A Short Grammar of Classical Greek: Part III, Syntax

Ἐκεῖνος that, yonder, that - yonder, that - over there, points to things absent or remote in reality or only in thought.

ἥδε ἡ ἡμέρα this (the present) day, τόδε τὸ ὄρος the m. before me (or us). ἥδε ἡ χείρ (this) my hand, this hand of mine.

Τεκμήριον δὲ τούτου (i.e. of what was said) καὶ τόδε (the following).

Ταῦτα μὲν δὴ σὺ λέγεις, παρ’ ἡμῶν δὲ ἀπάγγελλε τάδε.

Τοιάδε and τοιοῦτος, τοσόσδε and τοσοῦτος, ὧδε and οὕτως etc. are to be distinguished as ὅδε and οὗτος.

Κλέαρχος μὲν τοσαῦτα εἶπε· Τισσαφέρνης δὲ ὧδε ἀπεκρίνατο.

2. Observe that ὅδε (like hic) points to what concerns and is near (in place, time or thought) the person speaking, οὗτος (like iste) to what concerns the person spoken to, ἐκεῖνος (like ille) to what is remote in some way or other with respect to the person speaking. Moreover, these pronouns must often be rendered by adverbs.

ὅδε ἕστηκα here I am (stand). - Ἡρόμην, ὅπου αὐτὸς εἴη. Οὗτος, ἔφη, ὄπισθεν προσέρχεται there he comes behind you. Νῆες ἐκεῖναι ἐπιπλέουσι ships are coming yonder. (Note the omission of the article in cases such as this.)

Note 1. - “He who,” “that which” are expressed by οὗτος ὅς, as in: οὗτος ὃς λέγει, or ὁ with the participle (201), as in: ὁ λέγων.

Αἱρεῖσθε τὸν ἐροῦντα him, the person, who is to speak.

Note 2. - καὶ οὗτος is sometimes used in the sense of καὶ αὐτός et ipse, ipse quoque (127, 4); so also, though less frequently, καὶ ἐκεῖνος: too, likewise.

Ἀγίας καὶ Σωκράτης καὶ τοῦτο ἀπεθανέτην A. and S. too.

Note 3. - καὶ οὗτος (= et is, atque is) introduces an additional qualification to a noun previously mentioned, καὶ ταῦτα (= idque) adds a supplementary remark to a previous statement: and that too, and besides, and yet, although.

Ἀπόρων ἐστὶ καὶ ἀμηχάνων, καὶ τούτων πονηρῶν, . . . and that too, besides.

Μένωνα οὐκ ἐζήτει, καὶ ταῦτα παρ’ Ἀριαίου ὢν τοῦ Μένωνος ξένου although.

129. Relative pronouns and adverbs (66. 68. 69).

1. ὅς who, that, which, what, and the other simple relatives (οἷος, ὅσος, οὗ, ὅτε, ὡς) point to some definite object (individualizing force: limited signification).

ὅστις whoever, whichever, whatever, and the other compound relatives (ὅπ. . . .) point either to some quality of a person (or thing) or to a whole class (generic force: unlimited signification).

Ἔστιν Δίκης ὀφθαλμός, ὃς τὰ πάνθ’ ὁρᾷ.

Μακάριος, ὅστις οὐσίαν καὶ νοῦν ἔχει.

Note 1. - Therefore ὅστις (not ὅς) is always used after negatives: οὐκ ἔστιν ὅστις, οὐδείς ἐστιν ὅστις, τίς ἐστιν ὅστις; likewise πᾶς ὅστις any person who (plur. πάντες ὅσοι as many as).

Note 2. - Note the following idiomatic expressions:

ἔστιν ὅστις some, ἔστιν ὅτε sometimes, ἔστιν οὗ somewhere, here and there,

ἔστιν ᾧ to some, ἔστιν οἷ and εἰσίν οἵ some, sunt qui, nonnulli.

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PRONOUNS.

Ἔστιν ὅτε καὶ οἷς βέλτιον τεθνάναι ἢ ζῆν sometimes and for some death is better than life.

Note 3. - ὅς has demonstrative force (116) in καὶ ὅς (anti) he, ἦ δ’ ὅς said he.

Οὐδεὶς ἀντέλεγε, καὶ ὅς ἡγεῖτο . . . no one contradicted; whereupon he advanced.

ὅσπερ points to things that are known: qui quidem. An. 3, 2, 10. (See 66, 2.)

