Elementary Greek Grammar: PART IV: SYNTAX

Английский Грамматика Начальный 19 век William W. Goodwin

Pages 191–310 of the book.

Every sentence must contain two parts, a subject and a predicate. The subject is that of which something is stated. The predicate is that which is stated of the subject. Thus in the sentence Aapeios

βασιλεύει, Darius is king, Δαρεῖος is the subject and

βασιλεύει is the predicate.

Note. 1. When any part of εἰμί, be, connects the subject with a following noun or adjective, the verb is called the copula (i.e. means of coupling), and what follows is called the predicate; as Δαρεῖός ἐστι βασιλεύς, Darius is king, Σόλων ἐστὶ σοφός, Solon is wise, where ἐστί is the copula. (See § 136, Rem.) Εἰμί, however, can form a complete predicate, as in εἰσὶ θεοί, Gods exist.

Note. 2. The simple subject and predicate may each be modified by additional words or clauses; as Κῦρος, ἀκούσας a εἶπεν, εἰσῆλθεν εἰς τὴν πόλιν, Cyrus, on hearing what he said, went into the city, where Κῦρος, ἀκούσας ἃ εἶπεν, is the modified subject, and the rest is the modified predicate.

That upon which the action of a verb is exerted is called the object. The object may be either direct or indirect: thus, in ἔδωκε τὰ χρήματα τῷ ἀνδρί, he gave the money to the man, χρήματα is the direct object and ἀνδρί is the indirect (or remote) object.

Note. Some verbs, called transitive, generally need the addition of an object to complete the sense. Others, called intransitive, admit no such addition; as ἀπῆλθον, I departed.

§ 134

Subject

The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative; as ὁ ἀνὴρ ἦλθεν, the man came. A verb in a finite mood is called a finite verb (§ 89).

The subject of the infinitive mood is in the accusative; as λέγουσι τοὺς ἄνδρας ἀπελθεῖν, they say that the men went away.

But the subject of the infinitive is generally omitted when it is the same as the subject or the object of the leading verb; as βούλεται ἀπελθεῖν, he wishes to go away; φησὶ γράφειν, he says that he is writing; παραινοῦμέν σου μένειν, we advise you to remain.

So when it is the same with any important adjunct of the leading verb; as κακούργου ἐστὶ κριθέντ᾽ ἀποθανεῖν, it is like a malefactor to die by sentence of the law (§ 138, N. 3, b).

Note. 1. The subject nominative of the first or second person is omitted, except when special emphasis is required. (See foot-note, page 143.) The nominative of the third person is omitted: -

(a) When it is expressed or implied in the context;

(b) When it is a general word for persons; as λέγουσι, they say, it is said;

(c) When it is indefinite; as in ὀψὲ ἦν, it was late; καλῶς ἔχει, it is well; δηλοῖ, it is evident (the case shows): so in the impersonal construction with the verbal in τέον, as in πειστέον (ἐστὶ) τῷ νόμῳ, we must obey the law (§ 281, 2).

(d) When the verb implies its own subject, as κηρύσσει, the herald (κῆρυξ) proclaims, ἐσάλπιγξε, the trumpeter sounded the trumpet, κωλύει, a hindrance occurs. In passive expressions like παρεσκεύασταί μοι, preparation has been made by me (I am prepared), like ventum est in Latin, the subject is really the idea of preparation, &c. contained in the verb. See § 198.

(e) With verbs like ὕει, it rains, ἀστράπτει, it lightens, σείει, there is an earthquake (it shakes), where, however, some subject like Ζεύς or θεός was originally supplied.

Note. 2. Many verbs in the third person singular have an infinitive or a sentence as their subject. These are called impersonal verbs. Such are πρέπει and προσήκει, it is proper, ἔνεστι and ἔξεστι, it is possible, δοκεῖ, it seems good, συμβαίνει, it happens, and the like; as ἔξεστιν ὑμῖν τοῦτο ποιεῖν, it is in your power to do this (to do this is possible for you). So also δεῖ and χρή, it is required, we ought; as δεῖ ἡμᾶς ἀπελθεῖν, we must go away (here, however, the infinitive might be considered an object, and δεῖ and χρή might be classed under Note 1 (c); cf. § 172, N. 2).

The name impersonal is applied with still greater propriety (though less frequently) to the verbs included in (c) and (d) of Note 1.

§ 135

Subject Nominative and Verb

A verb agrees with its subject nominative in number and person; as (ἐγὼ) λέγω, I say, οὗτος λέγει, this man says, οἱ ἄνδρες λέγουσιν, the men say.

But a nominative in the neuter plural regularly takes a singular verb; as ταῦτα ἐγένετο, these things happened, τὰ οἰκήματα ἔπεσεν, the buildings fell. So ἀδύνατά ἐστι (or ἀδύνατόν ἐστι), it is impossible.

But exceptions sometimes occur, especially with nouns denoting persons. Several are found in Xenophon.

A singular collective noun may take a plural verb; as τὸ πλῆθος ἐψηφίσαντο πολεμεῖν, the majority voted for war.

Note. 1. When several subjects are connected by and, they generally have a plural verb. But the verb often agrees with one of the subjects (generally the nearest), and is understood with the rest. The latter generally happens when they are connected by or or nor. E.g.

Ξυμφωνοῦμεν ἐγὼ καὶ ὑμεῖς, I and you agree: σοφοὶ ἐγὼ καὶ σὺ ἦμεν,

I and you were wise; καὶ σὺ καὶ οἱ ἀδελφοὶ παρῆστε, both you and your

brothers were present. Ἐμὲ οὔτε καιρὸς... οὔτ᾽ ἐλπὶς οὔτε φόβος

Note. 2. ff the subjects are of different persons, the verb is in the first person rather than the second, and in the second rather than the third. (See examples under N. 1.)

Note. 3. A verb in the dual may follow two subjects in the singular, or even a plural subject denoting two persons or things. But even a subject in the dual may have a verb in the plural. (See II. iy. 453; v. 10, 275; xvi. 218.)

Note. 4. Sometimes a verb agrees with the predicate nominative; as αἱ χορηγίαι ἱκανὸν εὐδαιμονίας σημεῖόν ἐστιν, the payments for choruses are a sufficient sign of prosperity.

Note. 5. Rarely a singular verb has a masculine or feminine subject in the plural; as ἔστι δὲ ἑπτὰ στάδιοι ἐξ Ἀβύδου ἐς τὴν ἀπαντίον, and there is a distance of seven stades from Abydos to the opposite coast. In such cases the subject follows the verb, and its plural form seems to have arisen from an afterthought.

See also the phrases ἔστιν οἵ, &c., § 152, N. 2.

§ 136

Predicate Noun and Adjective

With verbs signifying to be, to become, to appear, to be named, chosen, considered, and the like, a noun or adjective in the predicate is in the same case as the subject. E.g.

Οὗτός ἐστι βασιλεύς, this man is king; Ἀλέξανδρος θεὸς ὠνομάζετο, Alexander was named a God; ᾑρέθη στρατηγός, he was chosen general; ἡ πόλις φρούριον κατέστη, the city became a fortress; οὗτός ἐστιν εὐδαίμων, this man is happy; ἡ πόλις μεγάλη ἐγένετο, the city became great; ηὔξηται μέγας, he has grown (to be) great.

Remark. The verbs which are here included with the copula εἰμί (§ 133, 1, N. 1) are called copulative verbs. The predicate nominative with the passive verbs of this class represents the predicate accusative of the active construction (§ 166).

Note. 1 The predicate adjective agrees with the subject in gender and number as well as in case (§ 138, Remark).

Note. 2 The predicate of an infinitive with its subject accusative expressed (§ 134, 2) is in the accusative; as βούλεται τὸν υἱὸν εἶναι σοφόν, he wishes his son to be wise. So when the participle is used like the infinitive in indirect discourse (§ 280); as ἤδεσαν τὸν Κῦρον βασιλέα γενόμενον, they knew that Cyrus had become king.

Note. 3 (a) When the subject of εἶναι or of a copulative infinitive is omitted because it refers to the same person or thing as a nominative, genitive, or dative connected with the leading verb (§ 134, 3), a predicate noun or adjective which belongs to the omitted subject is generally assimilated in case to the preceding nominative, genitive, or dative. But it may stand in the accusative instead of being assimilated to a genitive or dative; especially a predicate noun is very seldom assimilated to a genitive. E.g.

(Nom.) Βούλεται σοφὸς εἶναι, he wishes to be wise; ὁ Ἀλέξανδρος ἔφασκεν εἶναι Διὸς υἱός, Alexander asserted that he was a son of Zeus.

(Gen.) Κύρου ἐδέοντο ὡς προθυμοτάτου γενέσθαι, they asked Cyrus to be as devoted to them as possible; but (with a noun) Ἀθηναίων ἐδεήθησαν σφίσι βοηθοὺς γενέσθαι, they asked the Athenians to become their helpers.

(Dat.) νῦν σοι ἔξεστιν ἀνδρὶ γενέσθαι, it is now in your power to show yourself a man; πρέπει σοι εἶναι προθύμῳ, it becomes you to be zealous; but also συμφέρει αὐτοῖς φίλους εἶναι, it is for their interest to be friends.

(b) So when a participle (in any case) represents the leading verb, and its noun the leading subject; as ἦλθον ἐπί τινα τῶν δοκούντων εἶναι σοφῶν, I went to one of those who seemed to be wise; πολλοὶ τῶν προσποιησαμένων εἶναι σοφιστῶν, many of those who professed to be sophists. So τοῖς δοκοῦσιν εἶναι σοφοῖς.

Note. 4. The same principle (N. 3) applies to the predicate of ὧν or of the participle of a copulative verb; as ᾔδεσαν σοφοὶ ὄντες, they knew that they were wise (but ἤδεσαν τούτους σοφοὺς ὄντας, they knew that these men were wise). See Note 2.

Note. 5. For the application of the same principle to all adjective words which refer to the omitted subject of an infinitive, see § 138, N. 8

A noun annexed to another noun to describe it, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in case. This is called apposition. E.g.

Δαρεῖος ὁ βασιλεύς, Darius the king. Ἀθῆναι, μεγάλη πόλις, Athens, a great city. Ὑμᾶς τοὺς σοφούς, you, the wise ones. Ἡμῶν τῶν Ἀθηναίων, of us, the Athenians. Θεμιστοκλῆς ἥκω (sc. ἐγώ), I Themistocles am come. Φιλήσιος καὶ Λύκων οἱ Ἀχαιοί, Philesius and Lycon, the Achaeans.

Note. 1. Possessive pronouns and adjectives may have a genitive in apposition with a genitive which they imply; as ὁ ἐμὸς τοῦ ταλαιπώρου βίος, the life of me, miserable one; Ἀθηναῖος ὤν, πόλεως τῆς μεγίστης, being (a citizen) of Athens, the greatest city. So τὰ ὑμέτερα αὐτῶν (for τὰ ὑμῶν αὐτῶν), your own (§ 147, N. 4).

Note. 2. A noun which might stand in the partitive genitive (§ 168) sometimes takes the case of the words denoting its parts, especially when the latter include the whole of the former; as οἰκίαι αἱ μὲν πολλαὶ πεπτώκεσαν, ὀλίγαι δὲ περιῆσαν, most of the houses had fallen, but a few remained (where we might have τῶν οἰκιῶν). So οὗτοι ἄλλος ἄλλο λέγει. This is called partitive apposition.

Note. 3. A noun may be in apposition with a whole sentence, being in the nominative or accusative as it is more closely connected in thought with the subject or with the object of the sentence; as κεῖνται πεσόντες, πίστις οὐ σμικρὰ πόλει, they lie prostrate, no small (cause of) confidence to the city; Ἑλένην κτάνωμεν, Μενέλεῳ λύπην πικράν, let us kill Helen, (which will be) a bitter grief to Menelaus.

Note. 4. A noun may be in apposition with the subject or the object of a sentence, where we use as or a like word; as ἵπποι ἤγοντο θύματα τῷ Ἡλίῳ, horses were brought as offerings to the Sun (in active, ἵππους ἄγειν θύματα, to bring horses as offerings); συμμάχους ἕξεις θεούς, you will have Gods as allies. So τυχεῖν τινος φίλου, to gain some one as a friend; χρῶμαι τούτῳ φίλῳ, I treat him as a friend.

Τίνος διδάσκαλοι ἥκετε; as teachers of what are you come? See § 166, Note 2.

Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. This applies also to the article and to adjective pronouns and participles. E.g.

Ὁ σοφὸς ἀνήρ, the wise man; τοῦ σοφοῦ ἀνδρός, τῷ σοφῷ ἀνδρί, τὸν σοφὸν ἄνδρα, τῶν σοφῶν ἀνδρῶν, &c. Οὗτος ὁ ἀνήρ, this man; τούτου τοῦ ἀνδρός, τούτων τῶν ἀνδρῶν. Αἱ πρὸ τοῦ στόματος νῆες ναυμαχοῦσαι, the ships engaged in battle before the mouth (of the harbor). It includes predicate adjectives with copulative verbs, the case of which has already been considered (§ 136); as αἱ ἄρισται δοκοῦσαι εἶναι φύσεις, the natures which seem to be best.

Note. The adjective may be either attributive or predicate.

An attributive adjective simply qualifies the noun, without the intervention of a verb (like all the adjectives above, except ἄρισται). The predicate adjective may be connected with its noun by the copula (§ 183, 1, N. 1), or by a copulative verb (§ 136); as ὁ ἀνὴρ ἀγαθὸς ἐστιν, the man is good; καλεῖται ἀγαθός, he is called good: or it may stand to its noun in any relation which implies some part of εἰμί; as πτηνὰς διώκεις τὰς ἐλπίδας, you are pursuing hopes which are winged (i.e. hopes being winged); ἀθάνατον τὴν μνήμην καταλείψουσιν, immortal is the memory they will leave behind them (i.e. τὴν μνήμην οὖσαν ἀθάνατον); ποιεῖ τοὺς Μήδους ἀσθενεῖς, he makes the Medes (to be) weak (§ 166).

A predicate adjective is often known by its position with respect to

Note. 1. (a) An attributive adjective belonging to several nouns generally agrees with the nearest or the most prominent one, and is understood with the rest; as τὸν ἀγαθὸν ἄνδρα καὶ γυναῖκα, the good man and woman; παντὶ καὶ λόγῳ καὶ μηχανῇ, by every word and device.

(b) But such an adjective is occasionally plural if it belongs to several singular nouns, or dual if it belongs to two; as σωφρόνων ἐστὶ καὶ ἀνδρὸς καὶ γυναικὸς οὕτω ποιεῖν, it is the part of prudent (persons), both men and women, thus to do.

Note. 2. (a) A predicate adjective is regularly plural if it belongs to several singular nouns, or dual if it belongs to two. If the nouns are of different genders, the adjective is commonly masculine if one of the nouns denotes a male person, and commonly neuter if all denote things. Thus, εἶδε πατέρα τε καὶ μητέρα καὶ ἀδελφοὺς καὶ τὴν ἑαυτοῦ γυναῖκα αἰχμαλώτους γεγενημένους, he saw that both his father and his mother, his brothers, and his own wife had been made captives; πόλεμος καὶ στάσις ὀλέθρια ταῖς πόλεσίν ἐστιν, war and faction are destructive to states.

(b) But it sometimes follows both, the gender and number of the nearest or most prominent noun; as πρόρριζος αὐτὸς, ἡ γυνὴ, τὰ παιδία, ἀπολοίμην, may I perish root and branch, myself, my wife, my children.

(c) A predicate adjective is sometimes neuter, being used like a noun (§ 139), even when its noun is masculine or feminine; as καλὸν ἡ ἀλήθεια, a beautiful thing is truth.

Note 3. A collective noun in the singular denoting persons may take a plural participle; as Τροίαν ἑλόντες Ἀργείων στόλος, the Argives’ army having taken Troy.

Note 4. An adjective may conform to the real rather than the grammatical gender of a noun denoting a person; as φίλε τέκνον, dear child!

Note 5. The masculine form of the dual is very often used for the feminine in adjective pronouns and the article; as τούτω τὼ τέχνα, these two arts. Especially rare are the feminines τά, ταῦτα.

Note 6. Δύο, two, is often used with a plural noun. ὄσσε, the eyes, and δοῦρε, two spears, in Homer, may have plural adjectives.

Note 7. A predicate adjective is sometimes used where we should use an adverb or adverbial phrase; as ἑκόντες ἦλθον, they came willingly; ὅρκιός σοι λέγω, I say it to you on my oath; πρῶτος δ᾽ ἐξερέεινε Νέστωρ, and first, Nestor inquired. There is often, however, a great distinction between the adjective and the adverb; as πρῶτος αὐτοὺς εἶδον, I was the first to see them; πρώτους αὐτοὺς εἶδον, they were the first whom I saw; πρῶτον (adv.) αὐτοὺς εἶδον, first (of all that I did) I saw them.

Note. 8. (a) When the subject of an infinitive is omitted because it refers to the same person or thing as a nominative, genitive, or dative connected with the leading verb (§ 134, 3), adjectives, adjective pronouns, and participles which belong to the omitted subject are generally assimilated in case to the preceding nominative, genitive, or dative; but they sometimes stand in the accusative (agreeing with the omitted subject) instead of the genitive or dative, rarely instead of the nominative. This occurs chiefly in the predicate of εἶναι, or of a copulative verb; for the usage in such cases and for examples, see § 136, Note 3.

(b) With the infinitives of other verbs, the assimilation of an adjective to a subject nominative is regular and very rarely neglected; after a genitive, assimilation seldom (if ever) occurs, and the accusative is regular; after a dative either the dative or the accusative may be used. E.g.

(Nom.) Οὐχ ὁμολογήσω ἄκλητος ἥκειν, I shall not admit that I am come unbidden; οὐκ ἔφη αὐτὸς, ἀλλ᾽ ἐκεῖνον στρατηγεῖν, he said that not (he) himself, but he (Nicias) was general; he said οὐκ (ἐγὼ) αὐτὸς (στρατηγῶν) ἀλλ᾽ ἐκεῖνος στρατηγεῖ, αὐτός being adjective (§ 145, 1) and ἐκεῖνος Substantive.

(Dat.) ἔδοξεν αὐτοῖς συσκευασαμένοις ἃ εἶχον καὶ ἐξοπλισαμένοις προιέναι, they decided to pack up what they had and arm themselves completely, and to advance (Anab. ii. 1, 2); but ἔδοξεν αὐτοῖς προφυλακὰς καταστήσαντας συγκαλεῖν τοὺς στρατιώτας, they decided to station pickets and to assemble the soldiers (ib. iii. 2, 1); in i. 2, we find two datives and an accusative.

(Accus. for Gen.) κακούργου ἐστὶ κριθέν τ᾽ ἀποθανεῖν, στρατηγοῦ δὲ μαχόμενον τοῖς πολεμίοις, it is like a malefactor to die by the sentence of a court, but like a general (to die) fighting the enemy; δέομαι ὑμῶν μεμνημένους τῶν εἰρημένων τὰ δίκαια ψηφίσασθαι, I beg of you to remember what has been said, and to vote what is just.

An adjective or participle, generally with the article, may be used as a noun; as ὁ δίκαιος, the just man; ὁ ἐχθρός, the enemy; φίλος, a friend; κακή, a base woman; τὸ μέσον or μέσον, the middle; οἱ κακοί, the bad; τοῖς ἀγαθοῖς, to the good; τῶν κρατούντων, of those in power; κακά, evils; τὰ θνητά, mortal things; οἱ γραψάμενοι Σωκράτην, the accusers of Socrates (§ 276, 2).

Note. In some cases, a noun is distinctly implied; as τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ (sc. ἡμέρᾳ), on the next day.

The neuter singular of an adjective with the article is often used as an abstract noun; as τὸ καλόν, beauty (= κάλλος), τὸ δίκαιον, justice (= δικαιοσύνη).

Note. The participle, which is a verbal adjective, is occasionally thus used for the infinitive, which is a verbal noun; as τὸ δεδιός, fear (= τὸ δεδιέναι); ἐν τῷ μὴ μελετῶντι, in the not practising (= ἐν τῷ μὴ μελετᾶν); both in Thucydides. So in Latin, opus est maturato, there is need of haste.

§ 140

Homeric Use of the Article

In the oldest Greek (as in Homer) the article appears generally as a demonstrative or personal pronoun, sometimes as a relative. E.g.

Τὴν δ᾽ ἐγὼ οὐ λύσω, but I will not free her; τοῦ δὲ κλύε Φοῖβος Ἀπόλλων, and Phoebus Apollo heard him; ὁ γὰρ ἦλθε θοὰς ἐπὶ νῆας Ἀχαιῶν, for he came, &c. As relative, πυρὰ πολλὰ τὰ καίετο, many fires which were burning; δῶρα τὰ ἔδωκαν, gifts which they gave.

Note. 1. Even in Homer, adjectives and participles used as nouns (§ 189, 1) have the article, as in Attic Greek; as οἱ γὰρ ἄριστοι ἐν νηυσὶν κέαται, for the bravest sit in the ships; οἱ ἄλλοι, the others; τά τ᾽ ἐόντα τά τ᾽ ἐσόμενα, both things that are and things that are to be.

