15). (Cf. on the partitive gen. § 50, a. Rem. 3.)

Rem. When one subject is appended to another by the comparative particle ἤ, the predicate often conforms to the appended subject: Τῶν κοινῶν οὐδὲν σὺ μᾶλλον ἤ τις ἄλλος ἔχει (Pl. Theat. 209).

a) The subject is usually omitted in Greek, when it would be the personal pronoun of the first or second person, without any peculiar emphasis or opposition to other notions (but: ὡς καὶ ἡμεῖς λέγομεν καὶ ὑμεῖς ὁμολογεῖτε [1]); so also always, when it is that third person, who has hitherto been the subject of discourse, and is sufficiently known from the context (whereas, by the use of a demonstrative pronoun, the subject is rendered prominent, and distinguished from other notions in a marked way, or even opposed to them).

[1]: Οἱ ἄλλοι σκηνοῦμεν ὑπαίθριοι (Xen. Anab. 5, 5, 21, - we others: the rest of us). Θεμιστοκλῆς ἥκω παρὰ σὲ (Thuc. 1, 137).

Rem. Sometimes, by a less careful mode of expression, the third person of a verb without a pronoun is so placed, that we must understand it to be spoken of some other subject (sufficiently implied by the context), than that of another verb in the third person, which preceded it: Αἰσθόμενοι οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι τοὺς Λακεδαιμονίους διὰ κατάγνωσιν ἀσθενείας σφῶν (because they considered the Athenians weak) παρασκευαζομένους, δηλῶσαι βουλόμενοι, ὅτι οὐκ ὀρθῶς ἐγνώκασιν (namely, οἱ Λακεδαιμόνιοι), ἀλλ' οἷοί τε εἰσί (namely, οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι), μὴ κινοῦντες τὸ ἐπὶ Λέσβῳ ναυτικόν, καὶ τὸ ἀπὸ Πελοποννήσου ἐπιὸν ῥᾳδίως ἀμύνεσθαι, ἐπλήρωσαν ναῦς ἑκατόν (Thuc. 3, 16). (Ἀφανῆ τὸν Γύγην γενέσθαι φασὶν τοῖς παρακαθημένοις καὶ διαλέγεσθαι (namely, αὐτοὺς, τοὺς παρακαθημένους) ὡς περὶ οἰχομένου (Pl. Rep. 306). Sometimes, by an inaccuracy, the expression passes over from a whole class, denoted by a plural substantive, to the singular, denoting one of the individuals contained in the class: οἱ τύραννοι, and then τίνων γὰρ ἔτι ἄρξει; namely, ὁ τύραννος (Xen. Hier. 6, 14).

b) The third person of a verb in the plural is sometimes found without a subject expressed, when it is to be understood of men in general; especially when the thing spoken of is the common opinion or common talk of men; or when particular men are intended, who are easily known from the context: Τοὺς εὖ παθόντας, ὅταν δυνάμενοι χάριν ἀποδοῦναι μὴ ἀποδῶσιν, ἀχαρίστους καλοῦσιν (Xen. Mem. 2, 2, 1). Ὁ Νικίας (ὅπερ πάσχουσιν ἐν τοῖς μεγάλοις ἀγῶσι) πάντα τε ἔργῳ ἔτι ἐνδεᾶ εἶναι ἐνόμιζε καὶ λόγῳ οὔπω ἱκανὰ εἰρῆσθαι (Thuc. 7, 69). (Often φασί, they say, people say; it is said.) Τῷ ποταμῷ γέφυραι οὐκ ἔπεισιν, διαβαίνουσι δὲ ἐπὶ σχεδιῶν (namely, the inhabitants of the country).

c) The second person of the verb is used, in some kinds of sentences, to denote an assumed indefinite subject: Οὐδὲ βουλόμενος ἂν εὗρες ῥᾳδίως τὸν νύκτωρ πορευόμενον (Xen. Cyr. 4, 5, 6, would you have found, i.e. would a person, anybody, have found).

Rem. The second person stands in this way only in hypothetical sentences with ἄν, of what would have shown itself to be the case in a certain assumed state of things; and, in subjunctive subordinate sentences, with ἐάν or a relative word with ἄν. Ὁρῶν ταῦτα ἡγήσαιο ἂν Λακεδαιμονίους μόνους τῷ ὄντι τεχνίτας τῶν πολεμικῶν εἶναι (Xen. Pol. Lac. 13, 5). Οἱ ἀνοήτως φοβούμενοι, ὅσῳ ἂν μᾶλλον αὐτοῖς θαρρεῖν παρακελεύῃ, τοσούτῳ ἐν δεινοτέροις ἡγοῦνται εἶναι (Xen. Cyr. 5, 2, 34). (In Herodotus and the poets also the second person of the future in the indicative, e.g. Herod. 1, 139.)

a) The third person plural of several active verbs stands without any substantive (or substantivized word) as subject (impersonally), e.g. ὕει, it rains, ἔξεστι (ἰέναι), it is permitted, = one (you, &c.) may (licet), ἐδήλωσε, it was plain.

In this way are used in Greek:

1) Verbs that denote a state of the weather, or certain natural phenomena: as ὕει, νίφει, βροντᾷ, ἀστράπτει, χειμάζει, συσκοτάζει (it is growing dark), ἔσεισε (there was an earthquake: a shock was felt). With these verbs some indefinite being is regarded as the agent who causes the event (ὁ θεὸς ὕει, Herod. 2, 13; ἔσεισεν ὁ θεός, Xen. Hell. 4, 7, 4; Ζεὺς βροντᾷ).

2) The verbs which denote generally the propriety or possibility of an action, and have for their subject an infinitive, or acc. cum infin., as δεῖ, χρή, προσήκει, πρέπει, ἔξεστι, ἐγχωρεῖ, ἐνδέχεται, and also συμβαίνει, it happens. In certain phrases, ἔχει stands in the same way, as: φύσιν ἔχει, it is natural, δίκην ἔχει, it is just.

3) The verbs δοκεῖ (it seems; and with an infinitive; it seems good, it is resolved), ἔοικε, and in some connexions δηλοῖ and δείκνυσι (ἐδήλωσε, δηλώσει, it was manifest, will be manifest, δείξει), with which the thing intended must be mentally supplied.

4) Verbs which (in certain connexions) denote generally the state and progress of circumstances, as εὖ (καλῶς, οὕτως, ἄλλως) ἔχει, δεῖ (πολλοῦ, ὀλίγου), προχωρεῖ (μοι), it is going on (successfully), I am succeeding (in any thing): εἰς τοῦτ' ἦλθεν, it has come to this, and a few others. (Of relations of time: Ἦν ἀμφὶ ἀγορὰν πλήθουσαν, it was about the time when the market-place fills.) Further μέλει (curae est) and μεταμέλει (μοι, poenitet me).

5) Some verbs which denote the action of persons appointed to perform it, when the occurrence of the action is the thing contemplated, without any thought of the personal agent: especially, σημαίνει, a signal is given (ἐπειδὰν σημῄνῃ), σαλπίζει (the trumpet sounds), κηρύττει (proclamation is made): (ἐκήρυξε). (Ἀναγνώσεται, he shall read, in the orators, of the clerk who was present for the purpose.)

b) In other instances, the action is denoted impersonally by the third person singular of intransitive or intransitively-used verbs: Λέγεται, τοὺς θεοὺς ὑπὸ Διὸς βασιλεύεσθαι (Isocr. Nic. 26). Συρακούσιοι τοὺς Μεγαρεῖς τοὺς ἐν τῇ Σικελίᾳ ἀνέστησαν, ὥσπερ καὶ πρότερόν μοι εἴρηται (Thuc. 6, 94). Οὐκ ἄλλως αὐτοῖς πεπόνηται (Pl. Phaed. 232). Ἐπειδὴ παρεσκεύαστο τοῖς Κορινθίοις, ἀνήγοντο ὡς ἐπὶ ναυμαχίαν (Thuc. 1, 48). Ὧν ἂν καταψηφισθῇ, ἀποκτείνειν δεήσει (Pl. Pol. 299). (Δέδοκται, it is resolved.)