ὅσγε adds at once a reason: quippe qui. An. 1, 6, 5.

2. A relative pronoun, whose antecedent is in the genitive or dative case, is often put in the same case instead of in the accusative. This is called assimilation or attraction of the relative pronoun. If the antecedent is a demonstrative, it is dropped; if a noun, it is usually placed, without the article, at the end of the relative clause. For example: οὐδὲν ὧν = οὐδὲν τούτων ἅ.

Ἄξιοι ἔσεσθε τῆς ἐλευθερίας, ἧς κέκτησθε of the liberty you enjoy.

Οἱ χρησμῳδοὶ ἴσασιν οὐδὲν ὧν λέγουσιν nothing of what they say.

Νῦν ἐπαινῶ σε ἐφ’ οἷς λέγεις τε καὶ πράττεις for what you say.

Τούτους ἄρχοντας ἐποίει ἧς κατεστρέφετο χώρας rulers of whatever land he conquered.

Ἡριππίδας ἐπορεύετο σὺν ᾗ εἶχε δυνάμει with what force he had.

Note. - The antecedent (a noun or a pronoun) is sometimes assimilated to the relative. This is called inverted assimilation.

Ἀνεῖλεν αὐτῷ ὁ Ἀπόλλων θεοῖς οἷς ἔδει θύειν.

3. When two (or several) relative clauses follow in succession, and the case of the second relative pronoun differs from that of the first, it is either dropped or replaced by αὐτός (less frequently by οὗτος or ἐκεῖνος) or a personal pronoun is used.

Ἀριαῖος, ὃν ἡμεῖς ἠθέλομεν βασιλέα καθιστάναι, καὶ (sc. ᾧ) ἐδώκαμεν καὶ (sc. παρ’ οὗ) ἐλάβομεν πιστά, ἡμᾶς κακῶς ποιεῖν πειρᾶται.

Ποῦ δὴ ἐκεῖνός ἐστιν ὁ ἀνήρ, ὃς συνεθήρα ἡμῖν, καὶ σὺ μάλ᾽ ἐθαύμαζες αὐτόν;

Καὶ νῦν τί χρὴ δρᾶν; ὅστις ἐμφανῶς θεοῖς ἐχθαίρομαι, μισεῖ δέ μ’ Ἑλλήνων στρατός.

130. Interrogative pronouns and adverbs (67; 69).

τίς, ποῖος, πόσος, ποῦ, πότε, πῶς are used directly and indirectly.

ὅστις, ὁποῖος, ὁπόσος, ὅπου, ὁπότε, ὅπως are used in indirect questions only.

Τίς τε καὶ πόθεν πάρει;

Μάθε πρῶτον, τίνες εἰσίν. Οὐκ ἴστε ὅ,τι ποιεῖτε.

Note. - Ὅς, ἥ, ὅ may take the place of the indirect interrogative pronoun. Ἀκούσατε, ᾧ τρόπῳ ὑμῖν ἡ δημοκρατία κατελύθη. - Compare 179, 1.

167. 1. The forms of the Greek verb simultaneously denote an action

a) as either past, present or future:

they express the period of the action;

b) as either momentary, continuous or completed:

they express the stage of the action.

1. Every form of the verb is capable of denoting the stage of the action. An action is therefore described by the forms

a) of the aorist stem:

as simply taking place (no qualification being implied), as commencing (entrance upon a state), as being (successfully) accomplished, in a word as attained.

b) of the present stem:

as going on and (still, as yet) in progress, as stopping short before its accomplishment (the conative tenses!), as repeated or customary, as qualified (modality!), as continued.

c) of the perfect stem:

as fully accomplished and resulting in a certain state, as still felt in its consequences, as lasting in its result, as completed.

φυγ- (e.g. εἶν): to flee [169, 4 to have fled] as a simple occurrence - to take to flight [inceptive] - to flee [successfully] = escape; Xen. An. 1, 2, 20.

φευγ- (e.g. ειν): to flee = to be [still, as yet] fleeing - to attempt etc. fleeing - to flee [repeatedly] - to be under accusation; to be a fugitive, live in exile. An. 3, 2, 19.

πεφευγ- (e.g. έναι): to have fled = to have [already and fully] accomplished the flight; - to be in safety, out of reach. An. 1, 4, 8.

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SYNTAX.

Thus:

1. The period of the action is expressed solely by the indicatives:

the present by the present and perfect, the past by the aor., impf. and plupf. (augment! 73, 1), the future by the future and fut. perfect.