Note. 2. (a) When the article is used with nouns in Homer, it is generally a pronoun, with which the noun is in apposition; as ὁ δ᾽ ἔβραχε χάλκεος Ἄρης, and he, brazen Ares, roared; ἡ δ᾽ ἀέκουσ᾽ ἅμα τοῖσι γυνὴ κίεν, and she, the woman, went with them unwilling.

(b) Nearer the Attic use of the article are examples like these:

αὐτὰρ ὁ τοῖσι γέρων ὁδὸν ἡγεμόνευεν, but he, the old man, showed them the way; τὸν δ᾽ οἷον πατέρ᾽ εὗρον, and they found him, the father, alone.

(c) Hardly, if at all, to be distinguished from the Attic article is that found in examples like these: ὅτε δὴ τὴν νῆσον ἀφίκετο, when now he came to the island; τό τε σθένος Ὠρίωνος, and the might of Orion; αἱ δὲ γυναῖκες ἱστάμεναι θαύμαζον, and the women stood and wondered.

(d) It is, therefore, often difficult to decide the exact force of an article in early Greek. The above examples show a gradual transition, even in Homer, from the original pronoun to the true definite

Note. 3. The examples in Note 2 (c) are exceptional; and in such cases the nouns usually stand without the article in Homer, as in Latin. Thus δεινὴ δὲ κλαγγὴ γένετ᾽ ἀργυρέοιο βιοῖο would in Attic Greek require ἡ κλαγγὴ and τοῦ βιοῦ (§ 141).

Note. 4. Herodotus generally uses the forms of the article beginning with τ in the place of the ordinary relative, — of which he uses only the forms ὅς, ἥ, οἵ, and αἵ, except after prepositions. Thus ὄρνις ἱρὸς, τῷ οὔνομα Φοῖνιξ, a sacred bird, whose name is Phoenix. In other respects, he uses the article as it is used in Attic prose.

Note. 5. The Lyric poets follow the Homeric usage with respect to the article more closely than Herodotus; and the Attic poets, especially in the lyric chorus, admit Homeric uses.

§ 141

Attic Use of the Article

In Attic Greek the article generally corresponds to the English definite article the; as ὁ ἀνήρ, the man; τῶν πόλεων, of the cities; τοῖς Ἕλλησιν, to the Greeks.

Note. 1. The Greek uses the article in certain cases in which the English generally omits it. Such are the following: –

(a) Proper names may take the article; as ὁ Σωκράτης or Σωκράτης, Socrates.

(b) Abstract nouns very often take the article; as ἡ ἀρετή, virtue, ἡ δικαιοσύνη, justice; ἡ εὐλάβεια, caution. But ἀρετή, &c. are also used in the same sense.

(c) Nouns qualified by a demonstrative or possessive pronoun regularly take the article; as οὗτος ὁ ἀνήρ, this man; ὁ ἐμὸς πατήρ, my father;περὶ τῆς ἡμετέρας πόλεως, about our state. (See § 142, 4.) So with nouns on which a possessive genitive of a personal, demonstrative, or reflexive pronoun depends; as ὁ πατήρ μου, my father; ὁ ἐμαυτοῦ πατήρ, my own father (§ 142, 1, Note); ὁ τούτων πατήρ, their father.

(d) Τοιοῦτος, τοσοῦτος, τοιόσδε, τοσόσδε, and τηλικοῦτος may take the article; as τὸν τοιοῦτον ἄνδρα; such a man. It is always used with δεῖνα, such a one.

Note. 2. The article is sometimes used, where we use a possessive pronoun, to mark something as belonging to a person or thing mentioned in the sentence; as ἔρχεται Μανδάνη πρὸς τὸν πατέρα, Mandane comes to her father (lit. to the father).

Note. 3. An adverb, a preposition with its case, or any similar attributive adjective; as οἱ τότε ἄνθρωποι, the men of that time; τοῦ πάλαι Κάδμου, of ancient Cadmus; οἱ ἐν ἄστει Ἀθηναῖοι, the Athenians in the city. Here a noun denoting men or things is often omitted; as οἱ ἐν ἄστει, those in the city; τοῖς τότε, to those of that time; οἱ ἀμφὶ Πλάτωνα, those about Plato (generally Plato and his school, or simply Plato).

Note. 4. The nouns γῆ, land, πράγματα, things or affairs, υἱός, son, and sometimes other nouns which are readily suggested by the context, may be omitted after the article, when a qualifying adjective or genitive is added; as εἰς τὴν ἑαυτῶν (sc. γῆν), to their own land; ἐκ τῆς περιοικίδος, from the neighboring country; τὰ τῆς πόλεως, the affairs of the state; Περικλῆς ὁ Ξανθίππου (sc. υἱός), Pericles, the son of Xanthippus; τὴν ταχίστην (sc. ὁδόν), the quickest way. Expressions like τὰ τῆς Τύχης, τὰ τῆς ὀργῆς, with no definite nouns understood, sometimes do not differ from Τύχη, Fortune, and ὀργή, wrath.

Note. 5. Instead of repeating a noun with new adjuncts in the same sentence, it is sufficient to repeat its article; as οἱ τῶν πολιτῶν παῖδες καὶ οἱ τῶν ἄλλων, the children of the citizens and those of the others.

Note. 6. The infinitive, as a verbal noun (§ 258), may take a neuter article; as τὸ εἰδέναι, the knowing; σοὶ τὸ μὴ σιγῆσαι λοιπὸν ἦν, it remained for you not to be silent.

Note. 7. In like manner, a neuter article may precede a whole clause considered as a noun; as τὸ γνῶθι σαυτὸν πανταχοῦ ἐστι χρήσιμον, the saying “know thyself” is everywhere useful.

Note. 8. A predicate noun seldom has the article; as νὺξ ἡ ἡμέρα ἐγένετο, the day became night;οὗτοί εἰσι κάκιστοι ἀνθρώπων, these are the worst of men. But when the predicate refers definitely to distinct individuals, it may have the article; as εἰσὶ δ᾽ οὗτοι οἱ εἰδότες τἀληθές; and are these those (whom I mean) who know the truth?

§ 142

Position of the Article

An attributive adjective which qualifies a noun with the article commonly stands between the article and the noun; as ὁ σοφὸς ἀνήρ, the wise man; τῶν μεγάλων πόλεων, of the great cities. The position of such an adjective with reference to the article (with the two modifications mentioned in 2) is called the attributive position and is opposed to the predicative (see 3).

Note. This applies to possessive pronouns and all expressions which have the force of attributive adjectives, when they are preceded by the article (§ 141, N. 3), and to dependent genitives (except partitives and the genitive of the personal pronoun); as ὁ ἐμὸς πατήρ, my father;ἡ σὴ μήτηρ, thy mother; ὁ ἐμαυτοῦ πατήρ, my own father;οἱ ἐν ἄστει ἄνθρωποι, the men in the city; οὐδεὶς τῶν τότε Ἑλλήνων, none of the Greeks of that time; τὸ τῷ ὄντι ψεῦδος, the real falsehood; εἰς τὴν ἐκείνων πόλιν, into their city; οἱ τῶν Θηβαίων στρατηγοί, the generals of the Thebans (2, N. 3). For participles, see 2, Ν. 5. Two or even three articles may thus stand together; as τὰ τῆς τῶν πολλῶν ψυχῆς ὄμματα, the eyes of the soul of the multitude.

The article together with any of these qualifying expressions may follow the noun, in which case the noun itself may have another article before it. E.g.

Ὁ ἀνὴρ ὁ σοφός, or ἀνὴρ ὁ σοφός, the wise man (not, however, ὁ ἀνὴρ σοφός, see § 142, 3; αἱ πόλεις αἱ δημοκρατούμεναι, the states which are under democracies; ἄνθρωποι οἱ τότε, the men of that time; πρὸς ἀδικίαν τὴν ἄκρατον, with regard to pure injustice.

Remark. Of the three attributive positions, the first (e.g. ὁ σοφὸς ἀνήρ) is the most common and the most simple and natural; the second (ὁ ἀνὴρ ὁ σοφός) is the most formal; the third (ἀνὴρ ὁ σοφός) is the least common, especially in the more careful prose writers.

Note. 1. The article at the beginning of a clause may be separated from its noun by μέν, δέ, τέ, γέ, γάρ, δή, and sometimes by other words.

Note. 2. The partitive genitive (§ 168) rarely stands in either of the positions here mentioned, but either precedes or follows the governing noun and its article, like a predicate; as οἱ κακοὶ τῶν πολιτῶν, or τῶν πολιτῶν οἱ κακοί, the bad among the citizens (rarely οἱ τῶν πολιτῶν κακοί). Even the other forms of the adnominal genitive occasionally have this position, as τῶν παλαιῶν ἡ φιλοσοφία, the philosophy of the ancients.

Note. 3. (a) Ὁ ἄλλος generally means the rest, seldom the other; οἱ ἄλλοι, the others: as ἡ ἄλλη πόλις, the rest of the state (but ἄλλη πόλις, another state); οἱ ἄλλοι Ἕλληνες, the other Greeks. Both ὁ ἄλλος and ἄλλος (rarely ἕτερος) may have the meaning of besides; as εὐδαιμονιζόμενος ὑπὸ τῶν πολιτῶν καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ξένων, congratulated by the citizens and the foreigners besides; οὐ γὰρ ἦν χορτὸς οὐδὲ ἄλλο δένδένδρον, for there was no grass nor any tree either (lit. any other tree).

(b) Πολύς with the article generally (though not always) means the greater part, especially in οἱ πολλοί, the multitude, the majority, and τὸ πολύ, the greater part. So οἱ πλείονες, the majority, τὸ πλεῖον, the greater part, οἱ πλεῖστοι and τὸ πλεῖστον, the greatest number or

Note. 4. When a noun has two or more qualifying words, each of them may take an article and stand in either of the above positions (1 or 2), or all may stand between one article and its noun; as ἡ Ἀττικὴ ἡ παλαιὰ φωνή, the ancient Attic speech; τὰ τείχη τὰ ἑαυτῶν τὰ μακρά, their own long walls; ἔπεμπον εἰς τὰς ἄλλας Ἀρκαδικὰς πόλεις, they sent to the other Arcadian cities; ἡ ὑπ᾽ Ἀρετῆς Ἡρακλέους παίδευσις, the instruction of Hercules by Virtue. Occasionally one stands between the article and the noun, while another follows the noun without an article; as ἡ ἐν μάχῃ ξυμβολὴ βαρεῖα.

Note. 5. When an attributive participle (§ 188) with dependent words qualifies a noun with the article, either the participle or the dependent words may follow the noun; as τὸν ῥέοντα ποταμὸν διὰ τῆς πόλεως, the river which runs through the city; ἡ ἐν τῷ Ἰσθμῷ ἐπιμονὴ γενομένη, the delay which occurred at the Isthmus. But such expressions may also take either of the positions 1 or 2.

Note. 6. The Greeks commonly said the Euphrates river, τὸν Ἐῤφράτην ποταμόν, &c., rather than the river Euphrates. So sometimes with names of mountains (rarely with those of cities or islands).

When an adjective either precedes the article, or follows the noun without taking an article, it forms a predicate, and some part of εἰμί, be, is implied (§ 138, Remark). E.g.

Ὁ ἀνὴρ σοφός or σοφὸς ὁ ἀνήρ (sc. ἐστίν), the man is wise, or wise is the man; πολλοὶ οἱ πανοῦργοι, many are the evil-doers; ἐφημέρους γε τὰς τύχας κεκτήμεθα, we possess our fortunes for a day (sc. οὔσας).

The predicate force of such adjectives can often be expressed by a periphrasis; as τοῖς λόγοις βραχυτέροις ἐχρῆτο, the words which he used were shorter, lit. he used the words (being) shorter; ἡγοῦντο αὐτονόμων τῶν ξυμμάχων, they presided over their allies (being) independent, i.e. the allies over whom they presided were independent. So πόσον ἄγει τὸ στράτευμα; how great is the army which he is bringing? § 138, Rem. The position of such an adjective with reference to the article is called the predicate position.

When a demonstrative pronoun qualifies a noun with the article, it takes the position of a predicate adjective (3), and either precedes the article or follows the noun. E.g.

Οὗτος ὁ ἀνήρ, this man, or ὁ ἀνὴρ οὗτος (never ὁ οὗτος ἀνήρ). Περὶ: τούτων τῶν πόλεων, about these cities.

Note. 1. But if an adjective or other qualifying word is added, the demonstrative may stand between this and its noun, contrary to the rule; as ἡ στενὴ αὕτη ὁδός, this narrow road; τῷ ἀφικομένῳ τούτῳ

Note. 2. Ἕκαστος, ἑκάτερος, ἄμφω, and ἀμφότερος have the predicate position (3), like a demonstrative; but with ἕκαστος the article may be omitted. Τοιοῦτος, τοσοῦτος; τοιόσδε, τοσόσδε and τηλικοῦτος, when they take the article, have the attributive position (1).

Note. 3. (a) A dependent genitive of the personal pronoun (whether partitive or not) has the predicate position (3), while that of other pronouns (unless it is partitive) has the attributive position (1); as ἡμῶν ἡ πόλις or ἡ πόλις ἡμῶν, our city (not ἡ ἡμῶν πόλις); ἡ τούτων πόλις, these men’s city (not ἡ πόλις τούτων); μετεπέμψατο Ἀστυάγης τὴν ἑαυτοῦ θυγατέρα καὶ τὸν παῖδα αὐτῆς, Astyages sent for his own daughter and her son.

(b) But if a qualifying word is added, the personal pronoun may stand between this and the noun; as ἡ δοκοῦσα ἡμῶν πρότερον σωφροσύνη, what previously seemed to be our modesty. See Note 1.

Note. 4. The adjectives ἄκρος, μέσος, and ἔσχατος, when they are in the predicate position (3), mean the top (or extremity), the middle, the last, of the thing which their nouns denote; as μέση ἡ ἀγορά, the middle of the market (while ἡ μέση ἀγορά would mean the middle market); ἄκρα ἡ χείρ, the extremity of the hand.

The article here may be omitted entirely.

Note. 5. Πᾶς and σύμπας, all, and ὅλος, whole, generally have the predicate position; as πάντες οἱ ἄνδρες or οἱ ἄνδρες πάντες, all the men; ὅλη ἡ πόλις or ἡ πόλις ὅλη, all the city. But they can also be used like attributive adjectives, preceded by the article; as ἡ πᾶσα Σικελία, the whole of Sicily, τὸ ὅλον γένος, the entire race.

The distinction here was probably not greater than that between all the city and the whole city in English. We find even οἱ πάντες πολῖται, the whole body of citizens.

Note. 6. Αὐτός as an intensive pronoun, ipse, has the predicate position; as αὐτὸς ὁ ἀνήρ, the man himself. But ὁ αὐτὸς ἀνήρ, the same man (§ 79, 2).

§ 143

Pronominal Article in Attic Greek

In Attic prose the article retains its original demonstrative force chiefly in the expression ὁ μέν... ὁ δέ, the one... the other. E.g.

Ὁ μὲν οὐδὲν, ὁ δὲ πολλὰ κερδαίνει, one man gains nothing, another gains much. Δεῖ τοὺς μὲν εἶναι δυστυχεῖς, τοὺς δ᾽ εὐτυχεῖς, some must be unfortunate, and others fortunate. Τῶν πόλεων αἱ μὲν τυραννοῦνται, αἱ δὲ δημοκρατοῦνται, of states, some are governed by tyrants, others by democracies.

Note. 1. The neuter τὸ μέν... τὸ δέ may be used adverbially, partly... partly. For τοῦτο μέν... τοῦτο δέ in this sense, see § 148, N. 4.

Note. 2. Ὁ δέ, &c., sometimes means and he, but he, &c., even when no ὁ μέν precedes: as Ἰνάρως Ἀθηναίους ἐπηγάγετο· οἱ δὲ... ἦλθον, Inaros called in Athenians; and they came.

A few other relics of the demonstrative meaning of the article are found in Attic, chiefly the following:-

Τὸν καὶ τόν, this man and that; τὸ καὶ τό, this and that; τὰ καὶ τά, these and those; as ἔδει γὰρ τὸ καὶ τὸ ποιῆσαι; καὶ τὸ μὴ ποιῆσαι, for we ought to have done this thing and that, and not to have done the other. Πρὸ τοῦ (or προτοῦ), before this, formerly. καὶ τόν or καὶ τήν, before an infinitive; as καὶ τὸν κελεῦσαι δοῦναι (sc. λέγεται), and (it is said) he commanded him to give tt. Cyr. i. 8, 9.

So occasionally τῷ`, therefore, which is common in Homer.

PERSONAL AND INTENSIVE PRONOUNS.

§ 144

The nominative of the personal pronouns is seldom used, except for emphasis., (See § 134, N. 1.)

Note. The forms ἐμοῦ, ἐμοί, and ἐμέ are more emphatic than the enclitics μοῦ, μοί, μέ. The latter seldom occur after prepositions, except in πρός με.

(a) The pronouns of the third person, οὗ, οἷ, ἕ, σφῶν, σφίσι, &c., when they are used in Attic prose, are generally indirect reflexives, that is, in a dependent clause (or joined with an infinitive or participle in the leading clause) referring to the subject of the leading verb. E.g.

Φοβοῦνται μὴ οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι σφίσιν ἐπέλθωσιν, they fear that the Athenians may attack them; ἐδέοντο ὑμῶν μὴ σφᾶς περιορᾶν φθειρομένους, they begged you not to see them destroyed. See § 79, 1, N. 1.

(b) In Homer and Herodotus they are generally personal pronouns, though sometimes (direct or indirect) reflexives. E.g.:

Ἐκ γάρ σφεων φρένας εἵλετο Παλλὰς Ἀθήνη, for Pallas Athena bereft them of their senses (Hom.); αὐτίκα δέ οἱ εὕδοντι ἐπέστη ὄνειρος, and soon a dream came to him in his sleep (Hdt.).

§ 145

Αὐτός in all its cases may be an intensive adjective pronoun, himself, herself, itself, themselves, like ipse. This is always its force in the nominative of all numbers, except when it is preceded by the article and means the same (§ 19, 2). E.g.

Αὐτὸς ὁ στρατηγός, the general himself; ἐπ᾽ αὐτοῖς τοῖς αἰγιαλοῖς, on the very coasts; ἐπιστήμη αὐτή, knowledge itself. (See § 142, 4, N. 6.)

Note. A pronoun with which αὐτός agrees is often omitted; as ταῦτα ἐποιεῖτε αὐτοί (sc. ὑμεῖς), you did this yourselves; πλευστέον εἰς ταύτας αὐτοῖς ἐμβᾶσιν (sc. ὑμῖν), you must sail, embarking on these yourselves (in person). So αὐτὸς ἔφη (ipse dixit), himself (the master) said it.

The oblique cases of αὐτός are the ordinary personal pronouns of the third person. E.g.

Στρατηγὸν αὐτὸν ἀπέδειξε, he designated him as general. See four other examples in Xen. Anab. i. 1, 2 and 3.

For μίν, νίν, and σφέ, see § 79, 1, Notes 3 and 4.

Note. The oblique cases of αὐτός are often used where the indirect reflexives (§ 144, 2) might stand, and sometimes even where the direct reflexives (§ 146) would be allowed; as ἁπλῶς τὴν ἑαυτοῦ γνώμην ἀπεφαίνετο Σωκράτης πρὸς τοὺς ὁμιλοῦντας αὐτῷ, Socrates used to declare his own opinion plainly to those who conversed with him, where of might have been used (Xen. Mem. iv. 7, 1); but in i. 2, 3, we have ἐλπίζειν ἐποίει τοὺς συνδιατρίβοντας ἑαυτῷ. The union of an intensive and a personal pronoun in αὐτός explains this freedom of usage.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

§ 146

The reflexive pronouns refer to the subject of the clause in which they stand. Sometimes in a dependent clause they refer to the subject of the leading verb, — i.e. they are indirect reflexives. E.g.

Γνῶθι σαυτόν, know thyself; ἐπέσφαξεν ἑαυτόν, he slew himself; τὰ ἄριστα βουλεύεσθε ὑμῖν αὐτοῖς, take the best counsel for yourselves.

Ὁ τύραννος νομίζει τοὺς πολίτας ὑπηρετεῖν ἑαυτῷ, the tyrant thinks that the citizens are his own servants. (See § 145, 2, Note.)

Note. 1. Occasionally a reflexive refers to some emphatic word which is not the subject; as ἀπὸ σαυτοῦ ἐγώ σε διδάξω, I will teach you from your own case (from yourself). In fact, these pronouns correspond almost exactly in their use to the English reflexives, myself, thyself, himself, &c.

Note. 2. The third person of the reflexive is sometimes used for the first or second; as δεῖ ἡμᾶς ἀνερέσθαι ἑαυτούς, we must ask ourselves.

Note. 8. The reflexive is sometimes used for the reciprocal (§ 81); διαλεγόμεθα ἡμῖν αὐτοῖς, we discourse with one another (i.e. among ourselves).

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

§ 147

The possessive pronouns are generally equivalent to the possessive genitive of the personal pronouns.