Rem. 1. This use is, however, for the most part, restricted to verbs that denote to say (λέγειν, ὁμολογεῖν), and to the perfect and pluperfect of other verbs, with an appended dative of the agent (see on Dat. § 38, g), of the completed action, and what has been effected. (On the other hand, the Latin practice, of using impersonally in the passive voice verbs which govern the dat., e.g. invidetur, invidebatur mihi, is not customary in Greek.)

Rem. 2. Now and then we meet with a general impersonal expression (without a sentence for its subject), with a neuter adjective (sometimes in the plural, § 1, b. R. 4), to denote a relation that exists, and a certain state of affairs, e.g. ἕτοιμά ἐστιν, γίγνεται (Thuc. 2, 3; it is ready = things are in readiness, or all is ready); βάσιμα ἦν, ἄβατα ἦν (Xen. Anab. 3, 4, 49); εὖ ἐπίθετον ἦν ἐνταῦθα (Xen. Anab. 3, 4, 20; here it was easy to attack = here was a convenient opportunity for attacking). On the Gerundive, see Chap. VII.

Rem. 3. Observe, that the Greeks occasionally use a personal expression with a definite substantive (or substantivized) subject, where in English we use a neuter adjective with it is, &c., having a sentence for its subject: as in the case of the adjectives φανερός, δῆλος (see on the Participle, § 177, b. R. 2), and δίκαιος (see on Infin. § 165, a. R.).

Part I. On the connection of words in sentences.

Part I. On the connection of words in sentences. 

Chapter I.

On the agreement of the Subject and Predicate; of the Substantive and Adjective and on the Impersonal form of expression.

Chapter I.

On the agreement of the Subject and Predicate; of the Substantive and Adjective and on the Impersonal form of expression.

§1

(211)

(211)

a) The verb of the predicate conforms to the subject in person and number. But with a plural subject of the neuter gender, the verb stands in the singular. With a dual subject of the masculine or feminine gender, the verb not unfrequently stands in the plural, when no stress is laid on the fact of there being precisely two. (The first person of the dual is not used in prose.) Τὼ ξένω τώδε σοφὼ καὶ φίλω ἐστὸν ἐμώ (Pl. Gorg. 487). Ὦ Λάχης καὶ Νικία, εἴπατον ἡμῖν, τίνι δὴ δεινοτάτῳ συγγεγόνατον περὶ τῆς τῶν νεῶν τροφῆς (Pl. Lach. 186). Γένος καὶ μέρος οὐ ταὐτόν ἐστον (Pl. Pol. 263). - Ὅπλα οὐ πάρεστιν. Τὰ καλὰ τὴν ψυχὴν εὐφραίνει. - Δότε παράδειγμα ἡμῖν, ὦ Λάχης καὶ Νικία, τίνας ἐκ φαύλων καλούς τε καὶ ἀγαθοὺς ἐποιήσατε (Pl. Lach. 187). Οὕτω διάκεισθον σύ τε καὶ ὁ ἀδελφός, ὥσπερ εἰ τὼ χεῖρε, ἃς ὁ θεὸς ἐπὶ τῷ συλλαμβάνειν ἀλλήλαιν ἐποίησεν, ἀφεμένω τούτου τράποιντο ἐπὶ τὸ διακωλύειν ἀλλήλω (Xen. Mem. 2, 3, 18). Θερσαγόρας καὶ Ἐξήκεστος ᾤκουν ἐν Λέσβῳ (Dem. 23, 143). Οὐ χρώμεθα τούτοις ἐγὼ καὶ ὁ ἀδελφός (Pl. Euthyd. 273).

Rem. 1. The occurrence of a plural verb with a plural subject of the neuter gender is a rare exception: Φανερὰ ἦσαν καὶ ἵππων καὶ ἀνθρώπων ἴχνη πολλά (Xen. Anab. 1, 7, 17). Τὰ τέλη Λακεδαιμονίων (the Lacedaemonian authorities) Βρασίδαν ἐξέπεμψαν (Thuc. 4, 88).

Rem. 2. Now and then we meet with the plural of a substantive with reference to two objects: e.g. Δύο ἄνδρας ἔχω (Xen. Anab. 4, 1, 22). Δυοῖν ὀνόμασι χρώμεθα (Pl. Soph. 244), ἀμφοτέρω τὼ παῖδε and οἱ στρατηγοὶ ἀμφότεροι, and then a plural subject of this kind may take its verb either in the dual or in the plural (or, if it be of the neuter gender, in the singular): Δύο τμήματά ἐστον (Pl. Pol. 282). Ἔστι δύο ταῦτα κακῶν ἐν τῇ ψυχῇ γένη (Pl. Soph. 228). [1]

[1]: Ἔστι καὶ ἐν ταῖς ἄλλαις πόλεσιν ἄρχοντές τε καὶ δῆμος (Pl. Rep. 5, 463; there are -). So in a few instances ἔστι, γίγνεται, in the poets also ἦν, before a masculine or feminine subject in the plural.

Rem. 3. In the poets, the plural of the first person is sometimes used instead of the singular: in prose this occurs only when a writer speaks of himself as an author: Οὐ δικαίως, ἤν θάνω, θανούμεθα (Helen, Eur. Tr. 904). Ὅσα ἐπυθόμεθα περὶ Κύρου, ταῦτα πειρασόμεθα διηγήσασθαι (Xen. Cyr. 1, 1, 6). (In the masculine gender, even of a female, since there is no longer an accurate specification of the individual): Οὐκ ἄρ' ὡς θανουμένους μετῆλθες ἡμᾶς (Hecuba, Eur. Hec. 511).

b) The adjective or participle of the predicate conforms to the subject in number, gender, and case: in the same way every adjective (participle) conforms to the substantive to which it is, whether attributively or appositively, attached: Τὼ ἄνδρε τούτω (Κριτίας καὶ Ἀλκιβιάδης) φύσει φιλοτιμοτάτω πάντων Ἀθηναίων ἐγενέσθην (Xen. Mem. 1, 2, 14). Πάρεσμεν ὡς ἐπιδείξοντε καὶ διδάξοντε, ἐάν τις ἐθέλῃ μανθάνειν (Pl. Euthyd. 274). Χρήματα ἄνευ νοῦ βλαβερὰ γίγνεται. Πάντα καλλίω γίγνεσθαι φιλεῖ θεραπείας τυγχάνοντα.

Rem. 1. With dual subjects a participle, as apposition or predicate (but not as attributive), sometimes stands in the plural: Ἐγελασάτην ἄμφω βλέψαντες εἰς ἀλλήλους (Pl. Euthyd. 273).

Rem. 2. With a dual subject of the feminine gender there is sometimes found a participle of the masculine: δύο τινὲ ἰδέα ἄρχοντε καὶ ἄγοντε (Pl. Phaed. 237). [2]

[2]: For the dual forms of the article and certain pronouns that are common to the masculine and feminine gender, see the Accidence.

Rem. 3. A masculine or feminine subject, or a neuter subject in the plural number, may take a predicative adjective in the neuter of the singular, when it denotes, in a general way, the essence of a certain class of objects: Πονηρὸν ὁ συκοφάντης ἀεί (Dem. 18, 242). Ἀσθενέστερον γυνὴ ἀνδρός (Pl. Rep. 5, 455). Οἱ τοιοῦτοι ἄνθρωποι χρησιμώτερον νομίζουσι χρήματα ἢ ἀδελφούς (Xen. Mem. 2, 3, 1).

Rem. 4. When a neuter adjective with the verb ἐστί is predicated of an infinitive, it sometimes (especially in the older writers) stands in the plural: Θέρους δι' ἀνυδρίαν ἀδύνατα ἦν ἐπιστρατεύειν ταῖς Αἰόλου νήσοις (Thuc. 3, 88). Also in impersonal expressions, especially with the gerundives, the adjective is sometimes used in the plural of the neuter gender: πολεμητέα ἐστίν (Thuc. 1, 88).

