A Short Grammar of Classical Greek: Part III, Syntax - The Verbal Adjectives and Particles

Note. - Aorist infinitives or participles that stand for optatives never denote past time. Compare 169. 170.

205. 1. Verbal adjectives in -τός, -τή, -τόν denote (79, 9) either

what has been done: λυτός (that has been) loosed, ἄκρατος unmixed, or what may be done: βρωτός that may be eaten, eatable, ἀόρατος invisible.

1. Verbal adjectives in -τέος, -τέα, -τέον denote necessity.

E.g. λυτέος solvendus, πειστέον oboediendum, ἰτέον it is necessary to go, one must go.

The personal construction emphasizes the person (or thing) that must be acted upon.

The impersonal construction emphasizes the kind of action that is to be done.

The person who must do something is put in the dative (157, 2).

Οἱ συμμαχεῖν ἐθέλοντες εὖ ποιητέοι. Οἰστέον πᾶσι τὴν τύχην. Τῷ ἀδικοῦντι δοτέον δίκην.

206. 1. There are two negative adverbs: οὐ and μή.

By οὐ (οὔτε, etc.) we deny (the truth of) a statement, by μή (μήτε, etc.) we desire that something feared may not happen.

Ἐγὼ θρασὺς καὶ ἀναιδὴς οὔτ' εἰμὶ μήτε γενοίμην.

1. Accordingly, οὐ stands in all statements,

i.e. in independent and dependent declarations, in questions and causal sentences, as well as in ordinary relative and temporal clauses.

Οὐ δυνατόν ἐστιν - ἔλεγεν, ὅτι οὐ δυνατόν εἴη - τί οὐκ ἤλθετε; - ἐπεὶ ταῦτ' οὐκ ἐγένετο - ὅθεν οὐκ ἔστιν ἐξελθεῖν.

1. μή is required in all sentences that express a desire,

i.e. in independent and dependent wishes and prohibitions, as well as in dependent final clauses.

Μή μοι γένοιθ' ἃ βούλομ' ἀλλ' ἃ συμφέρει. Μὴ φθόνει τοῖς εὐτυχοῦσι, μὴ δοκῇς εἶναι κακός. Δέδοικα, μὴ ἐπιλαθώμεθα τῆς οἴκαδε ὁδοῦ.

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SYNTAX.

1. Again, μή is used

a) in conditions and in all such phrases or clauses as are equivalent in sense to a condition.

Εἰ μὴ καθέξεις γλῶσσαν, ἔσται σοι κακά. Ἃ μὴ οἶδα, οὐδὲ οἴομαι εἰδέναι. Ὁ μὴ δαρεὶς ἄνθρωπος οὐ παιδεύεται.

b) with the infinitive, with which, however, after verbs of saying οὐ may also be used:

Ὑπισχνοῦντο μηδὲν χαλεπὸν αὐτοὺς πείσεσθαι. Τολμῶσι λέγειν οὐδεμίαν μάχην γεγονέναι.

Note 1. - After the verbs of controverting, denying, doubting, and the like, which convey a negative idea, the dependent assertion receives an additional οὐ, which must not be rendered in English.

Οὐκ ἂν ἀρνηθείην εἶναι, ὡς οὐκ εἰσὶ τοιαῦτα.

Note 2. - In like manner, after verbs of hindering, refraining, avoiding, refusing, declining, denying, escaping, and the like, μή is often added to the infinitive, or μὴ οὐ, when the main verb itself is negatived (also τὸ μή and τὸ μὴ οὐ respectively).

Μικροῦ ἐξέφυγε μὴ καταπετρωθῆναι narrowly escaped being stoned. Ὁ φόβος τὸν νοῦν ἀπείργει μὴ λέγειν, ἃ βούλεται hinders from saying. Οὐδεὶς πώποτε ἀντεῖπε μὴ οὐ καλῶς ἔχειν τοὺς νόμους denied that the laws are good. Καὶ φημὶ δρᾶσαι κοὐκ ἀπαρνοῦμαι τὸ μὴ οὐ I do not deny it.

Μή is always added after verbs of forbidding:

e.g. Ἀπηγόρευε μηδένα βάλλειν πρὶν Κῦρος ἐμπλησθείη θηρῶν.