Thus ὁ ἡμέτερος πατήρ, --- ὁ πατὴρ ἡμῶν, our father.

The possessive is regularly preceded by the article.

See § 167, 1; § 141, N. 1(c); and below, N. 4.

Note. 1. The possessive is occasionally equivalent to the objective genitive of the personal pronoun; as ἡ ἐμὴ εὔνοια, which commonly means my good-will (towards others), rarely means good-will (shown) to me.

Note. 2. In Attic prose, σφέτερος, their, is always (directly or indirectly) reflexive, and ὅς, his, her, its, is not used at all. (See § 144, 2.)

Note. 8. By the possessive pronouns and the possessive genitive (§ 167, 1) the words my father can be expressed in Greek in five forms: ὁ ἐμὸς πατήρ, ὁ πατὴρ ὁ ἐμός, πατὴρ ὁ ἐμός (§ 142, 1, 2), ὁ πατήρ μου, and (after another word) μου ὁ πατήρ (as ἔφη μου ὁ πατήρ). So ὁ σὸς πατήρ, ὅτο.

Note. 4. Our own, your own (when your refers to more than one), and their own are generally expressed by ἡμέτερος, ὑμέτερος, and σφέτερος, with αὐτῶν in apposition with ἡμῶν, ὑμῶν, or σφῶν implied in the possessive (§ 137, N. 1); as τὸν ἡμέτερον αὐτῶν πατέρα, our own father; τῇ ὑμετέρᾳ αὐτῶν μητρί, to your own mother; τοὺς σφετέρους αὐτῶν παῖδας, their own children. In the third person ἑαυτῶν can be used; as τοὺς ἑαυτῶν παῖδας (also σφῶν αὐτῶν παῖδας, without the article); but very seldom ἡμῶν (or ὑμῶν) αὐτῶν. In the singular, expressions like τὸν ἐμὸν αὐτοῦ πατέρα for τὸν

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

§ 148

Οὗτος and ὅδε, this, generally refer to what is near in place, time, or thought; ἐκεῖνος, that, refers to what is more remote.

Note. 1. The distinction between οὗτος and ὅδε, both of which correspond to our this, must be learned by practice. In the historians, οὗτος (with τοιοῦτος, τοσοῦτος, and οὕτως) frequently refers to a speech just made, while ὅδε (with τοιόσδε, τοσόσδε, and ὧδε) refers to one about to be made; as τάδε εἶπεν, he spoke as follows, but ταῦτα εἶπεν, thus he spoke (said after the speech).

Note. 2. Οὗτος is sometimes an exclamation; as οὗτος, τί ποιεῖς; You there! what are you doing?

Note. 3. The Greek has no word exactly corresponding to the unemphatic demonstrative which is often used in English as the antecedent of a relative, as I saw those who were present. Here a participle with the article is generally used; as εἶδον τοὺς παρόντας; if a demonstrative is used (εἶδον τούτους οἳ παρῆσαν, I saw these men who were present), it has special emphasis (§ 152, N. 3). A relative with omitted antecedent sometimes expresses the sense required; as εἶδον οὓς ἔλαβεν, I saw (those) whom he took (§ 152).

Note. 4. Τοῦτο μέν... τοῦτο δέ, first... secondly, partly... partly, is used nearly in the sense of τὸ μέν... τὸ δέ (§ 148, 1, N. 1), especially by Herodotus.

For οὑτοσί, ὁδί, ἐκεινοσί, οὑτωσί, ὡδί, &c., see § 83, N. 2.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.

§ 149

The interrogative τίς; who? what? may be either substantive or adjective; as τίνας εἶδον; whom did I see? or τίνας ἄνδρας εἶδον; what men did I see?

Τίς may be used both in direct and in indirect questions; as τί βούλεται, what does he want? ἐρωτᾷ τί βούλεσθε, he asks what you want (§ 241, 1).

In indirect questions, however, the relative ὅστις is more common; as ἐρωτᾷ ὅ τι βούλεσθε.

Note. The same principles apply to the pronominal adjectives πόσος, ποῖος, &c. (§ 87, 1.)

INDEFINITE PRONOUN.

§ 150

The indefinite τις generally means some, any, and may be either substantive or adjective; as τοῦτο λέγει τις, some one says this; ἄνθρωπός τις, some man.

It is sometimes nearly equivalent to the English a or an; as εἶδον ἄνθρωπόν τινα, I saw a certain man, or I saw a man.

Note. Occasionally τις means every one, like πᾶς τις; as εὖ μέν τις δόρυ θηξάσθω, let every one sharpen well his spear. Hom.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

§ 151

A relative agrees with its antecedent in gender and number; but its case depends on the construction of the clause in which it stands. E.g.

Εἶδον τοὺς ἄνδρας οἱ ὕστερον ἦλθον, I saw the men who came afterwards; οἱ ἄνδρες οὓς εἶδες ἀπῆλθον, the men whom you saw went away.

Note. 1. The relative follows the person of the antecedent; as ὑμεῖς οἱ τοῦτο ποιεῖτε, you who do this; ἐγὼ ὃς τοῦτο ἐποίησα, I who did this.

Note. 2. (a) A relative referring to several antecedents follows the rule given for predicate adjectives (§ 188, N. 2). It may be plural if it refers to a collective noun (§ 188, N. 8); as τὸ πλῆθος οἵπερ δικάσουσιν, the multitude who will judge.

(b) On the other hand, ὅστις, whoever, may have a plural antecedent; as πάντα ὅ τι βούλονται, everything, whatsoever they want.

Note. 3. In Homer the forms of the relative are sometimes used as demonstrative pronouns, like the article (§ 140); as καὶ ὃς δεύτατος ἦλθε, and he came second; ὃ γὰρ γέρας ἐστὶ θανόντων, for this is the right of the dead.

A few similar expressions occur in Attic prose, especially the Platonic ἢ δ᾽ ὅς, said he (where ἢ is imperfect of ἠμί, say). So καὶ ὅς, and he, καὶ οἵ, and they, and (in Herod.) ὃς καὶ ὅς, this man and that. (Compare τὸν καὶ τόν, § 148, 2.) So also ὃς μέν... ὃς δέ, in the oblique cases, may be used for ὁ μέν... ὁ δέ.

Note. 4. In the Epic and Lyric poets the enclitic τέ is often appended to relative words without affecting their meaning; as οὐκ ἀΐεις ἅ τέ φησι; dost thou not perceive what he says? Sometimes it seems to make the relative more indefinite, like τις in ὅστις, whoever, quicumque.

But οἷός τε in Attic Greek means able, capable, like δυνατός, being originally elliptical for τοιοῦτος οἷος, such as, and τέ having no apparent force.

Omission of the Antecedent.

§ 152

The antecedent of a relative may be omitted when it can easily be supplied from the context, especially if it is indefinite (§ 229). E.g.

Ἔλαβεν ἃ ἐβούλετο, he took what he wanted; ἔπειθεν ὁπόσους ἐδύνατο, he persuaded as many as he could; ἃ μὴ οἶδα οὐδὲ οἴομαι εἰδέναι, what I do not know I do not even think I know; ἐγὼ καὶ ὧν ἐγὼ κρατῶ μενοῦμεν παρὰ σοί, I and those whom I command will remain with you.

In such cases it is a mistake to say that ταῦτα, ἐκεῖνοι, &c. are understood; see N. 3. The relative clause here really becomes a substantive, and contains its antecedent within itself.

Note. 1. Most relative adverbs regularly omit the antecedent; as ἦλθεν ὅτε τοῦτο εἶδεν, he came when he saw this (for then, when).

Note. 2. The following expressions belong here: ἔστιν οἵ, some (§ 185, N. 5), more common than the regular εἰσὶν οἵ, sunt qui, there are (those) who; ἔνιοι (from ἔνι, = ἔνεστι or ἔνεισι, and οἱ), some; ἐνίοτε (ἔνι and ὅτε), sometimes: ἔστιν οὗ, somewhere; ἔστιν ἧ, in some way; ἔστιν ὅπως, somehow.

Note. 3. When a clause containing a relative with omitted antecedent precedes the leading clause, the latter often contains a demonstrative referring back with emphasis to the omitted antecedent; as ἃ ἐβούλετο ταῦτα ἔλαβεν, what he wanted, that he took, entirely different from ταῦτα ἃ ἐβούλετο ἔλαβεν, he took these (definite) things, which he wanted; ἃ ποιεῖν αἰσχρὸν, ταῦτα νόμιζε μηδὲ λέγειν εἶναι καλόν, what it is base to do, this believe that it is not good even to say (here ταῦτα is not the antecedent of ἅ, which is indefinite and is not expressed). See § 148, N. 8.

Assimilation and Attraction.

§ 153

When a relative would naturally be in the accusative as the object of a verb, it is generally assimilated to the case of its antecedent if this is a genitive or dative. E.g.

Ἐκ τῶν πόλεων ὧν ἔχει, from the cities which he holds (for ἃς ἔχει);

τοῖς ἀγαθοῖς οἷς ἔχομεν, with the good things which we have (for ἃ ἔχομεν).

This is often called attraction.

Note. 1. When an antecedent is omitted which (if it could have been expressed) would have been a genitive or dative, the assimilation still takes place; and a preposition which would have belonged to the antecedent passes over to the relative; as ἐδήλωσε τοῦτο οἷς ἔπραττε, he showed this by what he did (like ἐκείνοις ἅ); σὺν οἷς ἔχω τὰ ἄκρα καταλήψομαι, I will seize the heights with the men whom I have (as if it were σὺν τοῖς ἀνδράσιν οὓς ἔχω); οὐδὲν ὧν βούλεσθε πράξετε, you will do none of the things which you wish (like ἐκείνων ἅ). See § 148, N. 3.

Note. 2. A relative is very seldom assimilated from any other construction than that of the object accusative, or into any other case than the genitive or dative. Yet exceptions occur; as ὧν ἠπίστει πολλούς, many of those whom he distrusted (like ἐκείνων οἷς). Even the nominative may be assimilated; as βλάπτεσθαι ἀφ᾽ ὧν ἡμῖν παρεσκεύασται, to be injured by what has been prepared by us (like ἀπ᾽ ἐκείνων ἅ). Thuc.

Note. 3. A like assimilation takes place in relative adverbs; as διεκομίζοντο εὐθὺς ὅθεν ὑπεξέθεντο παῖδας καὶ γυναῖκας, they immediately brought over their children and women from the places in which they had placed them for safety (where ὅθεν, from which, stands for ἐκεῖθεν οἷ, from the places whither). Thuc.

Note. 4. The antecedent occasionally is assimilated to the case of the relative, when this immediately follows; as ἔλεγον ὅτι πάντων ὧν δέονται πεπραγότες εἶεν, they said that they had done all things which they needed (where πάντων ὧν for πάντα ἅ is very irregular).

This inverted assimilation takes place in οὐδεὶς ὅστις οὐ, everybody, in which οὐδείς follows the case of the relative; as οὐδενὶ ὅτῳ οὐκ ἀποκρίνεται (for οὐδείς ἐστιν ὅτῳ), he replies to everybody.

Note. 5. A peculiar assimilation occurs in certain expressions with οἷος; as χαρίζεσθαι οἵῳ σοι ἀνδρί, to please a man like you (for τοιούτῳ οἷος σύ).

§ 154

The antecedent is often attracted into the relative clause, and agrees with the relative. E.g.

Μὴ ἀφέλησθε ὑμῶν αὐτῶν ἣν κέκτησθε δόξαν καλήν, do not take from yourselves the good reputation which you have gained (for τὴν καλὴν δόξαν ἣν κέκτησθε): here notice the omission of the article.

Even the subject of a verb may be attracted; as οἴχεται φεύγων ὃν ἦγες μάρτυρα, the witness whom you brought (for ὁ μάρτυς ὃν ἦγες) has run away.

Note. This attraction may be joined with assimilation (§ 153); as ἀμαθέστατοί ἐστε ὧν ἐγὼ οἶδα Ἑλλήνων, you are the most ignorant of the Greeks whom I know; ἐξ ἧς τὸ πρῶτον ἔσχε γυναικός, from the wife which he took first; σὺν ᾗ εἶχε δυνάμει, with the force which he had (for σὺν τῇ δυνάμει ἣν εἶχεν).

Relative in Exclamations, &c.

§ 155

Οἷος, ὅσος, and ὡς are used in exclamations; as ὅσα πράγματα ἔχεις, how much trouble you have! ὡς ἀστεῖος, how witty!

For the relative in indirect questions see § 149, 2.

Relative not repeated.

§ 156

A relative is seldom repeated in a new case in the same sentence, but a personal or demonstrative pronoun commonly takes its place. E.g.

Ἐκεῖνοι τοίνυν, οἷς οὐκ ἐχαρίζονθ᾽ οἱ λέγοντες οὐδ᾽ ἐφίλουν αὐτοὺς ὥσπερ ὑμᾶς οὗτοι νῦν, those men, then, whom the orators did not try to gratify, and whom they did not love as these now love you (lit. nor did they love them as, &c.). Dem. Here αὐτούς is used to avoid repeating the relative in a new case, οὖς.

Note. Sometimes, however, a new case of the relative is understood in the latter part of a sentence; as Ἀριαῖος δὲ, ὃν ἡμεῖς ἠθέλομεν βασιλέα καθιστάναι, καὶ ἐδώκαμεν καὶ ἐλάβομεν πιστά, and Ariaeus, whom we wished to make king, and (to whom) we gave and (from whom) we received pledges, ἕο. Xen.

Note. The Greek is descended from a language which had eight cases, – an ablative, a locative, and an instrumental, besides the five found in Greek. The functions of the ablative were chiefly absorbed by the genitive; those of the instrumental and locative chiefly by the dative.

The nominative is used chiefly as the subject of a finite verb (§ 134, 1), or in the predicate after verbs signifying to be, &c. (§ 186).

The vocative, with or without ὦ, is used in addressing a person or thing; as ὦ ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, O men of Athens! ἀκούεις, Αἰσχίνη; dost thou hear, Aeschines?

Note. The nominative is sometimes used in exclamations, and even in other expressions, where the vocative is more common; as ὦμοι ἐγὼ δειλός, O wretched me! So ἡ Πρόκνη ἔκβαινε, Procne, come out!

Note. The primary purpose of the accusative is to denote the nearer or direct object of a verb, as opposed to the remoter or indirect object denoted by the dative. It thus bears the same relation to a verb which the genitive generally bears toa noun. The object denoted by the accusative may be the external object of the action of a transitive verb, or the internal (cognate) object which is often implied in the meaning of even an intransitive verb. But the accusative has also assumed other functions, as will be seen, which cannot be brought under this or any other single category.

Accusative of Direct (External) Object.

§ 158

The direct object of the action of a transitive verb is put in the accusative; as τοῦτο σώζει ἡμᾶς, this preserves us; ταῦτα ποιοῦμεν, We do these things.

Note. 1. Many verbs which are transitive in English, and govern the objective case, take either a genitive or a dative in Greek. (See § 171, § 184, 2, and § 188, 1, N. 2.)

Note. 2. Many verbs which are transitive in Greek are intransitive in English; as ὀμοῦμαι τοὺς θεούς, I will swear by the Gods; πάντας ἔλαθεν, he escaped the notice of all.

Note. 3. Verbal adjectives and even verbal nouns occasionally take an object accusative instead of the regular objective genitive (§ 167, 8; § 180); as ἐπιστήμονες ἦσαν τὰ προσήκοντα, they were acquainted with what was proper. Xen. So τὰ μετέωρα φροντιστής, one who ponders on the things above (like φροντίζων). Plat.

Cognate Accusative (Internal Object).

§ 159

Any verb whose meaning permits it may take an accusative of kindred signification. This accusative repeats the idea already contained in the verb, and may follow intransitive as well as transitive verbs. E.g.:

Ἥδομαι τὰς μεγίστας ἡδονάς, I enjoy the greatest pleasures. Εὐτυχοῦσι τοῦτο τὸ εὐτύχημα, they enjoy this good fortune. So πίπτειν πέσημα, to fall a fall; νόσον νοσεῖν or νόσον ἀσθενεῖν or νόσον κάμνειν, to suffer under a disease; ἁμάρτημα ἁμαρτάνειν, to commit an error (to sin a sin); δουλείαν δουλεύειν, to be subject to slavery; ἀγῶνα ἀγωνίζεσθαι, to undergo a contest; γραφὴν γράφεσθαι, to bring an indictment; γραφὴν διώκειν, to prosecute an indictment; δίκην ὀφλεῖν, to lose a lawsuit; νίκην νικᾶν, to gain a victory; μάχην νικᾶν, to gain a battle; πομπὴν πέμπειν, to form or conduct a procession; πληγὴν τύπτειν, to strike a blow.

Note. It will be seen that this construction is far more extensive in Greek than in English. It includes not only accusatives of kindred formation and meaning, as νίκην νικᾶν, to gain a victory; but also those of merely kindred meaning, as μάχην νικᾶν, to gain a battle. The accusative may also limit the meaning of the verb to one of many applications; as Ὀλύμπια νικᾶν, to gain an Olympic victory; γάμους ἑστιᾶν, to give a wedding feast; ψήφισμα νικᾶν, to carry a decree (to gain a victory with a decree); τὰ Παναθήναια πέμπειν, to celebrate the Panathenaea by a procession.

For the cognate accusative becoming the subject of a passive verb, see § 198.

Note. 1. The cognate accusative may follow adjectives or even nouns; as κακὸς πᾶσαν κακίαν, bad with all badness; ἀγαθὸς πᾶσαν ἀρετήν, good with all goodness; δοῦλος τὰς μεγίστας δουλείας, a slave to the direst slavery.

Note. 2. A neuter adjective sometimes represents a cognate accusative, its noun being implied in the verb; as μεγάλα ἁμαρτάνειν, (sc. ἁμαρτήματα) to commit great faults; ταὐτὰ λυποῦμαι καὶ ταὐτὰ χαίρω, I have the same griefs and the same joys. So τί χρήσομαι τούτῳ; (= τίνα χρείαν χρήσομαι;) what use shall I make of this? and οὐδὲν χρήσομαι τούτῳ, I shall make no use of this (§ 188, 1, N. 2). So χρήσιμος οὐδέν, good for nothing (N. 1). See § 160, 2, Note.

Note. 3. Here belongs the accusative of effect, which expresses a result beyond the action of the verb, which is effected by that action; as πρεσβεύουσι τὴν εἰρήνην, they negotiate the peace (as ambassadors, πρέσβεις), but πρεσβεύειν πρεσβείαν, to go on an embassy. Compare the English breaking a hole, as opposed to breaking a stick. So after verbs of looking (in poetry); as Ἄρη δεδορκέναι, to look war (Ares); ἡ βουλὴ ἔβλεψε νᾶπυ, the Senate looked mustard.

Note. 4. A transitive verb may have a cognate accusative and another object at the same time; as γράφεσθαί τινα τὴν γραφὴν ταύτην, to bring this indictment against any one: ἠδικήσαμεν τοῦτον οὐδέν, we did this man no wrong; ταῦτα δίδασκέ με, teach me this (§ 164); τοσοῦτον ἔχθος ἐχθαίρω σε, so great hatred do I feel for thee; τὴν μάχην τοὺς βαρβάρους νικήσας, having defeated the barbarians in the battle.

Note. 5. Connected with the cognate accusative is that which follows verbs of motion expressing the ground over which the motion passes; as ὁδὸν ἰέναι (ἐλθεῖν, πορεύεσθαι, &c.), to go (over) a road; πλεῖν θάλασσαν, to sail the sea; ὄρος καταβαίνειν, to descend a mountain; &c. These verbs thus acquire a transitive meaning. See § 179, 2.

Accusative of Specification. – Adverbial Accusative.

§ 160

The accusative of specification may be joined with a verb, adjective, noun, or even a whole sentence, to denote that in respect to which the expression is used. E.g.

Τυφλὸς εἶ τὰ ὄμματα, you are blind in your eyes; καλὸς τὸ εἶδος, beautiful in form; ἄπειροι τὸ πλῆθος, infinite in number; δίκαιος τὸν τρόπον, just in his character; δεινοὶ μάχην, mighty in battle; κάμνω τὴν κεφαλήν, I have a pain in my head; τὰς φρένας ὑγιαίνειν, to be sound in their minds; διαφέρει τὴν φύσιν, he differs in nature; ποταμὸς, Κύδνος ὄνομα, εὖρος δύο πλέθρων, a river, Cydnus by name, of the breadth of two plethra; Ἕλληνές εἰσι τὸ γένος, they are Greeks by race; καὶ τὰ μικρὰ πειρῶμαι ἀπὸ θεῶν ὁρμᾶσθαι, even in small matters I try to begin with the Gods.

Note. This is sometimes called the accusative by synecdoche, or the limiting accusative. It most frequently denotes a part; but often a character or quality, or any circumstance to which the meaning of the expression is restricted.

An accusative in certain expressions has the force of an adverb. E.g.

Τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον, in this way, thus; τὴν ταχίστην (sc. ὁδόν), in the quickest way; τὴν ἀρχήν, at first (with negative, not at all); τέλος, finally; προῖκα, as a gift, gratis; χάριν, for the sake of; δίκην, in the manner of; τὸ πρῶτον or πρῶτον, at first; τὸ λοιπόν, for the rest; τἄλλα, in other respects; οὐδέν, in nothing, not at all; τί; in what, why? τι, in any respect, at all; ταῦτα, in respect to this, therefore. So τοῦτο μέν... τοῦτο δέ (§ 148, N. 4).

Note. Several of these are to be explained by § 160, 1, as τἄλλα, τί; why? ταῦτα, τοῦτο (with μέν and δέ), and sometimes οὐδέν and τί. Some are to be explained as cognate accusatives (see § 159, Notes 1 and 2), and some are of doubtful origin.

Accusative of Extent.

§ 161

The accusative may denote extent of time or space. E.g.

Ai σπονδαὶ ἐνιαυτὸν ἔσονται, the truce is to be for a year; ἔμεινε τρεῖς ἡμέρας, he remained three days; ἀπέχει δ᾽ ἡ Πλάταια τῶν Θηβῶν σταδίους ἑβδομήκοντα, and Plataea is seventy stades distant from Thebes.

Note. This accusative with an ordinal number denotes how long since; τρίτην ἤδη ἡμέραν ἐπιδεδήμηκεν, this is the third day that he has been in town. A peculiar idiom is found in expressions like τρίτον ἔτος τουτί (this the third year), i.e. two years ago; as ἀπηγγέλθη Φίλιππος τρίτονἢ τέταρτον ἔτος τουτὶ Ἡραῖον τεῖχος πολιορκῶν, two or three years ago Philip was reported to be besieging Heraion Teichos.

Terminal Accusative (Poetic).

§ 162

In poetry, the accusative without a preposition may denote the place or object towards which motion is directed. E.g.

Μνηστῆρας ἀφίκετο, she came to the suitors. Odyss. Ἀνέβη μέγαν οὐρανὸν Οὔλυμπόν τε. Il. Τὸ κοῖλον Ἄργος βὰς φυγάς, going as an exile to the hollow Argos. Soph.

In prose a preposition would be used.

Accusative after Νή and Μά.

§ 163

The accusative follows the adverbs of swearing νή and μά, by.

An oath introduced by νή is affirmative; one introduced by μά is negative; as νὴ τὸν Δία, yes, by Zeus; μὰ τὸν Δία, no, by

Zeus.

Note. 1. When μά is preceded by ναί, yes, the oath is affirmative; as ναί, μὰ Δία, yes, by Zeus.

Note. 2. Μά is sometimes omitted when a negative precedes; as οὔ, τὸν δ᾽Ὄλυμπον, no, by this Olympus.

Two Accusatives with one Verb.

§ 164

Verbs signifying to ask, to demand, to teach, to remind, to clothe or unclothe, to conceal, to deprive, and to divide, may take two object accusatives. E.g.

Ἔάν τίς σε ταῦτα ἐξετάζῃ, if any one shall ask you these questions; μέλλετε τοὺς θεοὺς αἰτεῖν ἀγαθά, you are about to ask blessings of the Gods; τοὺς παῖδας τὴν μουσικὴν διδάσκει, he teaches the boys music; τὴν ξυμμαχίαν ἀναμιμνήσκοντες τοὺς Ἀθηναίους, reminding the Athenians of the alliance; ἐκδύει ἐμὲ τὴν ἐσθῆτα, he strips me of my dress; μή με κρύψῃς τοῦτο, do not conceal this from me; τὴν θεὸν τοὺς στεφάνους σεσυλήκασιν, they have robbed the Goddess of her crowns; τὸ στράτευμα κατένειμε δώδεκα μέρη, he divided the army into twelve parts (he made twelve divisions of the army).

In many cases, as in the third and last examples, one of the accusatives is cognate; see § 159, N. 4.

Note. 1. In poetry some other verbs have this construction; thus χρόα νίζετο ἅλμην, he washed the dried spray from his skin; so τιμωρεῖσθαί τινα αἷμα, to punish one for blood (shed).

Note. 2. Many verbs of this class sometimes have other constructions. Thus verbs of depriving may take the genitive of a person with an accusative of a thing, τινός τι; sometimes the reverse, τινά τινος (neut.). For verbs of reminding, see § 171, 2, N. 3.

Note. 3. The accusative of a thing with some of these verbs is really a cognate accusative; see § 159, N. 4.

§ 165

Verbs signifying to do anything to or to say anything of a person or thing take two accusatives. E.g.

Ταυτί με ποιοῦσιν, they do these things to me; τί μ᾽ εἰργάσω; what didst thou do to me? πλεῖστα κακὰ τὴν πόλιν ποιοῦσιν, they do the most evils to the state. Tauri σὺ τολμᾷς ἡμᾶς λέγειν; dost thou dare to say these things of us? Οὐ φροντιστέον ὅ τι ἐροῦσιν οἱ πολλοὶ ἡμᾶς, we must not consider what the multitude will say of us.

Note. 1. These verbs often take εὖ or καλῶς, well, or κακῶς, ill, instead of the accusative of a thing; τούτους εὖ ποιεῖ, he does them good; ὑμᾶς κακῶς ποιεῖ, he does you harm;κακῶς ἡμᾶς λέγει, he speaks ill of us. The passive form of these expressions is not εὖ (or κακῶς) ποιεῖςσθαι, εὖ (or κακῶς) λέγεσθαι, to be done well by, to be spoken well φῇ, &c.; but εὖ (or κακῶς) πάσχειν, to experience good (or evil), and εὖ (or κακῶς) ἀκούειν, bene (male) audire, to hear one’s self called.

Note. 2. Πράσσω, do, very seldom takes two accusatives in this construction, ποιέω being generally used. Εὖ πράσσω and κακῶς πράσσω are intransitive, meaning to be well off, to be badly off.

Note. 3. Verbs signifying to do may take the dative of a person; as ἀγαθόν τι ποιοῦσι τῇ πόλει; they do some good to the state.

§ 166

Verbs signifying to name, to choose or appoint, to make, to consider, and the like, may take a predicate accusative besides the object accusative. E.g.

Τί τὴν πόλιν προσαγορεύεις; what do you call the state? — so καλοῦσί με τοῦτο τὸ ὄνομα, they call me by this name; στρατηγὸν αὐτὸν ἀπέδειξε, he appointed him general; εὐεργέτην τὸν Φίλιππον ἡγοῦντο, they thought Philip a benefactor;πάντων δεσπότην ἑαυτὸν πεποίηκεν, he has made himself master of all.

Note. This is the active construction of which the passive appears in the predicate nominative with passive verbs (§ 136). Like the latter, it includes also predicate adjectives; as τοὺς συμμάχους προθύμους ποιεῖσθαι, to make the allies eager; τὰς ἁμαρτίας μεγάλας ἦγεν, he considered the faults great.

Note. 2. Many other transitive verbs may take a predicate accusative in apposition with the object accusative; as ἔλαβε τοῦτο δῶρον, he took this as a gift; ἵππους ἄγειν θύματα τῷ ἡλίῳ, to bring horses as offerings to the Sun. Especially an interrogative pronoun may be so used; as τίνας τούτους ὁρῶ; who are these whom I see? (§ 142, 3.)

Note. 3. Note. 4. In the passive, when the object accusative becomes the subject nominative (§ 197, 1), the predicate accusative (of every kind) becomes a predicate nominative. See § 186, Rem.; and § 137, N. 4.

Note. As the chief use of the accusative is to limit the meaning of a verb, so the chief use of the genitive is to limit the meaning of a noun. When the genitive is used as the object of a verb, it seems to depend on the nominal idea which belongs to the verb: thus ἐπιθυμῶ involves ἐπιθυμίαν (as we can say ἐπιθυμῶ ἐπιθυμίαν, § 159); and in ἐπιθυμῶ τούτου, I have a desire for this, the nominal idea preponderates over the verbal. The Greek is somewhat arbitrary in deciding when it will allow either to preponderate in the construction, and after some verbs it allows both the accusative and the genitive. In the same general sense the genitive follows verbal adjectives. It has also uses which originally belonged to the ablative; for example, with verbs of separation and to express source. (See Rem. before § 157.):

Genitive after Nouns (Adnominal Genitive).

§ 167

A noun in the genitive may limit the meaning of another noun, to express various relations, most of which are denoted by of or by the possessive case in English. The genitive thus depending on a noun is called adnominal.

The most important of these relations are the following: –

POSSESSION: as ἡ τοῦ πατρὸς οἰκία, the father’s house; ἡμῶν ἡ πατρίς, our country. So ἡ τοῦ Διός, the daughter of Zeus; τὰ τῶν θεῶν, the things of the Gods (§ 141, Note 4). The Possessive Genitive.

The SUBJECT of an action or feeling: as ἡ τοῦ δήμου εὔνοια, the good-will of the people (i.e. which the people feel). The Subjective Genitive.

The OBJECT of an action or feeling: as διὰ τὸ Παυσανίου μῖσος, owing to the hatred of (i.e. felt against) Pausanias; αἱ τοῦ χειμῶνος καρτερήσεις, the endurance of the winter. So τῶν θεῶν ὅρκοι, oaths (sworn) in the name of the Gods (as we say θεοὺς ὀμνύναι, § 158, N. 2). The Objective Genitive.

MATERIAL, including that of which anything consists: as βοῶν ἀγέλη, a herd of cattle; ἄλσος ἡμέρων δένδρων, a grove of cultivated trees; κρήνη ἡδέος ὕδατος, a spring of fresh water; δύο χοίνικες ἀλφίτων, two quarts of meal. Genitive of Material.

MEASURE, of space, time, or value: as τριῶν ἡμερῶν ὁδός, a journey of three days; ὀκτὼ σταδίων τεῖχος, a wall of eight stades (in length); τριάκοντα ταλάντων οὐσία, an estate of thirty talents; δίκαι πολλῶν ταλάντων, lawsuits of (ie. involving) many talents. Genitive of Measure.

THE WHOLE, after nouns denoting a part: as πολλοὶ τῶν ῥητόρων, many of the orators; ἀνὴρ τῶν ἐλευθέρων, a man (i.e. one) of the freemen. The Partitive Genitive. (See also § 168.)

These six classes are not exhaustive; but they will give a general idea of these relations, many of which it is difficult to classify.

Note. Examples like Ἀθηνῶν πόλις, the city of Athens, Τροίης πτολίεθρον, the city of Troy, in which the genitive is used instead of apposition, are poetic.

§ 168

The partitive genitive (§ 167, 6) may follow all nouns, pronouns, adjectives. (especially superlatives), participles with the article, and adverbs, which denote a part. E.g.

Οἱ ἀγαθοὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων, the good among the men; ὁ ἥμισυς τοῦ ἀριθμοῦ, the half of the number; ἄνδρα οἶδα τοῦ δήμου, I know a man of the people;τοῖς θρανίταις τῶν ναυτῶν, to the upper benches of the sailors; οὐδεὶς τῶν παίδων, no one of the children; πάντων τῶν ῥητόρων δεινότατος, the most eloquent of all the orators; ὁ βουλόμενος τῶν Ἀθηναίων, any one who pleases of the Athenians; δῖα γυναικῶν, divine among women (Hom.); ποῦ τῆς γῆς; ubi terrarum? where on the earth? τίς τῶν πολιτῶν; who of the citizens? δὶς τῆς ἡμέρας, twice a day; εἰς τοῦτο ἀνοίας, to this pitch of folly; ἐν τούτῳ παρασκευῆς, in this state of preparation; ἃ μὲν διώκει τοῦ ψηφίσματος ταῦτ᾽ ἐστίν, these are the parts of the decree which he prosecutes (lit. what parts of the decree he prosecutes, &c.) So ὀρθότατα ἀνθρώπων λέγεις, thou speakest as the most correct of men (most correctly of men); ὅτε δεινότατος σαυτοῦ ταῦτα ἦσθα, when you were at the height of your power in these matters. See § 142, 2, N. 2.

Note. 1. An adjective or participle generally agrees in gender with a dependent partitive genitive. But sometimes, especially when it is singular, it is neuter, agreeing with μέρος, part, understood; as τῶν πολεμίων τὸ πολύ (for οἱ πολλοί), the greater part of the enemy.

Note. 2. A partitive genitive sometimes depends on τίς or μέρος understood; as ἔφασαν ἐπιμιγνύναι σφῶν τε πρὸς ἐκείνους καὶ ἐκείνων πρὸς ἑαυτούς, they said that some of their own men had mixed with them, and some of them with their own men (τινάς being understood with σφῶν and ἐκείνων). Compare § 169, 2; § 170, 2.

Note. 3. Similar to such phrases as ποῦ γῆς; εἰς τοῦτο ἀνοίας, &c., is the use of ἔχω and an adverb with the genitive; as πῶς ἔχεις δόξης; in what state of opinion are you? οὕτω τρόπου ἔχεις, this is your character (lit. in this state of character); ὡς εἶχε τάχους, as fast as he could (lit. in the condition of speed in which he was); so ὡς εἶχε ποδῶν; εὖ ἔχειν φρενῶν, to be right in his mind.

Genitive after Verbs.

§ 169

Verbs signifying to be, to become, or to belong take a genitive which is equivalent to the possessive or the partitive genitive. E.g.

Ὃ νόμος οὗτος Δράκοντός ἐστιν, this law is Draco’s. Πενίαν φέρειν οὐ παντὸς, ἀλλ᾽ ἀνδρὸς σοφοῦ, to bear poverty is not in the power of every one, but in that of a wise man. Δαρείου γίγνονταὶ δύο παῖδες, two sons are born (belonging) to Darius. Τούτων γενοῦ μοι, become (one) of these for me.

Verbs signifying to name, to choose or appoint, to make, to consider, and the like, which generally take two accusatives (§ 166), may take a partitive genitive in place of the predicate accusative. E.g.

Ἐμὲ θὲς τῶν πεπεισμένων, put me down as (one) of those who are persuaded. Τοῦτο τῆς ἡμετέρας ἀμελείας ἄν τις θείη δικαίως, any one might justly consider this to belong to our neglect.

Note. When these verbs become passive, they still retain the genitive; as Σόλων τῶν ἑπτὰ σοφιστῶν ἐκλήθη, Solon was called

(one) of the Seven Sages.

The genitive after verbs sometimes expresses other relations of the adnominal genitive. E.g.

Τὸ τεῖχος σταδίων ἦν ὀκτώ, the wall was (one) of eight stades (in length); ἐπειδὰν ἐτῶν ἢ τις τριάκοντα, when one is thirty years old; – Genitive of Measure. Oi στέφανοι ῥόδων ἦσαν, the crowns were (made) of roses; τὸ τεῖχος πεποίηται λίθου, the wall is built of stone; – Genitive of Material. Οὐ τῶν κακούργων οἶκτος (sc. ἐστίν), there is no pity felt for the evil-doers; – Objective Genitive.

§ 170

Any verb may take a genitive if its action affects the object only in part. E.g.

Πέμπει τῶν Λυδῶν, he sends some of the Lydians (but πέμπει τοὺς Λυδούς, he sends the Lydians). Πίνει τοῦ οἴνου. he drinks of the wine. Τῆς γῆς ἔτεμον, they ravaged (some) of the land.

This principle applies especially to verbs signifying to share (i.e. to give or take a part) or to enjoy. E.g.

Μετεῖχον τῆς λείας, they shared in the booty; so often μεταποιεῖσθαί τινος, to claim a share of anything (cf. § 171, 1); ἀπολαύομεν τῶν ἀγαθῶν, we enjoy the blessings (i.e. our share of them); οὕτως ὄναιο τούτων, thus mayest thou enjoy these. So οὐ προσήκει μοι τῆς ἀρχῆς, I have no concern in the government; μέτεστί μοι τούτου, I have a share in this (§ 184, 2, N. 1).

Note. Many of these verbs also take an accusative. Μετέχω and similar verbs may regularly take an accusative like μέρος, part; as ἴσον μετέχει ἕκαστος τοῦ πλούτου μέρος, each has an equal share of the wealth (where μέρους would mean that each has only a part of a share). This use of μέρος shows the nature of the genitive after these verbs.

§ 171

The genitive follows verbs signifying to take hold of, to touch, to claim, to aim at, to hit, to attain, to miss, to make trial of, to begin. E.g.

Ἐλάβετο τῆς χειρὸς αὐτοῦ, he took his hand; οὔτε πυρὸς οὔτε ἔρωτος ἑκὼν ἅπτομαι, [willingly touch neither fire nor love; τῆς ξυνέσεως μεταποιοῦνται, they lay claim to sagacity; στοχάζεσθαι τῶν ἀνθρώπων, to aim at the men; τῆς ἀρετῆς ἐφικέσθαι, to attain to virtue;ἔτυχε τῆς δίκης, he met with justice; σφάλλεται τῆς ἐλπίδος, he fails of (attaining) his hope; πειρᾶσθαι τοῦ τείχους, to make an attempt on the wall; οὐ πολέμου ἄρχομεν, we do not begin war.

Note. Verbs of taking hold may have an object accusative, with a genitive of the part taken hold of; as ἔλαβον τῆς ζώνης τὸν Ὀρόνταν, they seized Orontas by his girdle.

The genitive follows verbs signifying to taste, to smell, to hear, to perceive, to understand, to remember, to forget, to desire, to care for, to spare, to neglect, to admire, to despise. E.g.

Ἐλευθερίης γευσάμενοι, having tasted of freedom (Hdt.); κρομμύων ὀσφραίνομαι, I smell onions; φωνῆς ἀκούειν, to hear a voice; αἰσθάνεσθαι, μεμνῆσθαι, or ἐπιλανθάνεσθαι τούτων, to perceive, remember, or forget these things; συνιέναι ἀλλήλων, to understand one another; τῶν μαθημάτων ἐπιθυμῶ, I long for learning; χρημάτων φείδεσθαι, to be sparing of money; δόξης ἀμελεῖν, to neglect opinion; ἄγαμαι τῆς ἀρετῆς, I admire virtue; καταφρονεῖν τοῦ κινδύνου, to despise danger (cf. § 178, 2, Note).

Note. 1. Verbs of hearing, learning, &c. may take an accusative of the thing heard, &c., and a genitive of the person heard from; as τούτων τοιούτους ἀκούω λόγους, I hear such sayings from these men; πυθέσθαι τοῦτο ὑμῶν, to learn this from you. The genitive here belongs under § 176, 1. A sentence may take the place of the accusative; as τούτων ἄκουε τί λέγουσιν, hear from these what they say. See also ἀποδέχομαι, accept (a statement) from, in the Lexicon.

Note. 2. The impersonals μέλει and μεταμέλει take the genitive of a thing with the dative of a person (§ 184, 2, N. 1); as μέλει μοι τούτου, I care for this; μεταμέλει σοι τούτου, thou repentest of this. Προσήκει, it concerns, has the same construction, but the genitive belongs under § 170, 2.

Note. 3. Causative verbs of this class take the accusative of a person and the genitive of a thing; as μή μ᾽ ἀναμνήσῃς κακῶν, do not remind me of evils (i.e. cause me to remember them); τοὺς παῖδας γευστέον αἵματος, we must make the children taste blood.

But verbs of reminding also take two accusatives (§ 164).

Remark. Most of the verbs of § 171 may take also the accusative. See the Lexicon. Ὄζω, emit smell (smell of), may take two genitives; as τῆς κεφαλῆς ὄζω μύρου, I emit a smell of perfume (§ 170, 1) from my head.

The genitive follows verbs signifying to rule or to command. E.g.

Ἔρως τῶν θεῶν βασιλεύει, Love is king of the Gods; Πολυκράτης Σάμου ἐτυράννει, Polycrates was tyrant of Samos; ὁπλιτῶν καὶ ἱππέων ἐστρατήγει, he was general of infantry and cavalry; ἡγεῖται παντὸς καὶ ἔργου καὶ λόγου, he directs everything that is done and said.

This construction is sometimes connected with that of § 175, 2.

But the genitive here depends on the idea of king or ruler implied in the verb, while there it depends on the idea of comparison (see Remark before § 167).

Note. For other cases after many of these verbs, as the dative after ἡγέομαι and ἀνάσσω, see the Lexicon.

§ 172

Verbs signifying fulness and want take the genitive of material (§ 167, 4). E.g.

Χρημάτων εὐπορεῖ, he has abundance of money; οἱ τύραννοι ἐπαίνου οὔποτε σπανίζετε, you tyrants never have a scarcity of praise.

Verbs signifying to fill take the accusative of the thing filled and the genitive of material. E.g.

Ὕδατος τὴν κύλικα πληροῦν, to fill the cup with water.

Note. 1. Δέομαι, I want, besides the ordinary construction (as τούτων ἐδέοντο, they were in want of these), may take a genitive of the person with a cognate accusative of the thing; as δεήσομαι ὑμῶν μετρίαν δέησιν, I will make of you a moderate request. See § 159, N. 4.

Note. 2. (a) Δεῖ may take a dative (sometimes in poetry an accusative) of the person besides the genitive; as δεῖ μοι τούτου, I need this; οὐ πολλοῦ πόνου με δεῖ, I have no need of much labor (cf. οὐ δεῖ με ἐλθεῖν).