Rem. 5. Instead of a predicative noun with εἰμί, γίγνομαι, a demonstrative or relative pronoun of the neuter gender may also be used, to indicate a preceding predicate: for two, ἀμφότερον, οὐδέτερον, ἀμφότερα, οὐδέτερα may also be used: Ὁ μὲν δίκαιος φρόνιμός τε καὶ ἀγαθός, ὁ δὲ ἄδικος οὐδέτερα (Pl. Rep. 1, 349). The words last mentioned may also be referred to verbs: λέγειν ἢ γράφειν ἢ ἀμφότερα ("or both").

Rem. 6. The verb εἶναι is connected, not only with local adverbs (e.g. μακρὰν εἶναι, to be far off or away, χωρὶς εἶναι, to be apart, by itself), but also with the adverb: μάτην, e.g. μάτην ἐστὶ τὸ μεμνῆσθαι περὶ τούτων (Isocr. Paneg. 5). (Ἅλις ἐστίν.) In the same way the impersonal ἐστίν, it is = it is going on (well, ill, &c.) is used with adverbs, e.g. καλῶς ἔσται, ὁποτέρως ἔσται. With local adverbs γίγνεσθαι also is used, e.g. ἐγγύτερον γίγνεσθαι, to come nearer, χωρὶς γ., δίχα γίγνεσθαι, to separate (to come into the state of being found at two places).

a) The verb of the predicate conforms to the subject in person and number. But with a plural subject of the neuter gender, the verb stands in the singular. With a dual subject of the masculine or feminine gender, the verb not unfrequently stands in the plural, when no stress is laid on the fact of there being precisely two. (The first person of the dual is not used in prose.) Τὼ ξένω τώδε σοφὼ καὶ φίλω ἐστὸν ἐμώ (Pl. Gorg. 487). Ὦ Λάχης καὶ Νικία, εἴπατον ἡμῖν, τίνι δὴ δεινοτάτῳ συγγεγόνατον περὶ τῆς τῶν νεῶν τροφῆς (Pl. Lach. 186). Γένος καὶ μέρος οὐ ταὐτόν ἐστον (Pl. Pol. 263). - Ὅπλα οὐ πάρεστιν. Τὰ καλὰ τὴν ψυχὴν εὐφραίνει. - Δότε παράδειγμα ἡμῖν, ὦ Λάχης καὶ Νικία, τίνας ἐκ φαύλων καλούς τε καὶ ἀγαθοὺς ἐποιήσατε (Pl. Lach. 187). Οὕτω διάκεισθον σύ τε καὶ ὁ ἀδελφός, ὥσπερ εἰ τὼ χεῖρε, ἃς ὁ θεὸς ἐπὶ τῷ συλλαμβάνειν ἀλλήλαιν ἐποίησεν, ἀφεμένω τούτου τράποιντο ἐπὶ τὸ διακωλύειν ἀλλήλω (Xen. Mem. 2, 3, 18). Θερσαγόρας καὶ Ἐξήκεστος ᾤκουν ἐν Λέσβῳ (Dem. 23, 143). Οὐ χρώμεθα τούτοις ἐγὼ καὶ ὁ ἀδελφός (Pl. Euthyd. 273).

Rem. 1. The occurrence of a plural verb with a plural subject of the neuter gender is a rare exception: Φανερὰ ἦσαν καὶ ἵππων καὶ ἀνθρώπων ἴχνη πολλά (Xen. Anab. 1, 7, 17). Τὰ τέλη Λακεδαιμονίων (the Lacedaemonian authorities) Βρασίδαν ἐξέπεμψαν (Thuc. 4, 88).

Rem. 2. Now and then we meet with the plural of a substantive with reference to two objects: e.g. Δύο ἄνδρας ἔχω (Xen. Anab. 4, 1, 22). Δυοῖν ὀνόμασι χρώμεθα (Pl. Soph. 244), ἀμφοτέρω τὼ παῖδε and οἱ στρατηγοὶ ἀμφότεροι, and then a plural subject of this kind may take its verb either in the dual or in the plural (or, if it be of the neuter gender, in the singular): Δύο τμήματά ἐστον (Pl. Pol. 282). Ἔστι δύο ταῦτα κακῶν ἐν τῇ ψυχῇ γένη (Pl. Soph. 228). [1]

[1]: Ἔστι καὶ ἐν ταῖς ἄλλαις πόλεσιν ἄρχοντές τε καὶ δῆμος (Pl. Rep. 5, 463; there are -). So in a few instances ἔστι, γίγνεται, in the poets also ἦν, before a masculine or feminine subject in the plural.

Rem. 3. In the poets, the plural of the first person is sometimes used instead of the singular: in prose this occurs only when a writer speaks of himself as an author: Οὐ δικαίως, ἤν θάνω, θανούμεθα (Helen, Eur. Tr. 904). Ὅσα ἐπυθόμεθα περὶ Κύρου, ταῦτα πειρασόμεθα διηγήσασθαι (Xen. Cyr. 1, 1, 6). (In the masculine gender, even of a female, since there is no longer an accurate specification of the individual): Οὐκ ἄρ' ὡς θανουμένους μετῆλθες ἡμᾶς (Hecuba, Eur. Hec. 511).

b) The adjective or participle of the predicate conforms to the subject in number, gender, and case: in the same way every adjective (participle) conforms to the substantive to which it is, whether attributively or appositively, attached: Τὼ ἄνδρε τούτω (Κριτίας καὶ Ἀλκιβιάδης) φύσει φιλοτιμοτάτω πάντων Ἀθηναίων ἐγενέσθην (Xen. Mem. 1, 2, 14). Πάρεσμεν ὡς ἐπιδείξοντε καὶ διδάξοντε, ἐάν τις ἐθέλῃ μανθάνειν (Pl. Euthyd. 274). Χρήματα ἄνευ νοῦ βλαβερὰ γίγνεται. Πάντα καλλίω γίγνεσθαι φιλεῖ θεραπείας τυγχάνοντα.

Rem. 1. With dual subjects a participle, as apposition or predicate (but not as attributive), sometimes stands in the plural: Ἐγελασάτην ἄμφω βλέψαντες εἰς ἀλλήλους (Pl. Euthyd. 273).

Rem. 2. With a dual subject of the feminine gender there is sometimes found a participle of the masculine: δύο τινὲ ἰδέα ἄρχοντε καὶ ἄγοντε (Pl. Phaed. 237). [2]

[2]: For the dual forms of the article and certain pronouns that are common to the masculine and feminine gender, see the Accidence.

Rem. 3. A masculine or feminine subject, or a neuter subject in the plural number, may take a predicative adjective in the neuter of the singular, when it denotes, in a general way, the essence of a certain class of objects: Πονηρὸν ὁ συκοφάντης ἀεί (Dem. 18, 242). Ἀσθενέστερον γυνὴ ἀνδρός (Pl. Rep. 5, 455). Οἱ τοιοῦτοι ἄνθρωποι χρησιμώτερον νομίζουσι χρήματα ἢ ἀδελφούς (Xen. Mem. 2, 3, 1).

Rem. 4. When a neuter adjective with the verb ἐστί is predicated of an infinitive, it sometimes (especially in the older writers) stands in the plural: Θέρους δι' ἀνυδρίαν ἀδύνατα ἦν ἐπιστρατεύειν ταῖς Αἰόλου νήσοις (Thuc. 3, 88). Also in impersonal expressions, especially with the gerundives, the adjective is sometimes used in the plural of the neuter gender: πολεμητέα ἐστίν (Thuc. 1, 88).

Rem. 5. Instead of a predicative noun with εἰμί, γίγνομαι, a demonstrative or relative pronoun of the neuter gender may also be used, to indicate a preceding predicate: for two, ἀμφότερον, οὐδέτερον, ἀμφότερα, οὐδέτερα may also be used: Ὁ μὲν δίκαιος φρόνιμός τε καὶ ἀγαθός, ὁ δὲ ἄδικος οὐδέτερα (Pl. Rep. 1, 349). The words last mentioned may also be referred to verbs: λέγειν ἢ γράφειν ἢ ἀμφότερα ("or both").