1. Accumulation of Negatives of the same kind. A negative or several negatives following another negative of the same kind emphasize the negation, if they are compounded, but neutralize it, if they are simple.

Οὐκ ἐρεῖ οὐδεὶς οὐδέν no one will say anything. Οὐδεὶς οὐκ ἀποθανεῖται every one will die.

1. Combination of Negatives of a different kind.

a) οὐ μή with the aor. subj. or fut. indic. is used in cautious or ironical assertions: "hardly, not likely, certainly not" (181, 3. note 1).

Τοὺς πονηροὺς οὐ μὴ ποτε βελτίους ποιήσετε.

b) μὴ οὐ with the subj. (or indirect optat. 193, 2, b) after verbs of fearing means: ne non, that not (181, 2; compare 3, note 1, "perhaps not, I rather think ... not").

Ἐφοβεῖτο, μὴ οὐ δύνατο ἐκ τῆς χώρας ἐξελθεῖν.

c) μὴ οὐ with the inf. after a negative main verb (or after negative expressions) = not to (206, 4. note 2).

Οὐχ ὅσιόν σοί ἐστι μὴ οὐ βοηθεῖν δικαιοσύνῃ. Πᾶσιν αἰσχύνη ἦν μὴ οὐ συσπουδάζειν.

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207. In independent questions, the Greeks expressed

Note. - For dependent questions, see 179.

THE REMAINING PARTICLES.

Their Most Common Meanings and Usages.

208. Note 1. - Such particles as cannot begin a sentence are called postpositive. In the subjoined list, they are marked by an asterisk. The references are to Xenophon's Anabasis.

Note 2. - It should be remembered that the meanings of the Greek particles which are given below are in many instances merely approximate. The Greeks were able by them to express the finest shades of meaning. In English, the stress of voice, a change of tone, or even a gesture, will sometimes serve the same purpose.

1. Ἀλλά adversative: on the other hand, but, yet, still, however, on the contrary, rather, sed, at; especially after negatives.

with imper. and subjunctives: well then, come now, come then. in replies: well, well but, but mind, for my own part. in transitions to some new topic: but enough of this, be this as it may.

ἀλλ' οὐ, ἀλλὰ μή: ac non, not, and not, but not, instead of; = καὶ οὐ. 2, 1, 10. ἀλλ' οὖν (γε): yet certainly, yet at least, yet at any rate. εἰ μή - ἀλλά γε: si non - at tamen. οὐ μὴν (μέντοι) ἀλλά: verum tamen, however, still.

1. ἄλλως: in another way, otherwise, differently; at random.

ἄλλως τε καί: (both in other respects and) = especially, above all, particularly. τὴν ἄλλως: to no purpose, fruitlessly, in vain, illy (cf. τὴν ταχίστην 141).

1. ἅμα: at the same time, together with, at once. With dat. 158, 1. With part. 203, 3. c.

ἅμα μέν - ἅμα δέ: and at the same time, at once - and, both - and; partly - partly. ἅμα (τε) - καί: both - and (καὶ ἅμα: and at the same time), as soon as - at once, scarce - when, no sooner - than.

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SYNTAX.

1. ἄρα inferential: therefore, then, consequently, accordingly, intimating that, what is said, is obvious, a matter of course: obviously, evidently, naturally, apparently, as one may conclude, as may be expected, as is known, videlicet. Sometimes epexegetic: to wit, namely. Introducing something that follows: next, immediately, forthwith.

εἰ ἄρα, ἐὰν ἄρα: if perhaps; to wit, if; if indeed, if forsooth. εἰ μὴ ἄρα with the indic.: that is to say, if not; unless perhaps, unless forsooth, nisi forte, nisi vero. 188, 2. d. ὡς (ὅτι) ἄρα: to wit, that; namely, that. οὐκ ἄρα: consequently not; then after all not (with imperfect).

1. ἆρα; interrogative = -nē? ἆρ' οὐ; = nonne? - ἆρα μή; = num? 207, 2. 3.

1. ἀτάρ (Homer αὐτάρ) adversative: but, yet, but yet, on the other hand, implying emphasis and gradation: but above all, but especially, vero.