(b) Besides the common phrases πολλοῦ δεῖ, it is far from it, ὀλίγου δεῖ, it wants little of it, we have in Demosthenes οὐδὲ πολλοῦ δεῖ (like παντὸς δεῖ), it wants everything of it (lit. it does not even want much). For ὀλίγου and μικροῦ, almost, see the Lexicon.

Causal Genitive.

§ 173

The genitive often denotes a cause, especially after verbs expressing emotions, as admiration, wonder, pity, anger, envy, or revenge. E.g.

Τούτους τῆς τόλμης θαυμάζειν, to admire these for their courage; εὐδαιμονίζω σε τοῦ τρόπου, I congratulate you on your character; τούτους οἰκτείρω τῆς νόσου, I pity these for their disease;τῶν ἀδικημάτων ὀργίζεσθαι αὐτοῖς, to be angry with them for their offences; ζηλοῦντες τὴν πόλιν τῆς Μαραθῶνι μάχης, envying the city for the battle at Marathon; τούτου σοι οὐ φθονήσω, I shall not grudge you this; τούτους τῆς ἁρπαγῆς τιμωρήσασθαι, to take vengeance on these for the robbery. Most of these verbs may take also an object accusative.

Note. 1. The genitive sometimes denotes a purpose or motive (where ἕνεκα is generally expressed); as τῆς τῶν Ἑλλήνων ἐλευθερίας, for the liberty of the Greeks (Dem. Cor. § 100). See § 262, 2.

Note. 2. Verbs of disputing take a causal genitive; as ἀντιποιεῖσθαι τῷ βασιλεῖ τῆς ἀρχῆς, to dispute with the king about his dominion; Εὔμολπος ἠμφισβήτησεν Ἐρεχθεῖ τῆς πόλεως, Eumolpus disputed with Erechtheus about the city (i.e. disputed its possession with him).

Verbs signifying to accuse, to prosecute, to convict, to acquit, and to condemn take a causal genitive denoting the crime. E.g.

Αἰτιῶμαι αὐτὸν τοῦ φόνου, I accuse him of the murder; ἐγράψατο αὐτὸν παρανόμων, he indicted him for an illegal proposition; διώκει με δώρων, he prosecutes me for bribery (for gifts); Κλέωνα δώρων ἑλόντες καὶ κλοπῆς, having convicted Cleon of bribery and theft; ἔφευγε προδοσίας, he was brought to trial for treachery, but ἀπέφυγε προδοσίας, he was acquitted of treachery; πολλῶν οἱ πατέρες ἡμῶν μηδισμοῦ θάνατον κατέγνωσαν, our fathers condemned many to death for favoring the Persians (for πολλῶν and θάνατον see Note).

Note. Compounds of κατά of this class commonly take a genitive of the person, which depends on the κατά. They may take also an object accusative denoting the crime or punishment. E.g.

Οὐδεὶς αὐτὸς αὑτοῦ κατηγόρησε πώποτε, no man ever himself accused himself; καταψεύδονταί μου μεγάλα, they tell great falsehoods against me; Φοίβου ἀδικίαν κατηγορεῖν, to charge injustice upon Phoebus; ἐνίων ἔπεισαν ὑμᾶς ἀκρίτων θάνατον καταψηφίσασθαι, they persuaded you to pass (sentence of) death upon some without a trial.

Verbs of condemning may take three cases, as in the last example under § 178, 2.

The genitive is sometimes used in exclamations, to give the cause of the astonishment. E.g.

Ὦ Πόσειδον, τῆς τέχνης, O Poseidon, what a trade! Ὦ Ζεῦ βασιλεῦ, τῆς λεπτότητος τῶν φρενῶν! O King Zeus! what subtlety of mind!

Genitive of Separation, of Comparison, of Source.

§ 174

The genitive may denote that from which anything is separated or distinguished.

On this principle the genitive follows verbs denoting to remove, to restrain, to release, to abandon, to deprive, and the like. E.g.

Ἡ νῆσος οὐ πολὺ διέχει τῆς ἠπείρου, the island is not far distant from the main-land; ἐπιστήμη χωριζομένη ἀρετῆς, knowledge separated from virtue; λῦσόν με δεσμῶν, release me from chains; ἐπέσχον τῆς τειχήσεως, they ceased from building the wall; πόσων ἀπεστέρησθε; of how much have you been deprived? ἔπαυσαν αὐτὸν τῆς στρατηγίας, they deposed him from his command; οὐ παύεσθε τῆς μοχθηρίας, you do not cease from your rascality. So εἶπον (αὐτῷ) τοῦ κήρυκος μὴ λείπεσθαι, they told him not to be left behind the herald (i.e. to follow close upon him); 9 ἐπιστολὴ, ἣν οὗτος ἔγραψεν ἀπολειφθεὶς ἡμῶν, the letter which this man wrote without our knowledge (lit. separated from us).

For the accusative after verbs of depriving, see § 164.

§ 175.

The comparative degree takes the genitive when ἤ, than, is omitted. E.g.

Κρείττων ἐστὶ τούτων, he is better than these; νέοις τὸ σιγᾶν κρεῖττόν ἐστι τοῦ λαλεῖν, for youth silence is better than prating; πονηρία θᾶττον θανάτου τρέχει, wickedness runs faster than death.

Note. 1. All adjectives and adverbs which imply a comparison may take a genitive: as ἕτεροι τούτων, others than these; ὕστεροι τῆς μάχης, too late for (later than) the battle; τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ τῆς μάχης, on the day after the battle. So τριπλάσιον ἡμῶν, thrice as much as we.

Note. 2. After πλέον (πλεῖν), more, or ἔλασσον, less, ἤ is occasionally omitted without affecting the case; as πέμψω ὄρνϊς ἐπ᾽ αὐτὸν, πλεῖν ἑξακοσίους τὸν ἀριθμόν, I will send birds against him, more than six hundred in number (§ 160). Aristoph.

The genitive follows verbs signifying to surpass, to be inferior, and all others which imply comparison. E.g.

Ἄνθρωπος ξυνέσει ὑπερέχει τῶν ἄλλων, man surpasses the others in sagacity; τοῦ πλήθους περιγίγνεσθαι, to be superior to the multitude; ὑστερίζειν τῶν καιρῶν, to be too late for the opportunities. So τῶν ἐχθρῶν νικᾶσθαι (or ἡσσᾶσθαι), to be overcome by one’s enemies; but these two verbs take also the genitive with ὑπό, and the dative.

So τῶν ἐχθρῶν κρατεῖν, to prevail over one’s enemies, and τῆς θαλάσσης ἄρχειν, to be master of the sea. Compare the examples under § 171, 3.

§ 176

The genitive sometimes denotes the source. E.g.

Τοῦτο ἔτυχόν σου; I obtained this from you; τοῦτο ἔμαθεν ὑμῶν, he learned this from you. Add the examples under § 171, 2, N. 1.

In poetry the genitive occasionally denotes the agent after passive verbs, or is used like the instrumental dative (§ 188). E.g.

Ἐν Ἀΐδα δὴ κεῖσαι, σᾶς ἀλόχου σφαγεὶς Αἰγίσθου τε, thou liest now in Hades, slain by thy wife and Aegisthus. Eur. Πρῆσαι πυρὸς δηΐοιο θύρετρα, to burn the gates with destructive fire. Il. These constructions would not be allowed in prose.

Genitive after Compound Verbs.

§ 177

The genitive often depends on a preposition included in a compound verb. E.g.

Πρόκειται τῆς Ἀττικῆς ὄρη μεγάλα, high mountains lie before Attica; τῶν ὑμετέρων δικαίων προΐστασθαι, to stand in defence of your rights; ὑπερεφάνησαν τοῦ λόφου, they appeared above the hill; οὕτως ὑμῶν ὑπεραλγῶ, I grieve so for you; ἐπιβάντες τοῦ τείχους, having mounted the wall; ἀποτρέπει με τούτου, it turns me from this.

For the genitive after certain compounds of κατά, see § 173, 2,

Note. See also § 193.

Genitive of Price or Value.

§ 178

The genitive may denote the price or value of a thing. E.g.

Δόξα χρημάτων οὐκ ὠνητή (sc. ἐστίν), glory is not to be bought with money; πόσου διδάσκει; for what price does he teach? μισθοῦ νόμους εἰσφέρει, he proposes laws for a bribe; ὁ δοῦλος πέντε μνῶν τιμᾶται, the slave is valued at five minas. So τιμᾶται δ᾽ οὖν μοι ὁ ἀνὴρ θανάτου, so the man estimates my punishment at death (i.e. proposes death as my punishment). Plat. So also Σφοδρίαν ὑπῆγον θανάτου, they impeached Sphodrias on a capital charge (cf. § 178, 2).

Note. The genitive depending on ἄξιος, worth, worthy, and its compounds, or on ἀξιόω, think worthy, is the genitive of price or value; as ἄξιός ἐστι θανάτου, he is worthy of death; Θεμιστοκλέα τῶν μεγίστων ἠξίωσαν, they thought Themistocles worthy of the highest honors. So sometimes ἄτιμος and ἀτιμάζω take the genitive. (See § 180, 1.)

Genitive of Time and Place.

§ 179

The genitive may denote the time within which anything takes place. E.g.

Πέρσαι οὐχ ἥξουσι δέκα ἐτῶν, the Persians will not come within ten years. Τῆς νυκτὸς ἐγένετο, it happened within the night (but τὴν νύκτα means during the whole night). So δραχμὴν ἐλάμβανε τῆς ἡμέρας, he received a drachma a day (each day).

A similar genitive of the place within which is found in poetry. E.g.

Ἦ οὐκ Ἄργεος ἦεν Ἀχαιικοῦ; was he not in Achaean Argos? Odyss. So in the Homeric πεδίοιο θέειν, to run on the plain (i.e. within its limits), and similar expressions. So ἀριστερῆς χειρός, on the left hand, even in Hdt.

Genitive with Adjectives.

§ 180

The objective genitive follows many verbal adjectives.

These adjectives are chiefly kindred (in meaning or derivation) to verbs which take the genitive. E.g.

Μέτοχος σοφίας, partaking of wisdom (§ 170, 2). Ἐπήβολος ἐπιστήμης, having attained to knowledge; ἔμπειρος κακῶν, experienced in evils; τοῦ ἀρίστου στοχαστικός, aiming at the best (§ 171, 1). Κατήκοος τῶν γονέων, obedient (lit. hearkening) to his parents; ἐπιστήμων τῶν δικαίων, understanding his rights; ἐπιμελὴς ἀγαθῶν, ἀμελὴς κακῶν, caring for the good, neglectful of the bad; φειδωλοὶ χρημάτων, sparing of money (§ 171, 2). Ἐγκρατὴς ἑαυτοῦ, being master of himself; ἀρχικὸς ἀνδρῶν, fit to rule men (§ 171, 3). Μεστὸς κακῶν, full of evils; ἔρημοι συμμάχων, destitute of allies; ἡ ψυχὴ γυμνὴ τοῦ σώματος, the soul stript of the body; καθαρὸς φόνου, free from the stain of murder (§ 172, 1). Ἔνοχος δειλίας, chargeable with cowardice (§ 173, 2). Διάφορος τῶν ἄλλων, distinguished from the others (§ 174). Ἄξιος πολλῶν, worth much (§ 178, Note).

Note. 1. Especially, adjectives of this class compounded with alpha privative (§ 131, 4, a) take the genitive; as ἄγευστος κακῶν, without a taste of evils; ἀμνήμων τῶν κινδύνων, forgetful of the dangers; ἀπαθὴς κακῶν, without suffering ills; ἀκρατὴς γλώσσης, without power over his tongue.

Note. 2. Sometimes these compounds take a genitive of kindred meaning, which depends on the idea of separation implied in them; as ἄπαις ἀρρένων παίδων, childless (in respect) of male children; ἄτιμος πάσης τιμῆς, destitute of all honor; ἀδωρότατος χρημάτων, most free from taking bribes.

Some are kindred to verbs which take the accusative. E.g.

Πόλεως ἀνατρεπτικός, subversive of the state; πρακτικὸς τῶν καλῶν, capable of doing noble deeds; φιλομαθὴς πάσης ἀληθείας, fond of learning all truth.

§ 181

The possessive genitive sometimes follows adjectives denoting possession or the opposite. E.g.

Οἰκεῖα τῶν βασιλευόντων, belonging to the kings; ἱερὸς ὁ χῶρος τῆς Ἀρτέμιδος, the place is sacred to Artemis; κοινὸν ἁπάντων, common to all; δημοκρατίας ἀλλότρια, things not belonging to democracy.

For the dative after such adjectives, which with some of them is more common than the genitive, see § 185.

Note. Some adjectives of place, like ἐναντίος, opposite, may take the genitive instead of the regular dative (§ 185), but chiefly in poetry; as ἐναντίοι ἔσταν Ἀχαιῶν, they stood opposite the Achaeans. Hom.

Genitive with Adverbs.

§ 182

The genitive follows adverbs derived from adjectives which take the genitive. E.g.

Οἱ ἐμπείρως αὐτοῦ ἔχοντες, those who are acquainted with him; ἀναξίως τῆς πόλεως, in a manner unworthy of the state; ἐμάχοντο ἀξίως λόγου, they fought in a manner worthy of mention.

The genitive follows many adverbs of place. E.g.

Εἴσω τοῦ ἐρύματος, within the fortress; ἔξω τοῦ τείχους, outside of the wall; ἐκτὸς τῶν ὅρων, without the boundaries; χωρὶς τοῦ σώματος, apart from the body; μεταξὺ σοφίας καὶ ἀμαθίας, between wisdom and ignorance; πέραν τοῦ ποταμοῦ, beyond the river; πρόσθεν τοῦ στρατοπέδου, in front of the camp; ἀμφοτέρωθεν τῆς ὁδοῦ, on both sides of the road; εὐθὺ τῆς Φασήλιδος, straight to Phasélis.

Such adverbs, besides those given above, are chiefly ἐντός, within; δίχα, apart from; ἐγγύς, ἄγχι, πέλας, and πλησίον, near; πόρρω (πρόσω), far from; ὄπισθεν and κατόπιν, behind; and a few others of similar meaning. The genitive after most of them can be explained as a partitive genitive or as a genitive of separation; that after εὐθύ resembles that after verbs of aiming at (§ 171, 1).

Λάθρᾳ and κρύφα, without the knowledge of, sometimes take the genitive.

Note. Πλήν, except, ἄχρι and μέχρι, until, ἄνευ and ἄτερ, without, ἕνεκα (οὕνεκα), on account of, and μεταξύ, between, take the genitive like prepositions. For these and ordinary prepositions with the genitive, see § 191.

Genitive Absolute.

§ 183

A noun and a participle not connected with the main construction of the sentence may stand by themselves in the genitive. This is called the genitive absolute. E.g.

Ταῦτ᾽ ἐπράχθη Κόνωνος στρατηγοῦντος, this was done when Conon was general. Οὐδὲν τῶν δεόντων ποιούντων ὑμῶν κακῶς τὰ πράγματα ἔχει, affairs are in a bad state while you do nothing which you ought to do. Θεῶν διδόντων οὐκ ἂν ἐκφύγοι κακά, if the Gods should grant (it to be so), he could not escape evils. Οντος ψεύδους ἔστιν ἀπάτη, when there is falsehood, there is deceit. Ἂς

For the various relations denoted by the genitive absolute, see §§ 277, 278.

Note. The primary use of the dative case is to denote that to or for which anything is or is done: this includes the dative of the remote or indirect object, and the dative of interest. It also denotes that by which or with which, and the time (sometimes the place) in which, anything takes place, -i.e. it is not merely a dative, but also an instrumental and a locative case. (See Remark before § 157.) The object of motion after to is not regularly expressed by the Greek dative, but by the accusative with a preposition. (See § 162.)

Dative expressing To or For.

§ 184

The dative is used to denote that to or for which anything is or is done. This includes, –

The dative of the indirect object after transitive verbs, which is generally introduced in English by to. E.g.

Δίδωσι μισθὸν τῷ στρατεύματι, he gives pay to the army; ὑπισχνεῖταί σοι δέκα τάλαντα, he promises ten talents to you (or he promises you ten talents); βοήθειαν πέμψομεν τοῖς συμμάχοις, we will send aid to our allies; ἔλεγον τῷ βασιλεῖ τὰ γεγενημένα, they told the king what had happened.

The dative after certain intransitive verbs, many of which in English take a direct object without to. E.g.

Εὔχομαι τοῖς θεοῖς, I pray (to) the Gods; δικαιοσύνη λυσιτελεῖ τῷ ἔχοντι; justice is advantageous to (or profits) the one having it; τοῖς νόμοις πείθεται, he is obedient to the laws (he obeys the laws); βοηθεῖ τοῖς φίλοις, he assists his friends; ἀρέσκει τοῖς πολίταις, it is pleasing to (or it pleases) the citizens; εἶκε ἀνάγκῃ, yield to necessity; οὐ πιστεύει τοῖς φίλοις, he does not trust his friends; τοῖς Θηβαίοις ὀνειδίζουσιν, they reproach the Thebans: τί ἐγκαλεῖς ἡμῖν; what hare you to blame us for? ἐπηρεάζουσιν ἀλλήλοις, they revile one another; ὀργίζεσθε τοῖς ἀδικοῦσιν, you are angry with the offenders. So πρέπει μοι λέγειν, it is becoming me to speak; προσήκει μοι; it belongs to me; δοκεῖ μοι, it seems to me; δοκῶ μοι, methinks.

The verbs of this class which are not translated with to in English are chiefly those signifying to benefit, serve, obey, defend, assist, please, trust, satisfy, advise, exhort, or any of their opposites; also those expressing friendliness, hostility, abuse, reproach, envy, anger, threats.

Note. 1. (a) The impersonals δεῖ, μέτεστι, μέλει, μεταμέλει, and προσήκει take the dative of a person with the genitive of a thing; as δεῖ μοι τούτου, I have need of this; μέτεστί μοι τούτου, I have a share in this; μέλει μοι τούτου, I am interested in this: προσήκει μοι τούτου, I am concerned in this. (For the gen. see § 170, 2, § 172, N. 2.)

(b) Δεῖ and χρή take the accusative (very rarely the dative) when an infinitive follows. For δεῖ (in poetry) with the accusative and the genitive, see § 172, N. 2.

Note. 2. Some verbs of this class may take the accusative. Others, whose meaning would place them here (as μισέω, hate), take only the accusative. Λοιδορέω, revile, has the accusative, but λοιδορέομαι (middle) the dative. Κελεύω in Attic Greek has only the accusative (commonly with the infinitive); in Homer generally the dative.

The dative of interest (or of advantage or disadvantage), which is generally introduced in English by for. E.g.

Πᾶς ἀνὴρ αὑτῷ πονεῖ, every man labors for himself; Σόλων Ἀθηναίοις νόμους ἔθηκε, Solon made laws for the Athenians: οἱ καιροὶ προεῖνται τῇ πόλει, lit. the opportunities have been sacrificed for the state (for its disadvantage); ἐλπίδα ἔχει σωτηρίας τῇ πόλει, he has hope of safety for the state.

Note. 1. A peculiar use of this dative is found in statements of time; as τῷ ἤδη δύο γενεαὶ ἐφθίατο, two generations had already passed away for him (i.e. he had seen them pass away). Hom. Ἡμέραι ἦσαν τῇ Μυτιλήνῃ ἑαλωκυίᾳ ἑπτά, for Mitylene captured (i.e. since its capture) there had been seven days. Ἡμέρα ἦν πέμπτη ἐπιπλέουσι τοῖς Ἀθηναίοις, it was the fifth day for the Athenians sailing on (i.e. it was the fifth day of their voyage).

Note. 2. Here belong such Homeric expressions as τοῖσιν ἀνέστη, he rose up for them (i.e. to address them); τοῖσι μύθων ἦρχεν, he began to speak before them.

Note. 3. In Homer, verbs signifying to ward off take an accusative of the thing and a dative of the person; as Δαναοῖσι λοιγὸν ἄμυνον, ward off destruction from the Danai (lit. for the Danai). Here the accusative may be omitted, so that Δαναοῖσι ἀμύνειν means to defend the Danai. For other constructions of ἀμύνω see the Lexicon.

Δέχομαι, receive, takes a dative in Homer by a similar idiom; as δέξατό οἱ σκῆπτρον; he took his sceptre from him (lit. for him).

Note. 4. Sometimes this dative has nearly the same force as a possessive genitive; as of ἵπποι αὐτοῖς δέδενται, their horses are tied (lit. the horses are tied for them); διὰ τὸ ἐσπάρθαι αὐτῷ τὸ στράτευμα, because his army has been scattered (for him); ἦρχον τοῦ ναυτικοῦ τοῖς Συρακοσίοις, they commanded the navy for the Syracusans (i.e. the Syracusans’ navy).

Note. 5. The participles βουλόμενος, ἡδόμενος, προσδεχόμενος, ἀχθόμενος, and a few others, may agree with a dative, the phrase being equivalent to the verb of the participle; as αὐτῷ βουλομένῳ ἐστίν, it is to him wishing it (i.e. he wishes it).

Note. 6. Here belong the so-called ethical dative, in which the personal pronouns have the force of for my sake, &c., and sometimes cannot easily be translated; as τί σοι μαθήσομαι; what am I to learn for you? πῶς ἡμῖν ἔχεις; how are you (we wish to know)?