Rem. 6. The verb εἶναι is connected, not only with local adverbs (e.g. μακρὰν εἶναι, to be far off or away, χωρὶς εἶναι, to be apart, by itself), but also with the adverb: μάτην, e.g. μάτην ἐστὶ τὸ μεμνῆσθαι περὶ τούτων (Isocr. Paneg. 5). (Ἅλις ἐστίν.) In the same way the impersonal ἐστίν, it is = it is going on (well, ill, &c.) is used with adverbs, e.g. καλῶς ἔσται, ὁποτέρως ἔσται. With local adverbs γίγνεσθαι also is used, e.g. ἐγγύτερον γίγνεσθαι, to come nearer, χωρὶς γ., δίχα γίγνεσθαι, to separate (to come into the state of being found at two places).

§2

(212, 213)

(212, 213)

a) When two or more subjects of different persons are spoken of together, they are connected with the first or second person of the plural [with the first, if any one of them is of that person]: Τὴν τέχνην ταύτην ἐγώ τε καὶ ὁ πατὴρ ἀσκοῦμεν. Καὶ σὺ καὶ οἱ ἀδελφοὶ παρῆστε, except when peculiar prominence is to be given to the nearest subject (by making the verb conform to it): Ταῦτα καὶ σὺ καὶ πάντες οἱ τότε παρόντες ἴσασιν. (Σύ τε Ἕλλην εἶ καὶ ἡμεῖς. Xen. Anab. 2, 1, 16.)

b) When several connected subjects of the singular number are living creatures, especially persons, they usually take the predicate in the plural; two in the dual: if they are of different genders, the predicate, if capable of distinction of sex, is masculine: Κριτίας καὶ Ἀλκιβιάδης Σωκράτει ὡμιλείτην (Xen. Mem. 1, 2, 40). Καὶ ἡ γυνὴ καὶ ὁ ἀνὴρ ἀγαθοί εἰσιν (Pl. Men. 73). The singular, however, is also used when the predicate is a single verb and precedes the subjects, only the nearest subject being then regarded: Ἴσως ἀναβήσεται καὶ συνερεῖ τῇ βουλῇ Φίλιππος καὶ Ἀντιγένης καὶ ὁ ἀντιγραφεύς (Dem. 22, 38). Ἧκεν ὁ Θερσαγόρας καὶ ὁ Ἐξήκεστος εἰς Λέσβον καὶ ᾤκουν ἐκεῖ (Dem. 23, 143). (Ἐκ τῶν πατρῴων θρέψεται (ὁ τύραννος) αὐτός τε καὶ οἱ συμπόται τε καὶ ἑταῖροι καὶ ἑταῖραι; Pl. Rep. 8, 568).

c) If the connected subjects are things and impersonal notions, then the predicate may either conform only to the nearest subject (so that all the subjects are conceived as one, or, it may be, the nearest is rendered prominent), or be placed in the plural, the plurality and distinction being both alike regarded. (For several subjects of the neuter gender, the verb always stands in the singular, according to § 1, a.) Τῶν ἡμετέρων κακῶν ἡ τῶν πολιτῶν στάσις καὶ ὁ πόλεμος αἴτιός ἐστιν. Οἱ ἐμοὶ πλάνοι καὶ ταλαιπωρίαι καὶ τὰ πολλὰ ψηφίσματα τοῦτο ἀπειργάσατο (Dem. 18, 218). Σοφία καὶ νοῦς ἄνευ ψυχῆς οὐκ ἄν ποτε γενοίσθην (Pl. Phil. 30). If, in the last case, the predicate is such a verb as expresses no independent notion, with an adjective or participle, if the subjects are of different genders, the predicate is always neuter: if they are of the same gender (masculine or feminine) it is most commonly neuter (the subjects in general being regarded as things, objects), and then the verb also stands in the singular: Πόλεμος καὶ στάσις ὀλέθρια ταῖς πόλεσίν ἐστιν. Κάλλος καὶ ἰσχὺς δειλῷ καὶ κακῷ ξυνοικοῦντα ἀπρεπῆ φαίνεται (Pl. Men. 246). Φθόνος καὶ ἔρως ἐναντία ἐστίν. (Less commonly: φθόνος καὶ ἔρως ἐναντίοι.) [1]

[1]: Ἡ καλλίστη πολιτεία τε καὶ ὁ κάλλιστος ἀνὴρ λοιπά ἐστιν ἡμῖν διελθεῖν, Pl. Rep. 8, 562 (a non-personal notion and a person).

d) If several plural subjects of different genders are connected, then, with respect to the gender of the predicate, the rule given under b and c holds good: Εἶδον νέους τε καὶ νέας ὁμιλοῦντας φιλοφρόνως ἀλλήλοις (Pl. Legg. 9, 835). Τῶν δυνατῶν καὶ οἱ φθόνοι καὶ οἱ ἔρωτες δεινοί. Πόλεμοι καὶ στάσεις ὀλέθρια ταῖς πόλεσιν. Also, when the subjects are of the same gender (masculine or feminine), the predicate may be neuter (denoting things, in a general way, according to c): Ταραχαὶ καὶ στάσεις ὀλέθρια ταῖς πόλεσιν (are ruinous things).

Rem. 1. When of several subjects the nearest (to the verb) is in the singular (or in the plural, but of the neuter gender), the rest in the plural, then the predicate may conform either to the nearest alone, or to all of them: Ἀθήνησι καὶ οἱ πένητες καὶ ὁ δῆμος πλέον ἔχει τῶν γενναίων καὶ τῶν πλουσίων (Xen. Ath. Pol. 1, 2). Σάρκες καὶ νεῦρα ἐξ αἵματος γίγνεται (Pl. Tim. 82). Αἱ τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων ἁμαρτίαι καὶ παρασκευὴ ὑπὸ τῆς ὕλης οὐ δῆλα ἦν τοῖς Ἀθηναίοις (Thuc. 4, 29). (Now and then the predicate conforms to a more remote subject, which is at the same time the most important one: Βασιλεὺς καὶ οἱ σὺν αὐτῷ εἰσπίπτει εἰς τὸ Κύρειον στρατόπεδον, Xen. Anab. 1, 10, 1.)[^3]

Rem. 2. If the subjects are connected by the disjunctive ἤ, the predicate, as a general rule, conforms only to the nearest; sometimes, however, it is referred to both. With ἤ-ἤ, οὔτε-οὔτε, the predicate nearly always conforms only to the nearest subject.

a) When two or more subjects of different persons are spoken of together, they are connected with the first or second person of the plural [with the first, if any one of them is of that person]: Τὴν τέχνην ταύτην ἐγώ τε καὶ ὁ πατὴρ ἀσκοῦμεν. Καὶ σὺ καὶ οἱ ἀδελφοὶ παρῆστε, except when peculiar prominence is to be given to the nearest subject (by making the verb conform to it): Ταῦτα καὶ σὺ καὶ πάντες οἱ τότε παρόντες ἴσασιν. (Σύ τε Ἕλλην εἶ καὶ ἡμεῖς. Xen. Anab. 2, 1, 16.)

b) When several connected subjects of the singular number are living creatures, especially persons, they usually take the predicate in the plural; two in the dual: if they are of different genders, the predicate, if capable of distinction of sex, is masculine: Κριτίας καὶ Ἀλκιβιάδης Σωκράτει ὡμιλείτην (Xen. Mem. 1, 2, 40). Καὶ ἡ γυνὴ καὶ ὁ ἀνὴρ ἀγαθοί εἰσιν (Pl. Men. 73). The singular, however, is also used when the predicate is a single verb and precedes the subjects, only the nearest subject being then regarded: Ἴσως ἀναβήσεται καὶ συνερεῖ τῇ βουλῇ Φίλιππος καὶ Ἀντιγένης καὶ ὁ ἀντιγραφεύς (Dem. 22, 38). Ἧκεν ὁ Θερσαγόρας καὶ ὁ Ἐξήκεστος εἰς Λέσβον καὶ ᾤκουν ἐκεῖ (Dem. 23, 143). (Ἐκ τῶν πατρῴων θρέψεται (ὁ τύραννος) αὐτός τε καὶ οἱ συμπόται τε καὶ ἑταῖροι καὶ ἑταῖραι; Pl. Rep. 8, 568).