1. αὖ adversative: in turn, on the contrary, on the other hand; likewise, too, again. 1, 6, 7; 1, 10, 11; 1, 1, 7.

1. γάρ stating a reason, cause or motive: for, enim; - often accounting for a thought which is to be supplied. Explaining and specifying: namely, to wit, - often introducing an announced (or an expected) explanation. In animated questions, denoting impatience, surprise, like nam in quisnam? τίς γάρ; "why, who . . ." or "who, pray, . . ." or "who then."

ἀλλὰ γάρ: at enim, but (a thought to be supplied) for = but of course; however; but since, since however; but alas! καὶ γάρ: etenim, and (I may well say so) for, for truly, and to be sure. nam etiam, for also, for even. nam et, for both (... et, and).

For εἰ γάρ, see 172, 2; 174, 1.

1. γέ (encl.), like quidem, emphatic and restrictive: indeed, certainly, at all events, at least.

ἐπεί γε: quandoquidem, since indeed; ἀλλὰ - γέ: yet certainly, yet at least, yet at any rate.

For ἔγωγε etc., see 61, 2; for ὅσγε, 129, 1. note 3.

1. γοῦν (from γε οὖν), emphatic: at least, at any rate, at all events, certe.

1. δέ adversative: but, however, autem, atqui (by far less emphatic than ἀλλά). See καί and μέν; in replies often: to be sure, certainly.

δέ very frequently simply connects clauses: and, thereupon, etc., or it is not translated at all. But not, and not = ἀλλ' οὐ or οὐ μέντοι. For οὐδέ, see below 31.

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THE PARTICLES.

1. δή temporal: already, presently, now, just now, immediately, iam; νῦν δή: just now, even now, now at once.

inferential: then, therefore, accordingly.

marking as a matter of course: evidently, as is known, scilicet, of course, you know. καὶ δὴ καί and of course (and therefore) also; see below 19.

with an imperative, strongly urging: λέγε δή now then, go on to say!; pray, tell me!

emphatic and serving to call attention to something: as in ἔνθα δή tum vero, at this juncture, at that crisis, it was then that, on this very occasion, or merely an emphatic then, ὅτε δή just at the time when. τί δή; what in the world? quid tandem?

εἰ δή namely if, if indeed, if really. ὃς δή he who, the very person who, who therefore, who in fact. ὅστις δή whosoever (I do not know who), nescio quis, some one.

1. δῆθεν implying gradation: above all, especially so (introduces an a fortiori), - as it seems, to all appearances. Restrictive: of course, apparently, as is pretended.

1. δήπου (less emphatic than δή): expresses confidence that a statement will not be doubted: profecto, of course, you know, surely; often ironically like opinor, credo.

1. δῆτα (more emphatic than δή): indeed, certainly, to be sure.

οὐ δῆτα: no! indeed not, of course not. τί δῆτα: what then?

1. εἴτε - εἴτε (sive - sive): be it that - or that; whether - or (i.e. in both cases).

In dependent questions: whether - or; if - or if; 179.

1. ἦ in asseverations: truly, of a surety, really, verily; still more emphatic is ἦ μήν, see below 25.

For the interrogative particle ἦ, see 207.

ἦ που surely.

1. ἤ disjunctive: or; often doubled ἤ - ἤ, aut - aut. Comparative: than, after comparatives and comparative expressions (such as ἄλλος, ἕτερος, ἐναντίος).

ἄλλο τι ἤ: is it not so? nonne? 207, 2. ἤτοι (γε) - ἤ (or ἤ - ἤτοι): aut - aut. ἀλλ' ἤ after a negative particle or a question: nisi, but, except.

Note. - With numerals and measures, ἤ is often omitted after the adverbial comparatives πλέον (coll. form πλεῖν), ἔλαττον, μεῖον, as well as after the corresponding adjectives; e.g. πέμπει οὐκ ἔλαττον δέκα ἄνδρας non minus decem; ἔτη γεγονὼς πλέον ἑβδομήκοντα annos natus amplius septuaginta.

1. καί copulative: and, also, too; emphatic: even; sometimes inferential: and consequently (= itaque); with comparatives: still, yet.