The dative of possession, after εἰμί, γίγνομαι, and similar verbs. E.g.

Πολλοί μοι φίλοι εἰσίν, I have many friends; πάντα σοι γενήσεται, all things will belong to you; ἔστιν ἀνθρώπῳ λογισμός, man has reason; Ἱππίᾳ μόνῳ τῶν ἀδελφῶν παῖδες ἐγένοντο, to Hippias alone of the brothers there were children born.

The dative denoting that with respect to which a statement is made, — often belonging to the whole sentence rather than to any special word. E.g.

Ἅπαντα τῷ φοβουμένῳ ψοφεῖ, everything sounds to one who is afraid; σφῷν μὲν ἐντολὴ Διὸς ἔχει τέλος, as regards you two, the order of Zeus is fully executed.

So in such expressions as these: ἐν δεξιᾷ ἐσπλέοντι, on the right as you sail in (with respect to one sailing in); συνελόντι, or ὡς συνελόντι εἰπεῖν, concisely, or to speak concisely (lit. for one having made the matter concise). So ὡς ἐμοί, in my opinion.

§ 185

The dative follows many adjectives and adverbs of kindred meaning with the verbs included in § 184, and some verbal nouns. E.g.

Δυσμενὴς τοῖς φίλοις, hostile to his friends; ὕποχος τοῖς νόμοις, subject to the laws; ἐπικίνδυνον τῇ πόλει, dangerous to the state; βλαβερὸν τῷ σώματι, hurtful to the body; εὔνους ἑαυτῷ, kind to himself; ἐναντίος αὐτῷ, opposed to him. (For the genitive after ἐναντίος, see § 181, Note.) Συμφερόντως αὑτῷ, profitably to himself; ἐμποδὼν ἐμοί, in my way. So καταδούλωσις τῶν Ἑλλήνων τοῖς Ἀθηναίοις, subjugation of the Greeks to the Athenians.

Dative of Resemblance and Union.

§ 186

The dative is used with all words implying resemblance, union, or approach. This includes verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and nouns. E.g.

Σκιαῖς ἐοικότες, like shadows; ὁμιλοῦσι τοῖς κακοῖς, they associate with the bad; τοὺς φεύγοντας αὐτοῖς ξυνήλλαξεν, he reconciled the exiles with them; ὁμολογοῦσιν ἀλλήλοις, they agree with one another; διαλέγονται τούτοις, they converse with these; τοὺς ἵππους ψόφοις πλησιάζειν, to bring the horses near to noises. Ὅμοιοι τοῖς τυφλοῖς, like the blind; κύματα ἴσα ὄρεσσιν, waves like mountains (Hom.); τοῖς αὐτοῖς Κύρῳ ὅπλοις ὡπλισμένοι, armed with the same arms as Cyrus. Ἐγγὺς ὁδῷ, near a road (also the genitive, § 182, 2); ἅμα τῇ ἡμέρᾳ, as soon as (it was) day; ὁμοῦ τῷ πηλῷ, together with the mud; τὰ τούτοις ἐφεξῆς, what comes next to these.

Note. 1. To this class belong not merely such verbs as διαλέγομαι, discourse with, but also μάχομαι, πολεμέω, and others signifying contend with, quarrel with; as μάχεσθαι τοῖς Θηβαίοις, to fight with the Thebans; πολεμοῦσιν ἡμῖν, they are at war with us; ἐρίζουσιν ἀλλήλοις, they contend with each other; διαφέρεσθαι τοῖς πονηροῖς, to be at variance with the base. So ἐς χεῖρας ἐλθεῖν τινι, or ἐς λόγους ἐλθεῖν τινι, to come to a conflict (or words) with any one.

Note. 2. After adjectives of likeness, an abridged form of expression may be used; as κόμαι Χαρίτεσσιν ὁμοῖαι, hair like (that of) the Graces (Hom.); τὰς ἴσας πληγὰς ἐμοί, the same number of blows with me.

Dative after Compound Verbs.

§ 187

The dative follows many verbs compounded with ἐν, σύν, or ἐπί; and some compounded with πρός, παρά, περί, and ὑπό. E.g.

Τοῖς νόμοις ἐμμένων, abiding by the laws; αἱ ἡδοναὶ ἐπιστήμην οὐδεμίαν ψυχῇ ἐμποιοῦσιν, pleasures produce no knowledge in the soul; ἐνέκειτο τῷ Περικλεῖ, they pressed hard on Pericles; ἐμαυτῷ συνῄδειν οὐδὲν ἐπισταμένῳ, I was conscious to myself that I knew nothing (lit. with myself); ἤδη ποτέ σοι ἐπῆλθεν; did it ever occur to you? Προσβάλλειν τῷ τειχίσματι, to attack the fortification; ἀδελφὸς ἀνδρὶ παρείη, let a brother stand by a man (i.e. let a man’s brother stand by him); τοῖς κακοῖς περιπίπτουσιν, they are involved in evils; ὑπόκειται τὸ πεδίον τῷ ἱερῷ, the plain lies below the temple. This dative sometimes depends on the preposition (§ 193), and sometimes on the idea contained in the compound as a whole.

Causal and Instrumental Dative.

§ 188

The dative is used to denote the cause, manner, means, or instrument. E.g.

CAUSE: Ἀποθνήσκει νόσῳ, he dies of disease; πολλάκις ἀγνοίᾳ ἁμαρτάνομεν, we often err through ignorance. MANNER: Δρόμῳ ἠπείγοντο, they pressed forward on a run; πολλῇ κραυγῇ ἐπελθεῖν, to advance with a loud shout; τῇ ἀληθείᾳ, in truth; τῷ ὄντι, in reality; βίᾳ, forcibly; ταύτῃ, in this manner, thus.

MEANS or INSTRUMENT: Ὁρῶμεν τοῖς ὀφθαλμοῖς, we see with our eyes; ἐγνώσθησαν τῇ σκευῇ τῶν ὅπλων, they were recognized by the fashion of their arms; κακοῖς ἰᾶσθαι κακά, to cure evils by evils; οὐδεὶς ἔπαινον ἡδοναῖς ἐκτήσατο, no one gains praise by pleasures (§ 205, 2).

Note. 1. The dative of respect is a form of the dative of manner; as δυνατὸς τῷ σώματι, strong in his body;πόλις, Θάψακος ὀνόματι, a city, Thapsacus by name (cf. § 160, 1).

Note. 2. Χράομαι, to use (to serve one’s self by), takes the instrumental dative; as χρῶνται ἀργυρίῳ, they use money. A neuter pronoun (e.g. τί, τι, ὅ τι, or τοῦτο) may be added as a cognate accusative (§ 159, N. 2); as τί τούτοις χρήσομαι; what shall I do with these? (lit. what use shall I make of these?). Νομίζω has sometimes the same meaning and construction as χράομαι.

The dative of manner is used with comparatives to denote the degree of difference. E.g.

Πολλῷ κρεῖττόν ἐστιν, it is much better (better by much); τῇ κεφαλῇ μείζων (or ἐλάττων), a head taller (or shorter); τοσούτῳ ἥδιον ζῶ, I live so much the more happily; τέχνη ἀνάγκης ἀσθενεστέρα μακρῷ; art is weaker than necessity by far.

So sometimes with superlatives, and even with other expressions which imply comparison; as μακρῷ κάλλιστά τε καὶ ἄριστα, by far the most beautiful and the best; δέκα ἔτεσι πρὸ τῆς ἐν Σαλαμῖνι ναυμαχίας, ten years before the battle of Salamis.

The dative sometimes denotes the agent with passive verbs, especially with the perfect and pluperfect. E.g.

Τοῦτο ἤδη σοι πέπρακται, this has now been done by you; ἐπειδὴ παρεσκεύαστο τοῖς Κορινθίοις, when preparation had been made by the Corinthians (when the Corinthians had their preparation made).

Here there seems to be a reference to the agent’s interest in the result of the completed action expressed by the perfect and pluperfect. With other tenses, the agent is regularly expressed by ὑπό, &c. and the genitive (§ 197, 1); rarely by the dative, except in poetry.

With the verbal adjective in -τέος, in its personal (passive) construction, the agent is expressed by the dative; in its impersonal (active) construction, by the dative or the accusative. See § 281.

The dative is used to denote that by which any person or thing is accompanied. E.g.

Ἦλθον οἱ Πέρσαι παμπληθεῖ στόλῳ, the Persians came with an army in full force; ἡμεῖς καὶ ἵπποις τοῖς δυνατωτάτοις καὶ ἀνδράσι πορευώμεθα, let us march both with the strongest horses and with men; οἱ Λακεδαιμόνιοι τῷ τε κατὰ γῆν στρατῷ προσέβαλλον τῷ τειχίσματι καὶ ταῖς ναυσίν, the Lacedaemonians attacked the wall both with their land army and with their ships.

This dative is used chiefly in reference to military forces, and is originally connected with the dative of means or instrument. The last example might be placed equally well under § 188, 1.

Note. This dative sometimes takes the dative of αὐτός for emphasis; as μίαν (ναῦν) αὐτοῖς ἀνδράσιν εἷλον, they took one (ship) men and all (see § 145, 1). Here the instrumental force disappears, and the dative may refer to any class of persons or things: thus δένδρεα αὐτῇσιν ῥίζῃσι, trees with their very roots. Hom.

Dative of Time.

§ 189

The dative without a preposition often denotes time when. This is confined chiefly to nouns denoting day, night, month, or year, and to names of festivals. E.g.

Τῇ αὐτῇ ἡμέρᾳ ἀπέθανεν, he died on the same day; Ἑρμαῖ μιᾷ νυκτὶ οἱ πλεῖστοι περιεκόπησαν, the most of the Hermae were mutilated in one night; οἱ Σάμιοι ἐξεπολιορκήθησαν ἐνάτῳ μηνί, the Samians were taken by siege in the ninth month; τετάρτῳ ἔτει ξυνέβησαν, they came to terms in the fourth year; ὡσπερεὶ Θεσμοφορίοις νηστεύομεν, we fast as if it were on the Thesmophoria. So τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ (sc. ἡμέρᾳ), on the following day, and δευτέρᾳ, τρίτῃ, on the second, third, &c., in giving the day of the month (§ 139, 1, Note).

Note. 1. Even the words mentioned, except names of festivals, generally take ἐν when no adjective word is joined with them. Thus ἐν νυκτί, at night (rarely, in poetry, νυκτί), but μιᾷ νυκτί, in one night.

Note. 2. A few expressions occur like ὑστέρῳ χρόνῳ, in after time; χειμῶνος ὥρᾳ, in the winter season; νουμηνίᾳ (new-moon day), on the first of the month; and others in poetry.

Dative of Place (Poetic).

§ 190

In poetry, the dative without a preposition often denotes the place where. E.g.

Ἑλλάδι ναίων, dwelling in Hellas; αἰθέρι ναίων, dwelling in heaven; οὔρεσι, on the mountains; τόξ᾽ ὤμοισιν ἔχων, having the bow on his shoulders; μίμνει ἀγρῷ, he remains in the country. Hom. Ἧσθαι δόμοις, to sit at home. Aesch. Νῦν ἀγροῖσι τυγχάνει, now he happens to be in the country. Soph.

Note. 1. In prose, the dative of place is chiefly confined to the names of Attic demes; as Μαραθῶνι μάχη, the battle at Marathon; but ἐν Ἀθήναις. Still some exceptions occur.

Note. 2. Some adverbs of place are really local datives; as ταύτῃ, τῇδε, here; οἴκοι, at home; κύκλῳ, in a circle, all around. See § 61, N. 2.

191

The prepositions were originally adverbs, and it is chiefly as such that they appear in composition with verbs. They are used also as independent words, to connect nouns (or words used as nouns) with other parts of the sentence. Besides the prepositions properly so called, there are certain adverbs used in the same way, which cannot be compounded with verbs: these are called improper prepositions, and are

ἄνευ, ἄτερ, ἄχρι, μέχρι, μεταξύ, ἕνεκα, πλήν, ὡς. All of these take the genitive, except ὡς, which takes the accusative.

I. Four prepositions take the genitive only: ἀντί, ἀπό, ἐκ (ἐξ), πρό, – with the improper prepositions ἄνευ, ἄτερ, ἄχρι; μέχρι; μεταξύ, ἕνεκα, πλήν.

ἀντί, instead of, for. Original meaning, over against, against. In comp.: against, in opposition, in return, instead.

ἀπό (Lat. ab, a, Eng. of), from, off from, away from; originally (as opposed to ἐκ) separated from.

(a) of PLACE: ἀφ᾽ ἵππου μάχεσθαι, to fight on horseback (from a horse).

(b) of TIME: ἀπὸ τούτου τοῦ χρόνου, from this time.

(c) of CAUSE: ἀπὸ στάσεων ἐκπίπτειν, to be driven out by factions,

IN COMP.: from, away, off, in return.

ἐκ or ἐξ (§ 13, 2; Lat. e, ex), from, out of; originally (as opposed to ἀπό) from within.;

(a) of PLACE: ἐκ Σπάρτης φεύγει, he is banished from Sparta.

(b) of TIME: ἐκ παλαιοτάτου, from the most ancient time.

(c) of ORIGIN: ὄναρ ἐκ Διός ἐστιν, the dream comes from Zeus. So also with passive verbs (instead of ὑπό with gen.): τιμᾶσθαι ἔκ τινος, to be honored by some one (the agent viewed as the source).

IN COMP.: out, from, away, off.

πρό (Lat. pro), before:

(a) of PLACE: πρὸ θυρῶν, before the door.

(b) of TIME: πρὸ τῆς μάχης, before the battle.

(c) of PREFERENCE: πρὸ τούτων, in preference to this,

(d) of PROTECTION: πρὸ παίδων μάχεσθαι, to fight for one’s children.

IN COMP.: before, forward, forth.

So ἄνευ, ἄτερ, without; ἄχρι, μέχρι, until; μεταξύ, between; ἕνεκα, on account of; πλήν, except.

II. Two take the dative only: ἐν and σύν.

ἐν, in, equivalent to Lat. in with the ablative:

(a) of PLACE: ἐν Σπάρτῃ, in Sparta; - with a word implying number, among: ἐν δήμῳ λέγειν, to speak (among) before the people.

(b) of TIME: ἐν τούτῳ τῷ ἔτει, in this year.

IN COMP.: in, on, at.

σύν or ξύν (Lat. cum), with, i.e. in company with or by aid of.

IN COMP.: with, together.

III. One takes the accusative only: εἰς or ἐς, - with the improper preposition ὡς.

εἰς or ἐς, into, to; originally (as opposed to ἐκ) to within (Lat. in with the accusative or inter):

(a) of PLACE: ἔφυγον εἰς Μέγαρα, they fled into Megara.

(b) of TIME: εἰς νύκτα, (to) till night; εἰς τὸν ἅπαντα χρόνον, for all time.

(c) of NUMBER and MEASURE: εἰς διακοσίους, (amounting) to two hundred; εἰς δύναμιν, up to one’s power.

(d) of PURPOSE or REFERENCE: χρήματα ἀναλίσκειν εἰς τὸν πόλεμον, to spend money on the war; χρήσιμος εἴς τι, useful for anything.

In COMP.: into, in, to.

ὡς, to, only with persons: εἰσιέναι ὥς τινα, to go in to (visit) any one.

IV. Three take the genitive and accusative: διά, κατά, ὑπέρ.

διά, through (Lat. di-, dis-).

(1) with the GENITIVE:

(a) of PLACE: δι’ ἀσπίδος ἦλθεν, it went through a shield.

(b) of TIME: διὰ νυκτός, through the night.

(c) of MEANS: δι’ ἑρμηνέως λέγειν, to speak through an interpreter.

(d) in various phrases like δι᾿ οἴκτου ἔχειν, to pity; διὰ φιλίας ἰέναι, to be in friendship (with one).

(2) with the ACCUSATIVE, on account of, by reason of: δι’ Ἀθήνην, by help of Athena; διὰ τοῦτο, on this account.

IN COMP.: through, also apart (Lat. di-, dis-).

κατά (cf. adverb κάτω, below), originally down (opposed to ἀνά).

(1) with the GENITIVE:

(a) down from: ἅλλεσθαι κατὰ τῆς πέτρας, to leap down from the rock.

(b) down upon: κατὰ τῆς κεφαλῆς καταχεῖν, to pour down upon the head; also against, under, concerning.

(2) with the AccUSATIVE, down along; of motion over, through, among, into, against; also according to, concerning.

(a) of PLACE: κατὰ ῥοῦν, down stream; κατὰ γῆν καὶ θάλασσαν, by land and by sea.

(b) of TIME: κατὰ τὸν πόλεμον, during (at the time of) the war.

(c) DISTRIBUTIVELY: κατὰ τρεῖς, by threes, three by three; καθ' ἡμέραν, day by day, daily.

IN COMP.: down, against.

ὑπέρ, over (Lat. super).

(1) with the GENITIVE:

(a) of PLACE: ὑπὲρ τῆς κεφαλῆς, over (his) head; ὑπὲρ τῆς θαλάσσης, above (away from) the sea.

(b) for, in behalf of (opposed to κατά): μάχεσθαι ὑπέρ τινος, to fight for one (originally over him); ὑπὲρ σοῦ δέδοικα, I fear for you; ὑπέρ τινος λέγειν, to speak in place of one; in the orators sometimes concerning (like περί).

(2) with the ACCUSATIVE, over, beyond, of place and measure.

IN COMP.: over, beyond, exceedingly, in behalf of.

V. One takes the dative and accusative (very rarely the genitive): ἀνά. ἀνά (cf. adverb ἄνω, above), originally up (opposed to κατά).

(1) with the DATIVE (only Epic and Lyric), up on: ἀνὰ σκήπτρῳ, on a sceptre.

(2) with the ACCUSATIVE, up along; and of motion over, through, among (cf. κατά).

(a) of PLACE: ἀνὰ ῥοῦν, up stream; ἀνὰ στρατόν, through the army (Hom.).

(b) of TIME: ἀνὰ πᾶσαν τὴν ἡμέραν, all through the day.

(c) In DISTRIBUTIVE expressions: ἀνὰ τέτταρας, by fours.

IN COMP.: up, back, again.

(3) with the GENITIVE, only in the Homeric expression, ἀνὰ νηὸς βαίνειν, to go on board ship.

VI. Seven take the genitive, dative, and accusative: ἀμφί, ἐπί, μετά, παρά, περί, πρός, ὑπό.

ἀμφί (Lat. amb-), connected with ἄμφω, both; originally on both sides of; hence about.

(1) with the GENITIVE (rare in prose), about, concerning.

(2) with the Dative (only Ionic and poetic), about; hence concerning, on account of.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE, about, near, of place, time, number, etc.: ἀμφ᾽ ἅλα, by the sea; ἀμφὶ δείλην, near evening; ἀμφὶ τὰ ἑξήκοντα, about sixty (circiter sexaginta); so ἀμφί τι ἔχειν, to be (busy) about a thing.

IN COMP.: about, on both sides.

ἐπί, on, upon.

(1) with the GENITIVE:

(a) of PLACE: ἐπὶ πύργου, on a tower; sometimes towards. ἐπὶ Σάμου πλεῖν, to sail (upon) towards Samos.

(b) of TIME: ἐφ᾽ ἡμῶν, in our time.

(2) with the DATIVE:

(a) of PLACE: ἐπὶ τῇ θαλάσσῃ οἰκεῖν, to live upon (by) the sea.

(b) of TIME: ἐπὶ τῷ σημείῳ, upon the signal; ἐπὶ τούτοις, thereupon.

(c) Likewise over, for, at, in addition to, on account of, in the power of; and in many other relations: see the Lexicon.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE, originally up to; then to, towards, against: ἀναβαίνειν ἐφ᾽ ἵππον, to mount a horse; ἐπὶ δεξιά, to the right.

IN COMP.: upon, over, after, toward, to, for, at, against, besides.

μετά (akin to μέσος, Lat. medius), amid, among.

(1) with the GENITIVE, with, on the side of: μετὰ τῶν συμμάχων τοῖς πολεμίοις μάχεσθαι, with (the help of) the allies to fight with (against) the enemy (§ 186, N. 1).

(2) with the DATIVE (poetic, chiefly Epic), among.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE:

(a) into (the midst of), after (in quest of), for (poetic).

(b) generally after, next to: μετὰ τὸν πόλεμον, after the war; μέγιστος μετὰ τὸν Ἴστρον, the largest (river) next to the Ister.

IN COMP.: with (of sharing), among, after (in quest of): it also denotes change, as in μετανοέω, change one’s mind, repent.

παρά, by, near, alongside of (see Note 1).

(1) with the GENITIVE, from beside, from.

(2) with the DATIVE, near: παρὰ Κύρῳ ὄντες, being near Cyrus.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE, to (a place) near, to; also by the side of, beyond or beside, except, along with, because of.

(a) of PLACE: ἀφικνεῖται παρὰ Κῦρον, he comes to Cyrus.

(b) of TIME: παρὰ πάντα τὸν χρόνον, throughout the whole time.