c) If the connected subjects are things and impersonal notions, then the predicate may either conform only to the nearest subject (so that all the subjects are conceived as one, or, it may be, the nearest is rendered prominent), or be placed in the plural, the plurality and distinction being both alike regarded. (For several subjects of the neuter gender, the verb always stands in the singular, according to § 1, a.) Τῶν ἡμετέρων κακῶν ἡ τῶν πολιτῶν στάσις καὶ ὁ πόλεμος αἴτιός ἐστιν. Οἱ ἐμοὶ πλάνοι καὶ ταλαιπωρίαι καὶ τὰ πολλὰ ψηφίσματα τοῦτο ἀπειργάσατο (Dem. 18, 218). Σοφία καὶ νοῦς ἄνευ ψυχῆς οὐκ ἄν ποτε γενοίσθην (Pl. Phil. 30). If, in the last case, the predicate is such a verb as expresses no independent notion, with an adjective or participle, if the subjects are of different genders, the predicate is always neuter: if they are of the same gender (masculine or feminine) it is most commonly neuter (the subjects in general being regarded as things, objects), and then the verb also stands in the singular: Πόλεμος καὶ στάσις ὀλέθρια ταῖς πόλεσίν ἐστιν. Κάλλος καὶ ἰσχὺς δειλῷ καὶ κακῷ ξυνοικοῦντα ἀπρεπῆ φαίνεται (Pl. Men. 246). Φθόνος καὶ ἔρως ἐναντία ἐστίν. (Less commonly: φθόνος καὶ ἔρως ἐναντίοι.) [1]

[1]: Ἡ καλλίστη πολιτεία τε καὶ ὁ κάλλιστος ἀνὴρ λοιπά ἐστιν ἡμῖν διελθεῖν, Pl. Rep. 8, 562 (a non-personal notion and a person).

d) If several plural subjects of different genders are connected, then, with respect to the gender of the predicate, the rule given under b and c holds good: Εἶδον νέους τε καὶ νέας ὁμιλοῦντας φιλοφρόνως ἀλλήλοις (Pl. Legg. 9, 835). Τῶν δυνατῶν καὶ οἱ φθόνοι καὶ οἱ ἔρωτες δεινοί. Πόλεμοι καὶ στάσεις ὀλέθρια ταῖς πόλεσιν. Also, when the subjects are of the same gender (masculine or feminine), the predicate may be neuter (denoting things, in a general way, according to c): Ταραχαὶ καὶ στάσεις ὀλέθρια ταῖς πόλεσιν (are ruinous things).

Rem. 1. When of several subjects the nearest (to the verb) is in the singular (or in the plural, but of the neuter gender), the rest in the plural, then the predicate may conform either to the nearest alone, or to all of them: Ἀθήνησι καὶ οἱ πένητες καὶ ὁ δῆμος πλέον ἔχει τῶν γενναίων καὶ τῶν πλουσίων (Xen. Ath. Pol. 1, 2). Σάρκες καὶ νεῦρα ἐξ αἵματος γίγνεται (Pl. Tim. 82). Αἱ τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων ἁμαρτίαι καὶ παρασκευὴ ὑπὸ τῆς ὕλης οὐ δῆλα ἦν τοῖς Ἀθηναίοις (Thuc. 4, 29). (Now and then the predicate conforms to a more remote subject, which is at the same time the most important one: Βασιλεὺς καὶ οἱ σὺν αὐτῷ εἰσπίπτει εἰς τὸ Κύρειον στρατόπεδον, Xen. Anab. 1, 10, 1.)[^3]

Rem. 2. If the subjects are connected by the disjunctive ἤ, the predicate, as a general rule, conforms only to the nearest; sometimes, however, it is referred to both. With ἤ-ἤ, οὔτε-οὔτε, the predicate nearly always conforms only to the nearest subject.

§3

(215)

(215)

Sometimes the natural quality and character of the predicate is more regarded, than the grammatical form of the word employed.

a) In the case of a collective, denoting living beings, the predicate sometimes refers to the individuals comprehended under it, and stands in the plural, and in the natural gender (i.e. that of the objects designated): Ἀθηναίων τὸ πλῆθος Ἵππαρχον οἴονται ὑφ' Ἁρμοδίου καὶ Ἀριστογείτονος τύραννον ὄντα ἀποθανεῖν (Thuc. 1, 20). Πολὺ γένος ἀνθρώπων τοῖς μὲν ἐκ τῆς γῆς φυομένοις εἰς τροφὴν οὐ χρῶνται, ἀπὸ δὲ βοσκημάτων γάλακτι καὶ τυρῷ καὶ κρέασι τρεφόμενοι ζῶσι (Xen. Anab. 4, 3, 10). So also a participle, added appositively, stands in the plural: Τὸ στράτευμα ἐπορίζετο σῖτον, ὅπως ἐδύνατο, ἐκ τῶν ὑποζυγίων, κόπτοντες τοὺς βοῦς καὶ ὄνους (Xen. Anab. 2, 1, 6).

b) If persons are denoted figuratively by neuter substantives, or men by feminine substantives, the predicate (or a participle as apposition) is sometimes added in the plural: Ἔδοξε τοῖς Λακεδαιμονίοις, τὰ τέλη (that the authorities) καταβάντας ἐς τὸ στρατόπεδον βουλεύειν (Thuc. 4, 15). Πεντήκοντα τριήρεις τῶν Ἀθηναίων πλέουσαι εἰς Αἴγυπτον ἴσχον (landed) κατὰ τὸ Μενδήσιον κέρας, οὐκ εἰδότες τῶν γεγενημένων οὐδέν (Thuc. 1, 110). (Ἀλκιβιάδης ἑώρα τὴν πόλιν ἑαυτῷ εὔνουν οὖσαν καὶ στρατηγὸν αὐτὸν ᾑρημένους, Xen. Hell. 1, 4, 12, - and that they, namely, the Athenians, -.)

c) A subject in the singular, to which another personal name is attached by σύν or μετά, is sometimes considered as a plural subject, when stress is to be laid on the community of action: Δημοσθένης μετὰ τῶν ξυστρατηγῶν σπένδονται Μαντινεῦσιν (Thuc. 8, 109).

Sometimes the natural quality and character of the predicate is more regarded, than the grammatical form of the word employed.

a) In the case of a collective, denoting living beings, the predicate sometimes refers to the individuals comprehended under it, and stands in the plural, and in the natural gender (i.e. that of the objects designated): Ἀθηναίων τὸ πλῆθος Ἵππαρχον οἴονται ὑφ' Ἁρμοδίου καὶ Ἀριστογείτονος τύραννον ὄντα ἀποθανεῖν (Thuc. 1, 20). Πολὺ γένος ἀνθρώπων τοῖς μὲν ἐκ τῆς γῆς φυομένοις εἰς τροφὴν οὐ χρῶνται, ἀπὸ δὲ βοσκημάτων γάλακτι καὶ τυρῷ καὶ κρέασι τρεφόμενοι ζῶσι (Xen. Anab. 4, 3, 10). So also a participle, added appositively, stands in the plural: Τὸ στράτευμα ἐπορίζετο σῖτον, ὅπως ἐδύνατο, ἐκ τῶν ὑποζυγίων, κόπτοντες τοὺς βοῦς καὶ ὄνους (Xen. Anab. 2, 1, 6).

b) If persons are denoted figuratively by neuter substantives, or men by feminine substantives, the predicate (or a participle as apposition) is sometimes added in the plural: Ἔδοξε τοῖς Λακεδαιμονίοις, τὰ τέλη (that the authorities) καταβάντας ἐς τὸ στρατόπεδον βουλεύειν (Thuc. 4, 15). Πεντήκοντα τριήρεις τῶν Ἀθηναίων πλέουσαι εἰς Αἴγυπτον ἴσχον (landed) κατὰ τὸ Μενδήσιον κέρας, οὐκ εἰδότες τῶν γεγενημένων οὐδέν (Thuc. 1, 110). (Ἀλκιβιάδης ἑώρα τὴν πόλιν ἑαυτῷ εὔνουν οὖσαν καὶ στρατηγὸν αὐτὸν ᾑρημένους, Xen. Hell. 1, 4, 12, - and that they, namely, the Athenians, -.)

c) A subject in the singular, to which another personal name is attached by σύν or μετά, is sometimes considered as a plural subject, when stress is to be laid on the community of action: Δημοσθένης μετὰ τῶν ξυστρατηγῶν σπένδονται Μαντινεῦσιν (Thuc. 8, 109).