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SYNTAX.

Where more than two words are to be joined, the Greek repeats καί with each one of them (polysyndeton).

καί - καί, both - and, joins things of equal importance. See below 39.

καί after expressions of sameness or likeness: as; ὅμοιος, ὁμοίως, ὁ αὐτός καί = similis, similiter, idem atque.

δέ καί: moreover, also, besides; likewise, (and) - too; 1, 4, 17.

καὶ δέ: (but, and) also, (but, and) even; moreover; here δέ connects, καί emphasizes. 2, 6, 8.

καὶ δὴ καί: and (therefore) evidently also, and especially also.

οὐ μόνον - ἀλλὰ καί: not only - but also.

ἤδη - καί: iam - cum, already - when (cf. cum inversum).

οὔπω - καί: nondum - cum, not yet - when.

1. καίτοι concessive: and yet, still, though, however. but, atqui (in the minor of a syllogism). See 40.

1. μά in asseveration; followed by the acc. of the god or thing called upon as witness (see 133).

μὰ τοὺς θεούς: by the gods! ναὶ μὰ Δία: yes, by Zeus. οὐ μὰ Δία: no, by Zeus.

1. μέν, a weak form of μήν. It is used

a) in asseveration: certainly, truly, indeed, in truth.

καὶ (ἀλλὰ) μὲν δή and (but) certainly, and in fact; even - indeed. οὐ μὲν δή certainly not, indeed not. Compare 32 extr.

b) μέν - δέ are used in general to call attention to any kind of correlation (not only antithetical relations!) of those words (or even parts of sentences) which they follow and which the author wishes to be viewed conjointly, and not singly.

μέν is then mostly not translated, but only marked by the tone; see 1, 1, 1; so in πρῶτον μέν - ἔπειτα δέ in the first place - in the second place.

μέν - δέ are frequently used in forming periods, (Dem. 16, 30); also in the figure anaphora 1, 3, 16: "showing in the first place - in the second place - in the third place"; sometimes to be rendered by: as - so. See ὁ μέν - ὁ δέ 116.

μέν - δέ are often adversative: but, however, on the contrary, whilst, whereas, sometimes concessive: indeed - but; it is true - but.

1. μέντοι emphatic: indeed, really, certainly, in truth. Adversative (often after μέν): but, yet, however; - for all that, nevertheless, all the same. In questions: οὐ μέντοι -; is it not so? nonne?

For οὐ μέντοι ἀλλά, see 1.

1. μή: not, the negative adverb in expressions of desire. 206, 3; apparently heading an independent sentence, 181, 3, note 1; in questions = num, 207, 3.

οὐ μή and μὴ οὐ 206, 6; μηδέ, see οὐδέ below 31.

μὴ ὅτι (= μὴ εἴπω, εἴπῃς, ὑπολάβῃς, ὅτι): not only. μὴ ὅτι and μὴ ὅπως (like οὐχ ὅπως): not only not, less (more). μὴ ὅτι and μή τι γε δή (sc. εἴπῃς): not to mention, to say nothing of, much less (more). ὅτι μή (like εἰ μή 188, 2. a): except, but, nisi.

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THE PARTICLES.

1. μήν, in asseveration: vero, verily, in truth, certainly, often preceded by ἦ: upon my sacred honor (see above 17).

Adversative: but, however, nevertheless, yet, for all that.

ἀλλὰ μήν: at vero, but certainly, but still. καὶ μήν: et vero, and yet, and in fact.

Both ἀλλὰ μήν and καὶ μήν are also used in transitions to some new (and more important) topic: furthermore: also in the minor of a syllogism: but, now, but now. For οὐ μήν ἀλλά, see 1.

1. μῶν, interrogative = μὴ οὖν: num . . . ? implying a negative answer. 207, 3.

1. ναί, in replies: yes. ναὶ μὰ Δία: yes, by Zeus; compare 21.

1. νή, in asseveration; νὴ Δία: yes, by Zeus. 133.

1. νῦν (encl.), illative: then, therefore. See 40.

1. οὐ: not, the negative adverb in statements. 206, 2.

In direct questions: ἆρ' οὐ, οὐκοῦν: nonne, 207, 2.