(c) of CAUSE: παρὰ τὴν ἡμετέραν ἀμέλειαν, on account of our neglect.

(d) with idea of beyond or beside, and except: οὐκ ἔστι παρὰ ταῦτα ἄλλα, there are no others besides these; παρὰ τὸν νόμον, contrary to the law (properly beyond it).

IN COMP.: beside, along by, hitherward, wrongly (beside the mark), over (as in overstep).

περί, around (on all sides).

(1) with the GENITIVE, about, concerning (Lat. de): περὶ πατρὸς ἐρέσθαι, to inquire about his father; also (poetic) above; κρατερὸς περὶ πάντων, mighty above all.

(2) with the DATIVE, about, around, concerning, seldom in Attic prose.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE, nearly the same as ἀμφί.

IN COMP.: around, about, exceedingly.

πρός, at or by (in front of), akin to πρό.

(1) with the GENITIVE:

(a) in front of, looking towards: πρὸς Θράκης κεῖσθαι, to be situated over against Thrace; - in swearing: πρὸς θεῶν, before (by) the Gods. Sometimes pertaining to (as character): ἢ κάρτα πρὸς γυναικός ἐστιν, surely it is very like a woman.

(b) from (properly from before): τιμὴν πρὸς Ζηνὸς ἔχοντες, having honor from Zeus; sometimes with passive verbs (like ὑπό). πρός τινος φιλεῖσθαι, to be loved by some one.

(2) with the DATIVE:

(a) at: ὁ Κῦρος ἦν πρὸς Βαβυλῶνι, Cyrus was at Babylon.

(b) in addition to: πρὸς τούτοις, besides this, furthermore.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE:

(a) to: ἰέναι πρὸς Ὄλυμπον, to go to Olympus.

(b) towards: πρὸς Βορρᾶν, towards the North; so of persons: πιστῶς διακεῖσθαι πρός τινα, to be faithfully disposed towards one; πρὸς ἀλλήλους ἡσυχίαν εἶχον, they kept the peace towards one another.

(c) with a view to, in reference to: πρὸς τί με ταῦτ᾽ ἐρωτᾷς, (to what end) for what do you ask me this? πρὸς τὴν δύναμιν, according to one’s power.

IN COMP.: to, towards, against, besides.

ὑπό, under (Lat. sub), by.

(1) with the GENITIVE:

(a) of PLACE: ὑπὸ γῆς, under the earth; sometimes from under.

(b) to denote the AGENT with passive verbs: τιμᾶσθαι ὑπὸ τῶν πολιτῶν, to be honored by the citizens.

(c) of CAUSE: ὑπὸ δέους, through fear; ὑφ᾽ ἡδονῆς, through pleasure.

(2) with the DATIVE (especially poetic): θανεῖν ὑπ’ Ἰλίῳ, to perish under (the walls of) Ilium.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE:

(a) of PLACE, under, properly to (a place) under.

(b) of TIME, towards (entering into): ὑπὸ νύκτα, just before night (Lat. sub noctem): sometimes during.

IN COMP.: under, secretly, slightly, gradually.

Note. 1. Further details of the meaning and use of the prepositions must be learned by practice and from the Lexicon. In general, the accusative is the case used with prepositions to denote that towards which, over which, along which, or upon which motion takes place; the genitive, to denote that from which anything proceeds; the dative, to denote that in which anything takes place. It will be noticed how the peculiar meaning of each case often modifies the expression by which we translate a given preposition: thus παρά means near, alongside of; and we have παρὰ τοῦ βασιλέως, from the neighborhood of the king; παρὰ τῷ βασιλεῖ, in the neighborhood of the king; παρὰ τὸν βασιλέα, into the neighborhood of the king.

Note. 2. The original adverbial use of the prepositions sometimes appears when they are used without a noun; this occurs especially in the older Greek, seldom in Attic prose. Thus περί, roundabout or exceedingly, in Homer; πρὸς δέ or καὶ πρός, and besides, in Herodotus.

Note. 3. The preposition of a compound verb may also stand separately, in which case its adverbial force plainly appears; as ἐπὶ κνέφας ἦλθε (κνέφας ἐπῆλθε), darkness came on; ἡμῖν ἀπὸ λοιγὸν ἀμῦναι (ἀπαμῦναι), to ward off destruction from us. This is called tmesis, and is found chiefly in Homer.

Note. 4. A preposition sometimes follows its case, or a verb to which it belongs; as νεῶν ἄπο, παιδὸς πέρι; ὀλέσας ἄπο (for ἀπολέσας). For the accent see § 23, 2.

Note. 5. A few prepositions are used adverbially with a verb understood; as πάρα for πάρεστι, ἔπι and μέτα (in Homer) for ἔπεστι and μέτεστι. So ἔνι for ἔνεστι, and ἄνα, up! for ἀνάστα (ἀνάστηθι). For the accent see § 23, 2.

Note. 6. Sometimes εἰς with the accusative or ἐκ or ἀπό with the genitive is used in expressions which themselves imply no motion, with reference to some motion implied or expressed in the context; as αἱ ξύνοδοι ἐς τὸ ἱερὸν ἐγίγνοντο, the synods were held in the temple (lit. into the temple, involving the idea of going into the temple to hold the synods); τοῖς ἐκ Πύλου ληφθεῖσι (ἐοικότες), like those captured (in Pylos, and brought home) from Pylos, i.e. the captives from Pylos; διήρπαστο καὶ αὐτὰ τὰ ἀπὸ τῶν οἰκιῶν ξύλα; even the very timbers in the houses (lit. from the houses) had been stolen. So ἐν with the dative sometimes occurs with verbs of motion, referring to rest which follows the motion; as ἐν τῷ ποταμῷ ἔπεσον, they fell (into and remained) in the river; so ἐν γούνασι πίπτειν, to fall on one’s knees. These are instances of what is called the constructio praegnans.

§ 192. (Recapitulation.)

The following prepositions take the genitive: ἀμφί, ἀντί, ἀπό, διά, ἐκ (ἐξ), ἐπί, κατά, μετά, παρά, περί, πρό, πρός, ὑπέρ, ὑπό, - i.e. all except εἰς, ἐν, σύν, ἀνά. Also the improper prepositions ἄνευ, ἄτερ, ἄχρι, μέχρι, μεταξύ, ἕνεκα, πλήν.

The following take the dative: ἀμφί, ἀνά, ἐν, ἐπί, μετά, παρά, περί, πρός, σύν, ὑπό.

The following take the accusative: ἀμφί, ἀνά, διά, εἰς (ἐς), ἐπί, κατά, μετά, παρά, περί, πρός, ὑπέρ, ὑπό, - i.e. all except ἀντί, ἀπό, ἐκ, ἐν, πρό, σύν. So also ὡς (with words denoting persons).

§ 193.

A preposition is often followed by its own case when it is part of a compound verb. E.g.

Παρεκομίζοντο τὴν Ἰταλίαν, they sailed along the coast of Italy; ἐσῆλθέ με, it occurred to me; ἡ μήτηρ συνέπραττεν αὐτῷ ταῦτα, his mother assisted him in this (i.e. ἔπραττε σὺν αὐτῷ). For examples of the genitive, see § 177; for those of the dative, see § 187.

Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. E.g.

Οὕτως εἶπεν, thus he spoke; ὡς δύναμαι, as I am able; πρῶτον ἀπῆλθε, he first went away; τὸ ἀληθῶς κακόν, that which is truly evil; μᾶλλον πρεπόντως ἠμφιεσμένη, more becomingly dressed.

For adjectives used as adverbs, see § 188, N. 7. For adverbs preceded by the article, and qualifying a noun like adjectives, see § 141, N. 3. For adverbs with the genitive or dative, see §§ 168 (with N. 3); 182, 2; 185; 186. For adverbs as prepositions, see § 191. For negative adverbs, see § 283.

Active.

§ 195

In the active voice the subject is represented as acting; as τρέπω τοὺς ὀφθαλμούς, I turn my eyes; ὁ πατὴρ φιλεῖ τὸν παῖδα, the father loves the child; ὁ ἵππος τρέχει, the horse runs.

Note. 1. The form of the active voice includes most intransitive verbs; as τρέχω, run. On the other hand, the form of the middle or passive voice includes many deponent verbs which are active and transitive in meaning; as βούλομαι τοῦτο, I want this. Some transitive verbs have certain intransitive tenses; as ἕστηκα, I stand, ἔστην, I stood, from ἵστημι, place. Such tenses are said to have a middle, or sometimes even a passive, meaning.

Note. 2. The same verb may be both transitive and intransitive; as ἐλαύνω, drive (trans. or intrans.) or march. The intransitive use sometimes arose from the omission of a familiar object; as ἐλαύνειν (ἴππον or ἅρμα), τελευτᾶν (τὸν βίον), to end (life) or to die.

Compare the English verbs drive, turn, move, &c.

Passive.

§ 196

In the passive voice the subject is represented as acted upon; as ὁ παῖς ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς φιλεῖται, the child is loved by the father.

§ 197

The object of the active becomes the subject of the passive. The subject of the active, the agent, is generally expressed by ὑπό and the genitive in the passive construction. (See § 196 and the example.) Even a genitive or dative used as a direct object can become the subject of the passive; as καταφρονεῖται ὑπ᾽ ἐμοῦ, he is despised by me (cf. καταφρονῶ αὐτοῦ, § 171, 2); πιστεύεται ὑπὸ τῶν ἀρχομένων, he is trusted by his subjects (cf. πιστεύουσιν αὐτῷ, § 184, 2); so ἀρχόμενος, ruled over, is passive of ἄρχω, rule (§ 171, 3).

Note. 1. Other prepositions than ὑπό with the genitive of the agent, though used in poetry, are not common in Attic prose. Such are παρά, πρός, ἐκ, and ἀπό.

Note. 2. When the active is followed by two accusatives, or by an accusative of a thing and a dative of a person, the case denoting a person is generally made the subject of the passive, and the other (an accusative) remains unchanged. E.g.

οὐδὲν ἄλλο διδάσκεται ἄνθρωπος, the man is taught nothing else (in the active οὐδὲν ἄλλο διδάσκουσι τὸν ἄνθρωπον). Ἄλλο τι μεῖζον ἐπιταχθήσεσθε, you will have some other greater command imposed on you (active, ἄλλο τι μεῖζον ὑμῖν ἐπιτάξουσιν, they will impose some other greater command on you). Οἱ ἐπιτετραμμένοι τὴν φυλακήν, those to whom the guard has been intrusted (active, ἐπιτρέπειν τὴν φυλακὴν τούτοις). Διφθέραν ἐνημμένος, clad in a leathern jerkin (active, ἐνάπτειν τί τινι, to fit a thing on one). So ἐκκόπτεσθαι τὸν ὀφθαλμόν, to have his eye cut out, and ἀποτέμνεσθαι τὴν κεφαλήν, to have his head cut off, &c., from possible active constructions ἐκκόπτειν τί τινι, and ἀποτέμνειν τί τινι (§ 184, 3, N. 4). This construction has nothing to do with that of § 160.

The first two examples are cases of the cognate accusative of the thing retained with the passive, while the accusative or dative of the person is made the subject (§ 159, Notes 2 and 4).

The perfect and pluperfect passive generally take the dative of the agent (§ 188, 3). The personal verbal in -τέος takes the dative, the impersonal in -τέον the dative or accusative, of the agent (§ 188, 4).

§ 198

The subject of the passive may be a neuter adjective which represents a cognate accusative of the active construction; or the passive may be used impersonally, the subject being implied in the idea of the verb itself. E.g.

Ἀσεβεῖται οὐδέν, no act of impiety is committed (act. ἀσεβεῖν οὐδέν, § 159, N. 2). So παρεσκεύασται, preparation has been made (it is prepared); ἁμαρτάνεται, error is committed (it is erred): cf. ventum est. This occurs chiefly in such participial expressions as τὰ ἠσεβημένα, the impious acts which have been committed; τὰ κινδυνευθέντα, the risks which were run; τὰ ἡμαρτημένα, the errors which have been made, &c. (See § 134, N. 1, d). Even an intransitive verb may thus have a passive voice.

Middle.

§ 199

In the middle voice the subject is represented as acting upon himself, or in some manner which concerns himself.

As acting on himself: ἐτράποντο πρὸς λῃστείαν, they turned themselves to piracy. This, though the most natural, is the least common use of the middle.

As acting for himself or with reference to himself: ὁ δῆμος τίθεται νόμους, the people make laws for themselves, whereas τίθησι νόμους would properly be said of a lawgiver; τοῦτον μεταπέμπομαι, I send for him (to come to me); ἀπεπέμπετο αὐτούς; he dismissed them.

As acting on an object which belongs to himself: ἦλθε λυσόμενος θύγατρα, he came to ransom his (own) daughter. Hom.

Remark. The last two uses may be united in one verb, as in the last example.

Note. 1. Often the middle expresses no more than is implied in the active; thus τρόπαιον ἵστασθαι, to raise a trophy for themselves, generally adds nothing but the expression to what is implied in τρόπαιον ἱστάναι, to raise a trophy; and either form can be used. The middle sometimes appears not to differ at all from the active in meaning; as the poetic ἰδέσθαι, to see, and ἰδεῖν.

Note. 2. The middle sometimes has a causative meaning; as ἐδιδαξάμην σε, I had you taught.

This gives rise to some special uses of the middle; as in δανείζω, lend, δανείζομαι, borrow (cause somebody to lend to one’s self). So μισθῶ, let, μισθοῦμαι, hire (cause to be let to one’s self); I let myself for pay is ἐμαυτὸν μισθῶ.

Note. 3. The middle of certain verbs is peculiar in its meaning.

Thus, ἀποδίδωμι, give back, ἀποδίδομαι, sell; γράφω, write or propose a vote, γράφομαι, indict; τιμωρῶ τινι, I avenge a person, τιμωροῦμαί τινα, I avenge myself on a person or I punish a person; ἅπτω, fasten, ἅπτομαι, cling to (fasten myself to); so ἔχομαι, hold to.

The passive of some of these verbs is used as a passive to both active and middle; thus γραφῆναι can mean either to be written or to be indicted.

Note. 4. The future middle of some verbs has a passive sense; as ἀδικῶ, wrong, ἀδικήσομαι, I shall be wronged.

§ 200

The tenses of the indicative express action as follows: –

PRESENT, continued or repeated present action: γράφω, I am writing or I write (habitually).

IMPERFECT, continued or repeated past action: ἔγραφον, I was writing or I used to write.

PERFECT, action finished in present time: γέγραφα, I have written.

PLUPERFECT, action finished in past time: ἐγεγράφειν, I had written.

AORIST, simple past action (N. 5): ἔγραψα, I wrote.

FUTURE, future action: γράψω, I shall write or I shall be writing.

FUTURE PERFECT, action to be finished in future time: γεγράψεται, it will have been written.

Note. 1. In narration, the present is sometimes used vividly for the aorist; as πορεύεται πρὸς βασιλέα ᾗ ἐδύνατο τάχιστα, he goes (went) to the king as fast as he could.

For the present expressing a general truth, see § 205, 1.

Note. 2. The present and especially the imperfect often express an attempted action; as πείθουσιν ὑμᾶς, they are trying to persuade you; Ἀλόννησον ἐδίδου, he offered (tried to give) Halonnesus; ὃ ἐπράσσετο οὐκ ἐγένετο, what was attempted did not happen.

Note. 3. (a) The presents ἥκω, I am come, and οἴχομαι, I am gone, have the force of perfects; the imperfects having the force of pluperfects. (Cf. N. 6.)

(b) The present εἶμι, I am going, has a future sense, and is used as a future of ἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι not being ordinarily used in Attic prose.

Note. 4. The present with πάλαι or any other expression of past time has the force of a present and perfect combined; as πάλαι σοι τοῦτο λέγω, I have long been telling you this (which I now tell).

Note. 5. (a) The aorist takes its name (ἀόριστος, unlimited, unqualified) from its denoting a simple past occurrence, with none of the limitations (ὅροι) as to completion, continuance, repetition, &c. which belong to the other past tenses. It corresponds exactly to the so-called imperfect in English, whereas the Greek imperfect corresponds to the forms I was doing, &c. Thus, ἐποίει τοῦτο is he was doing this or he did this habitually; πεποίηκε τοῦτο is he has already done this; ἐπεποιήκει τοῦτο is he had already (at some past time) done this; but ἐποίησε τοῦτο is simply he did this, without qualification of any kind.

(b) The aorist of verbs which denote a state or condition generally expresses the entrance into that state or condition; as πλουτῶ, I am rich; ἐπλούτουν, I was rich; ἐπλούτησα, I became rich. So ἐβασίλευσε; he became king; ἦρξε, he obtained office.

(c) The distinction between the imperfect and aorist was sometimes neglected, especially in the earlier Greek. See βαῖνον and βῆ in Il. i. 437 and 439; βάλλετο and βάλετο in Il. ii. 43 and 45; ἔλιπεν and λεῖπε, Il. ii. 106 and 107.

Note. 6. Some perfects have a present meaning; as θνήσκειν, to die, τεθνηκέναι, to be dead; γίγνεσθαι, to become, γεγονέναι, to be; μιμνήσκειν, to remind, μεμνῆσθαι, to remember; καλεῖν, to call, κεκλῆσθαι, to be called. So οἶδα, I know, novi. This is usually explained by the meaning of the verb. In such verbs the pluperfect has the force of an imperfect; as ᾔδειν, I knew (§ 127). (Cf. N. 3, a.)

Note. 7. The perfect sometimes refers vividly to the future; as εἴ με αἰσθήσεται ὄλωλα, if he shall perceive me, I am ruined (perii). So sometimes the present; as ἀπόλλυμαι, I perish! (for I shall perish).

Note. 8. The second person of the future may express a permission, or even a command; as πράξεις οἷον ἂν θέλῃς, you may act as you please; πάντως δὲ τοῦτο δράσεις, and by all means do this (you shall do this). So in imprecations; as ἀπολεῖσθε, to destruction with you! (lit. you shall perish). See § 257, where the future with οὐ μή is explained in this way.

Note. 9. The future perfect is sometimes merely an emphatic future, denoting that a future act will be immediate or decisive; as φράζε καὶ πεπράξεται, speak, and it shall be (no sooner said than) done. Compare the similar use of the perfect infinitive, § 202, 2, N. 2.

§ 201

The division of the tenses of the indicative into primary and secondary (or historical) is explained in § 90, 2.

In dependent clauses, when the construction allows both subjunctive and optative, or both indicative and optative, the subjunctive or indicative regularly follows primary tenses, and the optative follows secondary tenses. E.g.

Πράττουσιν ἃ ἂν βούλωνται, they do whatever they please;

ἔπραττον ἃ βούλοιντο, they did whatever they pleased.

Λέγουσιν ὅτι τοῦτο βούλονται, they say that they wish for this;

ἔλεξαν ὅτι τοῦτο βούλοιντο, they said that they wished for this.

These constructions will be explained hereafter (§§ 233, 248).

Note. The gnomic aorist is a primary tense, as it refers to present time (§ 205, 2); and the historic present is secondary, as it refers to past time (§ 200, N. 1).

Note. 1. The only exception to this principle occurs in indirect discourse, where the form of the direct discourse can always be retained, even after secondary tenses. See § 242, § 248, Note, § 216, 2.

Note. 2. The distinction into primary and secondary tenses extends to the dependent moods only where the tenses keep the same distinction of time which they have in the indicative, as in the optative and infinitive of indirect discourse (§ 208).

An optative of future time generally assimilates a dependent conditional relative clause or protasis to the optative when it might otherwise be in the subjunctive: thus we should generally have πράττοιεν ἂν ἃ βούλοιντο, they would do whatever they (might please) pleased (see the first example under § 201). See § 235,1. Such an optative seldom assimilates the subjunctive or indicative of a final or object clause (§ 215) in prose; but oftener in poetry. It very rarely assimilates an indicative of indirect discourse, although it may assimilate an interrogative subjunctive (§ 244, N. 1).

A. Not in Indirect Discourse.

§ 202

In the subjunctive and imperative, and also in the optative and infinitive when they are not in indirect discourse (§ 203), the tenses chiefly used are the present and aorist.

These tenses here differ only in this, that the present denotes a continued or repeated action, while the aorist denotes a simple occurrence of the action, the time of both being precisely the same. E.g.

Ἐὰν ποιῇ τοῦτο, if he shall do this (habitually),

ἐὰν ποιήσῃ τοῦτο, (simply) if he shall do this;

εἰ ποιοίη τοῦτο, if he should do this (habitually), εἰ ποιήσειε τοῦτο, (simply) if he should do this;

ποίει τοῦτο, do this (habitually), ποίησον τοῦτο, (simply) do this.

Οὕτω νικήσαιμί τ᾽ ἐγὼ καὶ νομιζοίμην σοφός, on this condition may I gain the victory (aor.) and be considered (pres.) wise.

Βούλεται τοῦτο ποιεῖν, he wishes to do this (habitually);

βούλεται τοῦτο ποιῆσαι, (simply) he wishes to do this.

This is a distinction entirely unknown to the Latin, which has (for example) only one form, si faciat, corresponding to εἰ ποιοίη and εἰ ποιήσειεν. Even the Greek does not always regard it; and in many cases it is indifferent which tense is used.