§4

(216)

(216)

When the predicate consists of a substantive (or a word used substantively), with εἰμί, γίγνομαι, or any of the other verbs that cannot express a complete predicate, the verb nearly always conforms to the substantive, and is generally placed close by it: Οἱ σοφισταὶ φανερά ἐστι λώβη τε καὶ διαφθορὰ τῶν συγγιγνομένων (Pl. Men. 91). Αἴτιον ἐγένετο τῆς ἀποστολῆς τῶν νεῶν οἱ πολλοὶ τῶν Χίων οὐκ εἰδότες τὰ πρασσόμενα (Thuc. 8, 9, the reason of the ships being sent was -). Τὸ χωρίον τοῦτο πρότερον ἐννέα ὁδοὶ ἐκαλοῦντο (Thuc. 4, 102). Πάντα, ὅσα ὑπὸ ποιητῶν λέγεται, διήγησις οὖσα τυγχάνει ἢ γεγονότων ἢ ὄντων ἢ μελλόντων (Pl. Rep. 3, 392). Τὴν ἡδονὴν διώκετε ὡς ἀγαθὸν ὄν (Pl. Prot. 354).

When the predicate consists of a substantive (or a word used substantively), with εἰμί, γίγνομαι, or any of the other verbs that cannot express a complete predicate, the verb nearly always conforms to the substantive, and is generally placed close by it: Οἱ σοφισταὶ φανερά ἐστι λώβη τε καὶ διαφθορὰ τῶν συγγιγνομένων (Pl. Men. 91). Αἴτιον ἐγένετο τῆς ἀποστολῆς τῶν νεῶν οἱ πολλοὶ τῶν Χίων οὐκ εἰδότες τὰ πρασσόμενα (Thuc. 8, 9, the reason of the ships being sent was -). Τὸ χωρίον τοῦτο πρότερον ἐννέα ὁδοὶ ἐκαλοῦντο (Thuc. 4, 102). Πάντα, ὅσα ὑπὸ ποιητῶν λέγεται, διήγησις οὖσα τυγχάνει ἢ γεγονότων ἢ ὄντων ἢ μελλόντων (Pl. Rep. 3, 392). Τὴν ἡδονὴν διώκετε ὡς ἀγαθὸν ὄν (Pl. Prot. 354).

§5

(217, R. 2)

(217, R. 2)

A more special distinction by means of the words ἄλλος, ἄλλο (ἄλλοθεν, &c.), ὁ μὲν - ὁ δὲ, ἕκαστος (of two, ἑκάτερος) is often attached to a plural subject without exerting any influence upon the predicate; sometimes, however, the predicate conforms to this apposition (only, however, when it follows it): Ὡς εἶδόν μ' εἰσιόντα, εὐθὺς, πόρρωθεν ἠσπάζοντο ἄλλος ἄλλοθεν (Pl. Charm. 153). Ἐγώ τε καὶ σὺ μακρὸν λόγον ἑκάτερος ἀπετείναμεν (Pl. Prot. 361). - Πελοποννήσιοι πάντες ἰσόψηφοι ὄντες καὶ οὐχ ὁμόφυλοι τὸ ἐφ' ἑαυτὸν ἕκαστος σπεύδει (Thuc. 1, 141). Οὗτοι ἄλλος ἄλλα λέγει (Xen. Anab. 2, 1, 15). (Cf. on the partitive gen. § 50, a. Rem. 3.)

Rem. When one subject is appended to another by the comparative particle ἤ, the predicate often conforms to the appended subject: Τῶν κοινῶν οὐδὲν σὺ μᾶλλον ἤ τις ἄλλος ἔχει (Pl. Theat. 209).

A more special distinction by means of the words ἄλλος, ἄλλο (ἄλλοθεν, &c.), ὁ μὲν - ὁ δὲ, ἕκαστος (of two, ἑκάτερος) is often attached to a plural subject without exerting any influence upon the predicate; sometimes, however, the predicate conforms to this apposition (only, however, when it follows it): Ὡς εἶδόν μ' εἰσιόντα, εὐθὺς, πόρρωθεν ἠσπάζοντο ἄλλος ἄλλοθεν (Pl. Charm. 153). Ἐγώ τε καὶ σὺ μακρὸν λόγον ἑκάτερος ἀπετείναμεν (Pl. Prot. 361). - Πελοποννήσιοι πάντες ἰσόψηφοι ὄντες καὶ οὐχ ὁμόφυλοι τὸ ἐφ' ἑαυτὸν ἕκαστος σπεύδει (Thuc. 1, 141). Οὗτοι ἄλλος ἄλλα λέγει (Xen. Anab. 2, 1, 15). (Cf. on the partitive gen. § 50, a. Rem. 3.)

Rem. When one subject is appended to another by the comparative particle ἤ, the predicate often conforms to the appended subject: Τῶν κοινῶν οὐδὲν σὺ μᾶλλον ἤ τις ἄλλος ἔχει (Pl. Theat. 209).

§6

(208, R. 2)

(208, R. 2)

a) The subject is usually omitted in Greek, when it would be the personal pronoun of the first or second person, without any peculiar emphasis or opposition to other notions (but: ὡς καὶ ἡμεῖς λέγομεν καὶ ὑμεῖς ὁμολογεῖτε [1]); so also always, when it is that third person, who has hitherto been the subject of discourse, and is sufficiently known from the context (whereas, by the use of a demonstrative pronoun, the subject is rendered prominent, and distinguished from other notions in a marked way, or even opposed to them).

[1]: Οἱ ἄλλοι σκηνοῦμεν ὑπαίθριοι (Xen. Anab. 5, 5, 21, - we others: the rest of us). Θεμιστοκλῆς ἥκω παρὰ σὲ (Thuc. 1, 137).

Rem. Sometimes, by a less careful mode of expression, the third person of a verb without a pronoun is so placed, that we must understand it to be spoken of some other subject (sufficiently implied by the context), than that of another verb in the third person, which preceded it: Αἰσθόμενοι οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι τοὺς Λακεδαιμονίους διὰ κατάγνωσιν ἀσθενείας σφῶν (because they considered the Athenians weak) παρασκευαζομένους, δηλῶσαι βουλόμενοι, ὅτι οὐκ ὀρθῶς ἐγνώκασιν (namely, οἱ Λακεδαιμόνιοι), ἀλλ' οἷοί τε εἰσί (namely, οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι), μὴ κινοῦντες τὸ ἐπὶ Λέσβῳ ναυτικόν, καὶ τὸ ἀπὸ Πελοποννήσου ἐπιὸν ῥᾳδίως ἀμύνεσθαι, ἐπλήρωσαν ναῦς ἑκατόν (Thuc. 3, 16). (Ἀφανῆ τὸν Γύγην γενέσθαι φασὶν τοῖς παρακαθημένοις καὶ διαλέγεσθαι (namely, αὐτοὺς, τοὺς παρακαθημένους) ὡς περὶ οἰχομένου (Pl. Rep. 306). Sometimes, by an inaccuracy, the expression passes over from a whole class, denoted by a plural substantive, to the singular, denoting one of the individuals contained in the class: οἱ τύραννοι, and then τίνων γὰρ ἔτι ἄρξει; namely, ὁ τύραννος (Xen. Hier. 6, 14).