Note. - For the infinitive and the dependent moods (subj., opt., imper.), see 169; for the participle, see 170.

1. Table in Illustration of the Meanings of the Tenses:

Note. - There is no sequence of tenses in Greek, because the tense of the leading verb never affects that of the dependent verb.

168. 1. The present indicative and the imperfect, which represent action as going on (Durative Present - Durative Imperfect),

a) describe conditions, situations, customs, manners, characters, express repeated or customary action; denote general truths, detail attendant circumstances.

Πλοῖον ἐς Δῆλον Ἀθηναῖοι πέμπουσιν (every year). Ξενίας ὁ Ἀρκὰς τὰ Λύκαια ἔθυσε καὶ ἀγῶνα ἔθηκε· ἐθεώρει δὲ τὸν ἀγῶνα καὶ Κῦρος.

b) denote action that is prepared, intended, expected, attempted, started, but not accomplished (Conative Present - Conative Imperfect).

Ἔπειθον αὐτούς, καὶ οὓς ἔπεισα, τούτους ἔχων ἐπορευόμην tried to p.

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THE INDICATIVES.

Note 1. - There is, also, an Historical Present for lively narration.

Ἐπεὶ ἐτελεύτησε Δαρεῖος, Τισσαφέρνης διαβάλλει τὸν Κῦρον.

Note 2. - A number of present tenses, besides denoting an action, at once involve persistence of result, and may in consequence be rendered by the perfect, and their imperfects by the pluperfect. Examples are

Note 3. - The indicative of ἥκω am come, here and of οἴχομαι am gone, off has always perfect force, the other moods have perfect as well as aorist force.

1. The aorist indicative presents the following peculiarities (167).

a) Historical Aorist. - Being the tense of narration, it merely chronicles events that once came to pass. It corresponds to the historical perfect in Latin:

Ἦλθον, εἶδον, ἐνίκησα veni, vidi, vici.

b) Gnomic Aorist. - It denotes a general truth gathered from experience.

Οὐδεὶς ἔπαινον ἡδονὰς ἐκτήσατο.

Compare Omne tulit punctum, qui miscuit utile dulci.

c) The Pluperfect Aorist denotes an action as prior to another past action, especially in temporal and relative clauses. It is therefore rendered by a pluperfect.

Ἐπεὶ ἐσάλπιγξε, προβαλόμενοι τὰ ὅπλα ἔστησαν. Δαρεῖος Κῦρον μεταπέμπεται ἀπὸ τῆς ἀρχῆς, ἧς αὐτὸν σατράπην ἐποίησεν.

Note. - Sometimes the imperfect is thus used. It then brings out more forcibly continued or repeated action.

Κῦρος εἶδε τὰς σκηνάς, οὗ οἱ Κίλικες ἐφύλαττον had been watching. Οἵπερ πρόσθεν προσεκύνουν, καὶ τότε προσεκύνησαν.

d) The Ingressive Aorist expresses the entrance upon a state or condition.

Διὰ μικρὸν ἐπολεμήσατε started a war. Πεισιστράτου τελευτήσαντος Ἱππίας ἔσχε τὴν ἀρχήν.

Note. - All these aorists may, of course, be used also in the historical (2. a) sense:

ἐβασίλευσα was (once) king, ἐνόσησα was (once) sick.

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SYNTAX.

1. The future indicative denotes both the attainment (ingressive sense) and the continuance (durative sense) of a future action. Hence ἄρξω means both: I shall obtain power (ingress.), and: I shall have power (durat.).

Σκεπτέόν μοι δοκεῖ εἶναι, ὅπως τὰ ἐπιτήδεια ἕξομεν. Ὁ δίκαιος ἀνὴρ εὖ βιώσεται, κακῶς δὲ ὁ ἄδικος.

Note. - Μέλλω with the fut., pres. or aor. inf. means (see 111, 5):

a) am about, willing to: μέλλω ὑμᾶς διδάξειν. b) am likely, expected to: ἄγοραν οὐδεὶς ἔτι παρέξειν ἔμελλεν.

1. The perfect, pluperfect and future perfect indicative express action already completed, as well as the state resulting from it.

Ἀπολελοίπασιν (are gone) ἡμᾶς Ξενίας καὶ Πασίων, ἀλλ' οὐκ ἀποπεφεύγασιν (out of reach). Φράζε καὶ πεπράξεται.