οὔ τι: not a whit, not at all, by no means, not in the least. οὐχ ὅτι (οὐκ ἐρῶ ὅτι): not only; also: although. οὐ μόνον ὅτι and οὐχ ὅτι μόνον: not only. οὐχ ὅπως (οὐκ ἐρῶ ὅπως): ἀλλὰ καί (οὐδέ): not only not - but even (not even); after negative expressions: not to mention, much less. μόνον οὐ (οὐχί), ὅσον οὐ: tantum non, almost, all but. Dem. 1, 2. ὅσον οὔπω, ὅσον οὐκ ἤδη: almost already.

1. οὐδέ (μηδέ), copulative:

a) and not, nor, neque where some negative particle precedes (otherwise and not = καὶ οὐ).

b) also not, likewise not, neither; not even, ne - quidem.

οὐδ' εἰ: not even if. Compare 189. οὐδέ - οὐδέ: not even - nor. οὐδέ - δέ: but . . . neither (likewise not), nor yet.

1. οὖν, confirmative: indeed, certainly, the fact is, at any rate. Inferential: then, therefore, consequently, accordingly.

It also introduces a promised or expected explanation, e.g. in the transition from the exordium to the subject-matter of a speech: then often not translated.

ἆρ' οὖν; (affirmative inference): really? indeed? ἀλλ' οὖν (γε): yet surely, yet certainly, yet at least, but at any rate. δ' οὖν: now, but now (in the minor of a syllogism); but certain it is that, yet at any rate, but at all events. καὶ γὰρ οὖν: wherefore then, and consequently also, and on that account, for at any rate, for the fact is. μὲν οὖν: a) confirmative: (πάνυ, κομιδῇ, οὐ) μὲν οὖν to be sure, certainly. b) introducing a correction: nay rather, immo vero. c) when corresponding to a following δέ, each particle has its original force.

joined to relatives: ὅστισοῦν (ὁντιναοῦν, ἡντινοσοῦν etc.): quicunque, whosoever.

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SYNTAX.

1. οὐκοῦν (a strengthened οὖν) is:

a) inferential and confirmative: therefore, then, accordingly; b) interrogative: = nonne igitur? 207, 2.

1. οὔκουν (a strengthened οὐκ) is:

a) inferential and confirmative: therefore not, at any rate not. b) interrogative: therefore not? so then not?

1. οὔτε - οὔτε (μήτε - μήτε): neque - neque, neither - nor.

οὔτε (μήτε) - τέ: neque - et, on the one hand not - and (but) on the other hand, not only not - but even. οὔτε - οὐ (poet.): = οὔτε - οὔτε. οὔτε - οὐδέ: neither - nor even; neque - et ne - quidem.

1. πέρ (encl., from περί): just, even, indeed, very, very much; w. part. often = καίπερ. Compare Homer Od. α 6 with α 315.

ὅσπερ the very person who; ἐπείπερ seeing that, because precisely. ὥσπερ just as, even as; ὅτεπερ just (at the very time, even) when; εἴπερ if indeed, 188, 2. c.

1. πλήν: except, save, but, is:

a) a prepositional adverb with genit., 162, 5. b) a conjunction: except that, save that, only; it stands with the indic. or with the verb understood.

1. πώ (encl.) yet, as yet; mostly joined to negatives:

οὔπω nondum, not yet (οὐκέτι iam non, no longer!)

1. τε (encl., Lat. = -que), copulative: and; in prose

τε - τε: both - and (= καί - καί) generally connects sentences of equal importance, whereas

τε - καί: as well as, not only - but also, connects single words that supplement each other and of which the second is of greater importance.

1. τοί (encl.) in asseveration: verily, in truth, surely. In this sense it is often joined to other particles:

καίτοι above 20; μέντοι above 23; οὔτοι indeed not. τοίγαρ inferential: therefore, then, consequently, accordingly; strengthened forms are τοιγαροῦν and τοιγάρτοι: for this very reason, precisely on that account. τοίνυν: inferential (esp. in the conclusion of a syllogism): therefore, consequently; introducing a minor proposition: but, atqui; sometimes synonymous with δέ: besides, moreover, again, furthermore (esp. ἔτι τοίνυν).