b) The third person of a verb in the plural is sometimes found without a subject expressed, when it is to be understood of men in general; especially when the thing spoken of is the common opinion or common talk of men; or when particular men are intended, who are easily known from the context: Τοὺς εὖ παθόντας, ὅταν δυνάμενοι χάριν ἀποδοῦναι μὴ ἀποδῶσιν, ἀχαρίστους καλοῦσιν (Xen. Mem. 2, 2, 1). Ὁ Νικίας (ὅπερ πάσχουσιν ἐν τοῖς μεγάλοις ἀγῶσι) πάντα τε ἔργῳ ἔτι ἐνδεᾶ εἶναι ἐνόμιζε καὶ λόγῳ οὔπω ἱκανὰ εἰρῆσθαι (Thuc. 7, 69). (Often φασί, they say, people say; it is said.) Τῷ ποταμῷ γέφυραι οὐκ ἔπεισιν, διαβαίνουσι δὲ ἐπὶ σχεδιῶν (namely, the inhabitants of the country).

c) The second person of the verb is used, in some kinds of sentences, to denote an assumed indefinite subject: Οὐδὲ βουλόμενος ἂν εὗρες ῥᾳδίως τὸν νύκτωρ πορευόμενον (Xen. Cyr. 4, 5, 6, would you have found, i.e. would a person, anybody, have found).

Rem. The second person stands in this way only in hypothetical sentences with ἄν, of what would have shown itself to be the case in a certain assumed state of things; and, in subjunctive subordinate sentences, with ἐάν or a relative word with ἄν. Ὁρῶν ταῦτα ἡγήσαιο ἂν Λακεδαιμονίους μόνους τῷ ὄντι τεχνίτας τῶν πολεμικῶν εἶναι (Xen. Pol. Lac. 13, 5). Οἱ ἀνοήτως φοβούμενοι, ὅσῳ ἂν μᾶλλον αὐτοῖς θαρρεῖν παρακελεύῃ, τοσούτῳ ἐν δεινοτέροις ἡγοῦνται εἶναι (Xen. Cyr. 5, 2, 34). (In Herodotus and the poets also the second person of the future in the indicative, e.g. Herod. 1, 139.)

a) The subject is usually omitted in Greek, when it would be the personal pronoun of the first or second person, without any peculiar emphasis or opposition to other notions (but: ὡς καὶ ἡμεῖς λέγομεν καὶ ὑμεῖς ὁμολογεῖτε [1]); so also always, when it is that third person, who has hitherto been the subject of discourse, and is sufficiently known from the context (whereas, by the use of a demonstrative pronoun, the subject is rendered prominent, and distinguished from other notions in a marked way, or even opposed to them).

[1]: Οἱ ἄλλοι σκηνοῦμεν ὑπαίθριοι (Xen. Anab. 5, 5, 21, - we others: the rest of us). Θεμιστοκλῆς ἥκω παρὰ σὲ (Thuc. 1, 137).

Rem. Sometimes, by a less careful mode of expression, the third person of a verb without a pronoun is so placed, that we must understand it to be spoken of some other subject (sufficiently implied by the context), than that of another verb in the third person, which preceded it: Αἰσθόμενοι οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι τοὺς Λακεδαιμονίους διὰ κατάγνωσιν ἀσθενείας σφῶν (because they considered the Athenians weak) παρασκευαζομένους, δηλῶσαι βουλόμενοι, ὅτι οὐκ ὀρθῶς ἐγνώκασιν (namely, οἱ Λακεδαιμόνιοι), ἀλλ' οἷοί τε εἰσί (namely, οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι), μὴ κινοῦντες τὸ ἐπὶ Λέσβῳ ναυτικόν, καὶ τὸ ἀπὸ Πελοποννήσου ἐπιὸν ῥᾳδίως ἀμύνεσθαι, ἐπλήρωσαν ναῦς ἑκατόν (Thuc. 3, 16). (Ἀφανῆ τὸν Γύγην γενέσθαι φασὶν τοῖς παρακαθημένοις καὶ διαλέγεσθαι (namely, αὐτοὺς, τοὺς παρακαθημένους) ὡς περὶ οἰχομένου (Pl. Rep. 306). Sometimes, by an inaccuracy, the expression passes over from a whole class, denoted by a plural substantive, to the singular, denoting one of the individuals contained in the class: οἱ τύραννοι, and then τίνων γὰρ ἔτι ἄρξει; namely, ὁ τύραννος (Xen. Hier. 6, 14).

b) The third person of a verb in the plural is sometimes found without a subject expressed, when it is to be understood of men in general; especially when the thing spoken of is the common opinion or common talk of men; or when particular men are intended, who are easily known from the context: Τοὺς εὖ παθόντας, ὅταν δυνάμενοι χάριν ἀποδοῦναι μὴ ἀποδῶσιν, ἀχαρίστους καλοῦσιν (Xen. Mem. 2, 2, 1). Ὁ Νικίας (ὅπερ πάσχουσιν ἐν τοῖς μεγάλοις ἀγῶσι) πάντα τε ἔργῳ ἔτι ἐνδεᾶ εἶναι ἐνόμιζε καὶ λόγῳ οὔπω ἱκανὰ εἰρῆσθαι (Thuc. 7, 69). (Often φασί, they say, people say; it is said.) Τῷ ποταμῷ γέφυραι οὐκ ἔπεισιν, διαβαίνουσι δὲ ἐπὶ σχεδιῶν (namely, the inhabitants of the country).

c) The second person of the verb is used, in some kinds of sentences, to denote an assumed indefinite subject: Οὐδὲ βουλόμενος ἂν εὗρες ῥᾳδίως τὸν νύκτωρ πορευόμενον (Xen. Cyr. 4, 5, 6, would you have found, i.e. would a person, anybody, have found).

Rem. The second person stands in this way only in hypothetical sentences with ἄν, of what would have shown itself to be the case in a certain assumed state of things; and, in subjunctive subordinate sentences, with ἐάν or a relative word with ἄν. Ὁρῶν ταῦτα ἡγήσαιο ἂν Λακεδαιμονίους μόνους τῷ ὄντι τεχνίτας τῶν πολεμικῶν εἶναι (Xen. Pol. Lac. 13, 5). Οἱ ἀνοήτως φοβούμενοι, ὅσῳ ἂν μᾶλλον αὐτοῖς θαρρεῖν παρακελεύῃ, τοσούτῳ ἐν δεινοτέροις ἡγοῦνται εἶναι (Xen. Cyr. 5, 2, 34). (In Herodotus and the poets also the second person of the future in the indicative, e.g. Herod. 1, 139.)

§7

(207, R. 1)

(207, R. 1)

a) The third person plural of several active verbs stands without any substantive (or substantivized word) as subject (impersonally), e.g. ὕει, it rains, ἔξεστι (ἰέναι), it is permitted, = one (you, &c.) may (licet), ἐδήλωσε, it was plain.

In this way are used in Greek:

1) Verbs that denote a state of the weather, or certain natural phenomena: as ὕει, νίφει, βροντᾷ, ἀστράπτει, χειμάζει, συσκοτάζει (it is growing dark), ἔσεισε (there was an earthquake: a shock was felt). With these verbs some indefinite being is regarded as the agent who causes the event (ὁ θεὸς ὕει, Herod. 2, 13; ἔσεισεν ὁ θεός, Xen. Hell. 4, 7, 4; Ζεὺς βροντᾷ).

2) The verbs which denote generally the propriety or possibility of an action, and have for their subject an infinitive, or acc. cum infin., as δεῖ, χρή, προσήκει, πρέπει, ἔξεστι, ἐγχωρεῖ, ἐνδέχεται, and also συμβαίνει, it happens. In certain phrases, ἔχει stands in the same way, as: φύσιν ἔχει, it is natural, δίκην ἔχει, it is just.

3) The verbs δοκεῖ (it seems; and with an infinitive; it seems good, it is resolved), ἔοικε, and in some connexions δηλοῖ and δείκνυσι (ἐδήλωσε, δηλώσει, it was manifest, will be manifest, δείξει), with which the thing intended must be mentally supplied.