Οὐ βουλεύεσθαι ἔτι ὥρα, ἀλλὰ βεβουλεῦσθαι (plans should be ready).

Note. - In Greek, therefore, the perfect is never historical perfect; the pluperfect does not describe an action merely as prior to another past action, 2 c; the future perfect corresponds to the fut. perfect in Latin in independent sentences only; for the dependent clauses, see 187, 2, I.

169. 1. According to 167, 3, these forms of the verb do not imply the period of an action. They merely describe the stage of action, as explained in 167, 2. Thus, εἴπωμεν ἢ σιγῶμεν; means almost as much as: shall we break, or continue in, our silence?

1. The time of the action in this case is expressed by the tense of the principal verb; e.g.

1. Accordingly, the imperative of the

aorist: expresses one single instance of a command to be obeyed then and there;

present: expresses either one single command - which is then viewed in its continuance - or a command to be obeyed continually or at least repeatedly; hence also general rules and maxims of life.

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THE PARTICIPLES.

Μείνον παρ' ἡμῖν καὶ συνέστιος γενοῦ.

Τοὺς μὲν θεοὺς φοβοῦ (make it a rule ever to fear), τοὺς δὲ γονέας τίμα, τοῖς δὲ νόμοις πείθου.

1. It is only in indirect discourse that the opt. and the infin. express the period of the action, as they then represent the corresponding indicatives of the direct discourse. In indirect discourse, therefore

the aor. opt. and inf. denote a past action, the fut. opt. and inf. denote a future action, the pres. opt. and inf. denote either a present or (accdg. to 177, note) a past action.

Note. - The fut. opt. is never found except in indirect discourse and, consequently, always has a future meaning.

170. 1. The participles denote "relative time," i.e. they represent the secondary action as either contemporaneous with or antecedent or subsequent to the principal action expressed by the leading finite verb. Accordingly, the secondary action is marked by

a) the present as contemporaneous with the principal action.

Σοφοῖς ὁμιλῶν καὐτὸς ἐκβήσῃ σοφός.

b) the aorist as prior to the principal action.

Δίκαια δράσας συμμάχους ἕξεις θεούς.

c) the perfect as finished and still lasting in its results at the time when the principal action takes place.

Διαβεβηκόσι τοῖς Ἕλλησι (the Greeks had already reached the other bank of the river, when) φαίνεται ὁ Μιθραδάτης.

Ἐσκεμμένα καὶ παρεσκευασμένα πάντα λέγω.

d) the future as subsequent to the principal action.

Ὁ βάρβαρος ἐπὶ τὴν Ἑλλάδα δουλωσόμενος ἦλθεν (in order) to subjugate it.

1. The participles depend, therefore, for their time on the principal finite verb;

e.g. ταῦτα λέγων ἀκούει while saying (while he says) this, he hears, ταῦτα λέγων ἤκουσε while saying (while he said) this, he heard, ταῦτα λέγων ἀκούσεται while saying (while he shall be saying) this, he will hear, or ταῦτ' εἰπὼν ἀποβαίνει (ἀπέβη, ἀποβήσεται).

in Greek by adjectives agreeing with the word (subj. or obj.) to which they relate. Compare

Socrates primus hoc docuit.    Socrates venenum laetus hausit.

Σκηνοῦμεν ὑπαίθριοι ἐν τῇ τάξει in the open air.

Τριταῖοι ἐκ Σπάρτης ἐγένοντο ἐν τῇ Ἀττικῇ on the third day.

Ἐνταῦθα προτέρα Κύρου εἰς Ταρσοὺς ἀφίκετο before Cyrus.

Ἑκοῦσαι αἱ πόλεις χρήματα συνεβάλλοντο willingly.

Κατέβαινον εἰς τὰς κώμας ἤδη σκοταῖοι it was already dark when ...

2. To denote the highest possible degree of anything, ὡς, ὅτι, ἢ or οἷος may be added to the superlative. E.g. ὡς τάχιστα quam celerrime, as quickly (soon) as possible; ἄνδρας ὅτι πλείστους as many men as possible; χωρίον οἷον χαλεπώτατον almost impregnable.

Δεῖ ὅτι μάλιστα εὐμαθεῖς εἶναι τοὺς νέους.