4) Verbs which (in certain connexions) denote generally the state and progress of circumstances, as εὖ (καλῶς, οὕτως, ἄλλως) ἔχει, δεῖ (πολλοῦ, ὀλίγου), προχωρεῖ (μοι), it is going on (successfully), I am succeeding (in any thing): εἰς τοῦτ' ἦλθεν, it has come to this, and a few others. (Of relations of time: Ἦν ἀμφὶ ἀγορὰν πλήθουσαν, it was about the time when the market-place fills.) Further μέλει (curae est) and μεταμέλει (μοι, poenitet me).

5) Some verbs which denote the action of persons appointed to perform it, when the occurrence of the action is the thing contemplated, without any thought of the personal agent: especially, σημαίνει, a signal is given (ἐπειδὰν σημῄνῃ), σαλπίζει (the trumpet sounds), κηρύττει (proclamation is made): (ἐκήρυξε). (Ἀναγνώσεται, he shall read, in the orators, of the clerk who was present for the purpose.)

b) In other instances, the action is denoted impersonally by the third person singular of intransitive or intransitively-used verbs: Λέγεται, τοὺς θεοὺς ὑπὸ Διὸς βασιλεύεσθαι (Isocr. Nic. 26). Συρακούσιοι τοὺς Μεγαρεῖς τοὺς ἐν τῇ Σικελίᾳ ἀνέστησαν, ὥσπερ καὶ πρότερόν μοι εἴρηται (Thuc. 6, 94). Οὐκ ἄλλως αὐτοῖς πεπόνηται (Pl. Phaed. 232). Ἐπειδὴ παρεσκεύαστο τοῖς Κορινθίοις, ἀνήγοντο ὡς ἐπὶ ναυμαχίαν (Thuc. 1, 48). Ὧν ἂν καταψηφισθῇ, ἀποκτείνειν δεήσει (Pl. Pol. 299). (Δέδοκται, it is resolved.)

Rem. 1. This use is, however, for the most part, restricted to verbs that denote to say (λέγειν, ὁμολογεῖν), and to the perfect and pluperfect of other verbs, with an appended dative of the agent (see on Dat. § 38, g), of the completed action, and what has been effected. (On the other hand, the Latin practice, of using impersonally in the passive voice verbs which govern the dat., e.g. invidetur, invidebatur mihi, is not customary in Greek.)

Rem. 2. Now and then we meet with a general impersonal expression (without a sentence for its subject), with a neuter adjective (sometimes in the plural, § 1, b. R. 4), to denote a relation that exists, and a certain state of affairs, e.g. ἕτοιμά ἐστιν, γίγνεται (Thuc. 2, 3; it is ready = things are in readiness, or all is ready); βάσιμα ἦν, ἄβατα ἦν (Xen. Anab. 3, 4, 49); εὖ ἐπίθετον ἦν ἐνταῦθα (Xen. Anab. 3, 4, 20; here it was easy to attack = here was a convenient opportunity for attacking). On the Gerundive, see Chap. VII.

Rem. 3. Observe, that the Greeks occasionally use a personal expression with a definite substantive (or substantivized) subject, where in English we use a neuter adjective with it is, &c., having a sentence for its subject: as in the case of the adjectives φανερός, δῆλος (see on the Participle, § 177, b. R. 2), and δίκαιος (see on Infin. § 165, a. R.).

a) The third person plural of several active verbs stands without any substantive (or substantivized word) as subject (impersonally), e.g. ὕει, it rains, ἔξεστι (ἰέναι), it is permitted, = one (you, &c.) may (licet), ἐδήλωσε, it was plain.

In this way are used in Greek:

1) Verbs that denote a state of the weather, or certain natural phenomena: as ὕει, νίφει, βροντᾷ, ἀστράπτει, χειμάζει, συσκοτάζει (it is growing dark), ἔσεισε (there was an earthquake: a shock was felt). With these verbs some indefinite being is regarded as the agent who causes the event (ὁ θεὸς ὕει, Herod. 2, 13; ἔσεισεν ὁ θεός, Xen. Hell. 4, 7, 4; Ζεὺς βροντᾷ).

2) The verbs which denote generally the propriety or possibility of an action, and have for their subject an infinitive, or acc. cum infin., as δεῖ, χρή, προσήκει, πρέπει, ἔξεστι, ἐγχωρεῖ, ἐνδέχεται, and also συμβαίνει, it happens. In certain phrases, ἔχει stands in the same way, as: φύσιν ἔχει, it is natural, δίκην ἔχει, it is just.

3) The verbs δοκεῖ (it seems; and with an infinitive; it seems good, it is resolved), ἔοικε, and in some connexions δηλοῖ and δείκνυσι (ἐδήλωσε, δηλώσει, it was manifest, will be manifest, δείξει), with which the thing intended must be mentally supplied.

4) Verbs which (in certain connexions) denote generally the state and progress of circumstances, as εὖ (καλῶς, οὕτως, ἄλλως) ἔχει, δεῖ (πολλοῦ, ὀλίγου), προχωρεῖ (μοι), it is going on (successfully), I am succeeding (in any thing): εἰς τοῦτ' ἦλθεν, it has come to this, and a few others. (Of relations of time: Ἦν ἀμφὶ ἀγορὰν πλήθουσαν, it was about the time when the market-place fills.) Further μέλει (curae est) and μεταμέλει (μοι, poenitet me).

5) Some verbs which denote the action of persons appointed to perform it, when the occurrence of the action is the thing contemplated, without any thought of the personal agent: especially, σημαίνει, a signal is given (ἐπειδὰν σημῄνῃ), σαλπίζει (the trumpet sounds), κηρύττει (proclamation is made): (ἐκήρυξε). (Ἀναγνώσεται, he shall read, in the orators, of the clerk who was present for the purpose.)

b) In other instances, the action is denoted impersonally by the third person singular of intransitive or intransitively-used verbs: Λέγεται, τοὺς θεοὺς ὑπὸ Διὸς βασιλεύεσθαι (Isocr. Nic. 26). Συρακούσιοι τοὺς Μεγαρεῖς τοὺς ἐν τῇ Σικελίᾳ ἀνέστησαν, ὥσπερ καὶ πρότερόν μοι εἴρηται (Thuc. 6, 94). Οὐκ ἄλλως αὐτοῖς πεπόνηται (Pl. Phaed. 232). Ἐπειδὴ παρεσκεύαστο τοῖς Κορινθίοις, ἀνήγοντο ὡς ἐπὶ ναυμαχίαν (Thuc. 1, 48). Ὧν ἂν καταψηφισθῇ, ἀποκτείνειν δεήσει (Pl. Pol. 299). (Δέδοκται, it is resolved.)

Rem. 1. This use is, however, for the most part, restricted to verbs that denote to say (λέγειν, ὁμολογεῖν), and to the perfect and pluperfect of other verbs, with an appended dative of the agent (see on Dat. § 38, g), of the completed action, and what has been effected. (On the other hand, the Latin practice, of using impersonally in the passive voice verbs which govern the dat., e.g. invidetur, invidebatur mihi, is not customary in Greek.)

Rem. 2. Now and then we meet with a general impersonal expression (without a sentence for its subject), with a neuter adjective (sometimes in the plural, § 1, b. R. 4), to denote a relation that exists, and a certain state of affairs, e.g. ἕτοιμά ἐστιν, γίγνεται (Thuc. 2, 3; it is ready = things are in readiness, or all is ready); βάσιμα ἦν, ἄβατα ἦν (Xen. Anab. 3, 4, 49); εὖ ἐπίθετον ἦν ἐνταῦθα (Xen. Anab. 3, 4, 20; here it was easy to attack = here was a convenient opportunity for attacking). On the Gerundive, see Chap. VII.

Rem. 3. Observe, that the Greeks occasionally use a personal expression with a definite substantive (or substantivized) subject, where in English we use a neuter adjective with it is, &c., having a sentence for its subject: as in the case of the adjectives φανερός, δῆλος (see on the Participle, § 177, b. R. 2), and δίκαιος (see on Infin. § 165, a. R.).