116. The originally (Homer!) demonstrative force of the article ὁ, ἡ, τό the is still apparent

1. in ὁ μέν - ὁ δέ (the) one - the other (through all cases);

in τὸ μέν - τὸ δέ adverbially: partly - partly,

τὰ μέν - τὰ δέ sometimes - sometimes.

in πρὸ τοῦ before this, erenow, formerly.

2. in ὁ δέ, ἡ δέ, τὸ δέ but (and) he, but (and) she, etc.

in the acc. with inf. τὸν δέ, τὴν δέ, τοὺς δέ but (and) he, she, etc.

and καὶ τόν, καὶ τήν, καὶ τούς and he, and she, and they (nom. καὶ ὅς 129, 1. note 3).

Οἱ μὲν ἐτόξευον, οἱ δ’ ἐσφενδόνων.

Ἐπορεύθησαν τὰ μέν τι μαχόμενοι, τὰ δὲ καὶ ἀναπαυόμενοι.

Κῦρος δίδωσι Κλεάρχῳ μυρίους δαρεικούς· ὁ δὲ λαβὼν τὸ χρυσίον στράτευμα συνέλεξεν.

Τὸν δὲ γελάσαι whereupon (it is said) he laughed.

Note 1. - The article in the above meaning has of late begun to be orthotoned: ὅ, ἥ, οἵ, αἵ.

Note 2. - For other proofs of the dem. force of the art., see 117, 1; 119, notes 1 and 2.

117. The Greek article sometimes corresponds to the English, sometimes differs from it. Thus it may have

1. an individualizing force, when it points to one particular person or thing in order to distinguish it from others (limited signification):

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SYNTAX.

Τῶν ἑπτὰ σοφῶν σοφώτατος ἦν Σόλων.

Ὁ σοφὸς ἐν αὐτῷ περιφέρει τὴν οὐσίαν his property.

Τὴν δίκην ἐπιθεῖναί τινι to inflict due, condign punishment upon.

Ξέρξης ἡττηθεὶς τῇ μάχῃ ἐκ τῆς Ἑλλάδος ἀπεχώρει in the well-known battle.

Κῦρος ὑπισχνεῖτο δώσειν τρία ἡμιδαρεικὰ τοῦ μηνὸς τῷ στρατιώτῃ

(distributive force: singulis militibus singulis mensibus: a (each) soldier a (per) month).

2. a generic force, when it points to a particular person or thing in order to make it the representative of a whole class. Here the English often prefers the indefinite article.

Ἀλλ’ εὖ φέρειν χρὴ συμφορὰς τὸν εὐγενῆ (a [the] noble-minded man).

Δεῖ τὸν στρατιώτην φοβεῖσθαι μᾶλλον τὸν ἄρχοντα ἢ τοὺς πολεμίους

(a soldier ought to fear his commander).

Νικᾷ ὁ μείων τὸν μέγαν δίκαι’ ἔχων.

Note 1. - There is therefore a difference between

πολλοί many, and οἱ πολλοί the most, most people (the majority, multitude),

ὀλίγοι (a) few, “οἱ ὀλίγοι (the few =) the oligarchs,

πλείονες (still) more, a greater number,

and οἱ πλείονες the majority, generality,

πλεῖστοι very many, “οἱ πλεῖστοι the greatest number, most,

ἄλλοι alii, “οἱ ἄλλοι ceteri,

ἐμὸς φίλος a (some) friend of mine, and ὁ ἐμὸς φίλος (this) my friend,

τοιοῦτος ἀνήρ such a man = a (some) man of such qualities,

ὁ τοιοῦτος ἀνήρ such a man = the (this, that) man of such qualities.

Note 2. - ὁ βουλόμενος whoso will, any person who wishes,

ὁ τυχών “the first one meets,” a chance comer, any one,

ὁ τολμήσων such a one as will, or as is able to, venture (Quality!).

118. The article is used in the following cases, in which it refers to a definite object. Here the English often omits it.

1. With the apposition after the personal pronoun (expressed or understood):

ἡμεῖς οἱ Ἕλληνες we Greeks, ἐγὼ ὁ τλήμων I wretched man.

Εἰ βούλεσθέ μοι οἵ τε στρατηγοὶ καὶ οἱ λοχαγοὶ ἐλθεῖν, λέξω.

2. With cardinal numbers, esp. when they denote a definite portion of a whole number which is either expressed or otherwise known, hence also with fractions.

Τὰ δύο μέρη two thirds.

Ἀπῆσαν τῶν λόχων δώδεκα ὄντων οἱ τρεῖς three twelfths.

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