The perfect, which seldom occurs in these constructions, represents an action as finished at the time at which the present would represent it as going on. E.g.

Δέδοικα μὴ λήθην πεποιήκῃ, I fear lest it may prove to have caused forgetfulness (μὴ ποιῇ would mean lest it may cause).

Μηδενὶ βοηθεῖν ὃς μὴ πρότερος βεβοηθηκὼς ὑμῖν ᾖ, to help no one who shall not previously have helped you (ὃς ἂν μὴ . . . βοηθῇ would mean who shall not previously help you).

Οὐκ ἂν διὰ τοῦτό γ᾽ εἶεν οὐκ εὐθὺς δεδωκότες, they would not (on enquiry) prove to have failed to pay immediately on this account (with διδοῖεν this would mean they would not fail to pay).

Οὐ βουλεύεσθαι ἔτι ὥρα, ἀλλὰ βεβουλεῦσθαι, it is no longer time to be deliberating, but (it is time) to have finished deliberating.

Note. 1. The perfect imperative generally expresses a command that something shall be decisive and permanent; as ταῦτα εἰρήσθω, let this have been said (i.e. let what has been said be final), or let this (which follows) be said once for all; μέχρι τοῦδε ὡρίσθω ὑμῶν ἡ βραδυτής, at this point let the limit of your sluggishness be fixed. This is confined to the third person singular passive; the rare second person singular middle being merely emphatic. The active is used only when the perfect has a present meaning (§ 200, N. 6).

Note. 2. The perfect infinitive sometimes expresses decision or permanence (like the imperative, N. 1), and sometimes it is merely more emphatic than the present; as εἶπον τὴν θύραν κεκλεῖσθαι, they ordered the gate to be shut (and kept so); ἤλαυνεν ἐπὶ τοὺς Μένωνος, ὥστ᾽ ἐκείνους ἐκπεπλῆχθαι καὶ τρέχειν ἐπὶ τὰ ὅπλα, so that they were (once for all) thoroughly frightened and ran to arms. The regular meaning of this tense, when it is not in indirect discourse, is that given in § 202, 2. See § 95, 1, Note.

(a) The future infinitive is regularly used only to represent the future indicative in indirect discourse (§ 203).

(b) It occurs occasionally in other constructions, in place of the regular present or aorist, to make more emphatic a future idea which the infinitive receives from the context. E.g.

Ἐδεήθησαν τῶν Μεγαρέων ναυσὶ σφᾶς ξυμπροπέμψειν, they asked the Megarians to escort them with ships: οὐκ ἀποκωλύσειν δυνατοὶ ὄντες, not being able to prevent.

So rarely after ὥστε, and to express a purpose. In all these constructions the future is strictly exceptional, the only regular forms of the infinitive out of indirect discourse being the present and aorist, except in the few cases in which the perfect is used (§ 202, 2) and in the case mentioned in the following Note. See also § 203, N. 2.

Note. One regular exception to the principle just stated is found in the periphrastic future (§ 118, 6), where the present and future infinitives with μέλλω are equally common, but the aorist seldom occurs.

The future optative is used only in indirect discourse and constructions which involve this (§ 203, N. 3).

B. In Indirect Discourse.

Note. The term indirect discourse includes all clauses depending on a verb of saying or thinking which contain the thoughts or words of any person stated indirectly, i.e. incorporated into the general structure of the sentence. It includes of course all indirect quotations and questions.

§ 203

When the optative and infinitive stand in indirect discourse, each tense represents the corresponding tense of the same verb in direct discourse. E.g.

Ἔλεγεν ὅτι γράφοι, he said that he was writing (he said γράφω, I am writing);

ἔλεγεν ὅτι γράψοι, he said that he would write (he said γράψω, I will write);

ἔλεγεν ὅτι γράψειεν, he said that he had written (he said ἔγραψα);

ἔλεγεν ὅτι γεγραφὼς εἴη, he said that he had already written (he said γέγραφα).

Ἤρετο εἴ τις ἐμοῦ εἴη σοφώτερος, he asked whether any one was wiser than I (he asked ἔστι τις;).

Φησὶ γράφειν, he says that he is writing (he says γράφω);

φησὶ γράψειν, he says that he will write (γράψω);

φησὶ γράψαι, he says that he wrote (ἔγραψα);

φησὶ γεγραφέναι, he says that he has written (γέγραφα).

Εἶπεν ὅτι ἄνδρα ἄγοι ὃν εἶρξαι δέοι, he said that he was bringing a man whom it was necessary to confine (he said ἄνδρα ἄγω ὃν εἶρξαι δεῖ).

Ἐλογίζοντο ὡς, εἰ μὴ μάχοιντο, ἀποστήσοιντο αἱ πόλεις, they considered that, if they should not fight, the cities would revolt (they thought ἐὰν μὴ μαχώμεθα, ἀποστήσονται, if we do not fight, they will revolt).

These constructions will be explained in § 243, § 246, and § 247.

Here they merely show the different force of the tenses in indirect discourse and in other constructions. Compare especially the difference between φησὶ γράφειν and φησὶ γράψαι under § 208 with that between βούλεται ποιεῖν and βούλεται ποιῆσαι under § 202. Notice also the same distinction in respect to the present and aorist optative.

Note. 1. The present infinitive may represent the imperfect as well as the present indicative; as τίνας εὐχὰς ὑπολαμβάνετ᾽ εὔχεσθαι τὸν Φίλιππον ὅτ᾽ ἔσπενδεν; what prayers do you suppose Philip made when he was pouring libations? (i.e. τίνας ηὔχετο;). The perfect infinitive likewise represents both perfect and pluperfect. In such cases the time of the infinitive must always be shown by the context (as above by ὅτ᾽ ἔσπενδεν).

So rarely the present optative represents the imperfect indicative (§ 248, Note 1). See § 204, Note 1.

Note. 2. Verbs of hoping, expecting, promising, &c. form an intermediate class between verbs which take the infinitive in indirect discourse and those which do not (see Rem. before § 203); and they allow either the future infinitive (as in § 203) or the present and aorist (as in § 202). E.g.

Ἤλπιζον μάχην ἔσεσθαι, they expected that there would be a battle (Thuc.); but

ἃ οὔποτε ἤλπισεν παθεῖν, what he never expected to suffer (Eur.).

Ὑπέσχετό μοι βουλεύσασθαι, and ὑπέσχετο μηχανὴν παρέξειν (both in Xen.).

The construction of indirect discourse (the future) is the more common here. In English we can say I hope (expect or promise) to do this, like ποιεῖν or ποιῆσαι; or I hope I shall do this, like ποιήσειν.

Note. 3. The future optative is never used except as the representative of the future indicative, either in indirect discourse (as in the examples under § 203), or in the construction of § 217 (which is governed by the principles of indirect discourse). Even here the future indicative is generally retained. See § 217, and § 248, Note.

The tenses of the participle generally express the same time as those of the indicative; but they are present, past, or future relatively to the time of the verb with which they are connected. E.g.

Ἁμαρτάνει τοῦτο ποιῶν, he errs in doing this;

ἡμάρτανε τοῦτο ποιῶν, he erred in doing this;

ἁμαρτήσεται τοῦτο ποιῶν, he will err in doing this. (Here ποιῶν is first present, then past, then future, absolutely; but always present to the verb of the sentence.)

Ταῦτα εἰπόντες ἀπῆλθον, having said this, they departed.

Οὐ πολλοὶ φαίνονται ξυνελθόντες, not many appear to have joined the expedition.

Ἐπήνεσαν τοὺς εἰρηκότας, they praised those who had (already) spoken.

Τοῦτο ποιήσων ἔρχεται, he is coming to do this;

τοῦτο ποιήσων ἦλθεν, he came to do this.

Ἄπελθε ταῦτα λαβών, take this and be off (λαβών being past to ἄπελθε, but absolutely future).

Note. 1. The present may here also represent the imperfect; as οἶδα κἀκείνω σωφρονοῦντε, ἔστε Σωκράτει συνήστην, I know that they both were continent as long as they associated with Socrates (i.e. ἐσωφρονείτην). See § 203, Note 1.

Note. 2. The aorist participle in certain constructions does not denote time past with reference to the leading verb, but expresses a simple occurrence without regard to time (like the aorist infinitive in § 202). This is so in the following examples: –

Ἔτυχεν ἐλθών, he happened to come;

ἔλαθεν ἐλθών, he came secretly;

ἔφθη ἐλθών, he came first. (See § 279, 4.)

Περιιδεῖν τὴν γῆν τμηθεῖσαν, to allow the land to be ravaged (to see it ravaged). (See § 279, 3.)

So sometimes when the participle denotes that in which the action of the verb consists (§ 277); as εὖ γ᾽ ἐποίησας ἀναμνήσας με, you did well in reminding me.

§ 205

The present is the tense commonly used in Greek, as in English, to denote a general truth or an habitual action; as πλοῖον εἰς Δῆλον Ἀθηναῖοι πέμπουσιν, the Athenians send a ship to Delos (annually).

In animated language the aorist is used in this sense. This is called the gnomic aorist, and is generally translated by the English present. E.g.

Ἤν τις τούτων τι παραβαίνῃ, ζημίαν αὐτοῖς ἐπέθεσαν, i.e. they impose a penalty on all who transgress.

Μί᾽ ἡμέρα τὸν μὲν καθεῖλεν ὑψόθεν, τὸν δ᾽ ἦρ᾽ ἄνω, one day (often) brings down one man from a height and raises another high.

Note. 1. Here one distinct case in past time is vividly used to represent all possible cases. Examples containing such adverbs as πολλάκις, often, ἤδη, already, οὔπω, never yet, illustrate the construction; as ἀθυμοῦντες ἄνδρες οὔπω τρόπαιον ἔστησαν, disheartened men never yet raised a trophy, i.e. never raise a trophy.

Note. 2. An aorist resembling the gnomic is found in Homeric similes; as ἤριπε δ᾽ ὡς ὅτε τις δρῦς ἤριπεν, and he fell, as when some oak falls (lit. as when an oak once fell).

Note. 3. The gnomic aorist sometimes occurs in indirect discourse in the infinitive and participle, and even in the optative.

The perfect is sometimes gnomic, like the aorist. E.g.

Τὸ δὲ μὴ ἐμποδὼν ἀνανταγωνίστῳ εὐνοίᾳ τετίμηται, but those who are not before men’s eyes are honored with a good will which has no rivalry.

The gnomic perfect may be used in the infinitive.

§ 206

The imperfect and aorist are sometimes used with the adverb ἄν to denote a customary action. E.g.

Διηρώτων ἂν αὐτοὺς τί λέγοιεν, I used to ask them (I would often ask them) what they said.

Πολλάκις ἠκούσαμεν ἂν ὑμᾶς, we used often to hear you.

Remark. This construction must be carefully distinguished from the ordinary apodosis with ἄν (§ 222). It is equivalent to our phrase he would often do this for he used to do this, and was probably developed from the past potential construction (§ 226, 2, N. 2).

Note. The Ionic has iterative forms in -σκον and -σκόμην in both imperfect and aorist. (See § 119, 10.) Herodotus uses these also with ἄν, as above.

§ 207

The adverb ἄν (Epic κέ) has two distinct uses.

It is joined to all the secondary tenses of the indicative (in Homer also to the future indicative), and to the optative, infinitive, or participle, to denote that the action of the verb is dependent on some condition, expressed or implied. Here it belongs to the verb.

It is joined regularly to εἰ, if, and to all relative and temporal words (and occasionally to the final particles ὡς, ὅπως, and ὄφρα), when these are followed by the subjunctive. Here it belongs entirely to the particle or relative, with which it often forms one word, as in ἐάν, ὅταν, ἐπειδάν.

There is no English word which can translate ἄν. In its first use it is expressed in the would or should of the verb (βούλοιτο ἄν, he would wish;ἑλοίμην ἄν, I should choose). In its second use it has no force which can be made apparent in English.

Remark. The above statement (§ 207) includes all regular uses of ἄν except the Epic construction explained in § 255, and the iterative construction of § 206.

The following sections (§§ 208-211) enumerate the various uses of ἄν: when these are explained more fully elsewhere, reference is made to the proper sections.

§ 208

The present and perfect indicative never take ἄν.

The future indicative often takes ἄν (or κέ) in the early poets, especially Homer; very rarely in Attic Greek. E.g.

Καί κέ τις ὧδ᾽ ἐρέει, and perhaps some one will thus speak;

ἄλλοι, οἵ κέ με τιμήσουσι, others who will honor me (if occasion offers).

The future with ἄν seems to have been an intermediate form between the simple future, will honor, and the optative with ἄν, would honor. One of the few examples found in Attic prose is in Plat. Apol. p. 29 C.

The most common use of ἄν with the indicative is when it forms an apodosis with the secondary tenses. It here denotes that the condition upon which the action of the verb depends is not or was not fulfilled. See § 222. For the past potential construction with ἄν, see § 226, 2, N. 2; for the iterative construction with ἄν, see § 206.

§ 209

In Attic Greek the subjunctive is used with ἄν only in the constructions mentioned in § 207, 2, where ἄν belongs to the introductory word. See § 223, § 225, § 232, 3, § 233; also § 216, 1, N. 2.

In Epic poetry, where the subjunctive is often used nearly or quite in the sense of the future indicative (§ 255), it may, like the future (§ 208, 2), take ἄν or κέ. E.g.

Εἰ δέ κε μὴ δώωσιν, ἐγὼ δέ κεν αὐτὸς ἕλωμαι, and if they do not give her up, I will take her myself.

§ 210

The optative with ἄν forms an apodosis, with which a condition must be either expressed or implied. It denotes what would happen if the condition should be fulfilled (§ 224).

Note. The future optative is never used with ἄν. See § 203.

§ 211

The present and aorist (rarely the perfect) infinitive and participle are used with ἄν to form an apodosis. Each tense is here equivalent to the corresponding tense of the indicative or optative with ἄν, — the present representing also the imperfect, and the perfect also the pluperfect.

Thus the present infinitive or participle with ἄν may represent either an imperfect indicative or a present optative with ἄν; the aorist, either an aorist indicative or an aorist optative with ἄν; the perfect, either a pluperfect indicative or a perfect optative with ἄν. E.g.

(Pres.) Φησὶν αὐτοὺς ἐλευθέρους ἂν εἶναι, εἰ τοῦτο ἔπραξαν, he says that they would (now) be free (ἦσαν ἄν), if they had done this; φησὶν αὐτοὺς ἐλευθέρους ἂν εἶναι, εἰ τοῦτο πράξειαν, he says that they would (hereafter) be free (εἶεν ἄν), if they should do this. Οἶδα αὐτοὺς ἐλευθέρους ἂν ὄντας, εἰ τοῦτο ἔπραξαν, I know that they would (now) be free (ἦσαν ἄν), if they had done this; οἶδα αὐτοὺς ἐλευθέρους ἂν ὄντας, εἰ ταῦτα πράξειαν, I know that they would (hereafter) be free (εἶεν ἄν), if they should do this.

(Aor.) Φασὶν αὐτὸν ἐλθεῖν ἂν (or οἶδα αὐτὸν ἐλθόντα ἂν), εἰ τοῦτο ἐγένετο, they say (or I know) that he would have come (ἦλθεν ἄν), if this had happened; φασὶν αὐτὸν ἐλθεῖν ἂν (or οἶδα αὐτὸν ἐλθόντα ἂν), εἰ τοῦτο γένοιτο, they say (or I know) that he would come (ἔλθοι ἄν), if this should happen.

(Perf.) Εἰ μὴ τὰς ἀρετὰς ἐκείνας παρέσχοντο, πάντα ταῦθ᾽ ὑπὸ τῶν βαρβάρων ἂν ἑαλωκέναι (φήσειεν ἄν τις), had they not exhibited those exploits of valor, we might say that all this would have been captured by the barbarians (ἑαλώκει ἄν); οὐκ ἂν ἡγοῦμαι αὐτοὺς δίκην ἀξίαν δεδωκέναι, εἰ αὐτῶν καταψηφίσαισθε, I do not think they would (then, in the future) have suffered proper punishment (δεδωκότες ἂν εἶεν), if you should condemn them.

The context must decide in each case whether we have the equivalent of the indicative or of the optative with ἄν. In the examples given, the form of the protasis generally settles the question.

Note. As the early poets who use the future indicative with ἄν (§ 208, 2) do not use this construction, the future infinitive and participle with ἄν are very rarely found.

§ 212

When ἄν is used with the subjunctive (as in § 207, 2), it is generally separated from the introductory word only by monosyllabic particles like μέν, δέ, τέ, γάρ, &c.

In a long apodosis ἄν may be used twice or even three times with the same verb; as οὐκ ἂν ἡγεῖσθ᾽ αὐτὸν κἂν ἐπιδραμεῖν; do you not think that he would even have rushed thither? In Thuc. ii. 41, ἄν is used three times with παρέχεσθαι.

Ἄν may be used elliptically with a verb understood; as οἱ οἰκέται ῥέγκουσιν· ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἂν πρὸ τοῦ (sc. ἔρρεγκον), the slaves are snoring; but in old times they would n’t have done so. So in φοβούμενος ὥσπερ ἂν εἰ παῖς, fearing like a child (ὥσπερ ἂν ἐφοβεῖτο εἰ παῖς ἦν).

When an apodosis consists of several co-ordinate verbs, ἄν generally stands only with the first; as οὐδὲν ἂν διάφορον τοῦ ἑτέρου ποιοῖ, ἀλλ᾽ ἐπὶ ταὐτὸν ἀμφότεροι ἴοιεν, he would do nothing different from the other, but both would aim at the same object (ἄν belongs also to ἴοιεν).

Note. The adverb τάχα, quickly, soon, readily, is often prefixed to ἄν, in which case τάχ᾽ ἄν is nearly equivalent to ἴσως, perhaps. The ἄν here always forms an apodosis, as usual, with the verb of the sentence; as τάχ᾽ ἂν ἔλθοι, perhaps he would come.

§ 213

The indicative is used in simple, absolute assertions; as γράφει, he writes; ἔγραψεν, he wrote; γράψει, he will write;γέγραφεν, he has written. It has a tense to express every variety of time which is recognized by the Greek verb, and it can thus state a supposition as well as make an assertion in the past, present, or future. It also expresses certain other relations which in other languages (as in Latin) are generally expressed by a different mood. The following examples will illustrate these uses: –

Εἰ τοῦτο ἀληθές ἐστι, χαίρω, if this is true, I rejoice (§ 221);

εἰ ἔγραψεν, ἦλθον ἄν, if he had written, I should have come (§ 222);

εἰ γράψει, γνώσομαι, if he shall write (or if he writes), I shall know (§ 223, N. 1).

Ἐπιμελεῖται ὅπως τοῦτο γενήσεται, he takes care that this shall happen (§ 217).

Λέγει ὅτι τοῦτο ποιεῖ, he says that he is doing this; sometimes, εἶπεν ὅτι τοῦτο ποιεῖ, he said that he was doing this (he said ποιῶ).

Εἴθε με ἔκτεινας, ὡς μήποτε τοῦτο ἐποίησα, O that thou hadst killed me, that I might never have done this! (§ 251, 2; § 216, 3).

Εἴθε τοῦτο ἀληθὲς ἦν, O that this were true! (§ 251, 2).

Remark. These constructions are explained in the sections referred to. Their variety shows the impossibility of giving any precise single definition, which will be of practical value, including all the uses even of the indicative. With the subjunctive and optative it is equally impossible.

The various uses of the subjunctive are shown by the following examples: —

Ἔρχεται ἵνα τοῦτο ἴδῃ, he is coming that he may see this (§ 216);

φοβεῖται μὴ τοῦτο γένηται; he fears lest this may happen (§ 218).

Ἐὰν ἔλθῃ, τοῦτο ποιήσω, if he shall come (or if he comes), I shall do this (§ 228);

ἐάν τις ἔλθῃ, τοῦτο ποιῶ, if any one (ever) comes, I (always) do this (§ 225).

Ὅταν ἔλθῃ, τοῦτο ποιήσω, when he shall come (or when he comes), I shall do this (§ 232, 3);

ὅταν τις ἔλθῃ, τοῦτο ποιῶ, when any one comes, I (always) do this (§ 233).

Ἴωμεν, let us go (§ 258). Μὴ θαυμάσητε, do not wonder (§ 254).

Τί εἴπω; what shall I say? (§ 256).

Οὐ μὴ τοῦτο γένηται, this (surely) will not happen (§ 257).

Ἴδωμαι, I shall see (Hom., § 255).

These constructions are explained in the sections referred to.

Remark. The subjunctive, in its simplest and apparently most primitive use, expresses simple futurity, like the future indicative; this is seen in the Homeric independent construction, ἴδωμαι, I shall see; εἴπῃσί τις, one will say. Then, in exhortations and prohibitions it is still future; as ἴωμεν, let us go; μὴ ποιήσητε τοῦτο, do not do this. In final and object clauses it expresses a future purpose or a future object of fear. In conditional and conditional relative sentences it expresses a future supposition; except in general conditions, where it is indefinite (but never strictly present) in its time.

The various uses of the optative are shown by the following examples: —

Ἦλθεν ἵνα τοῦτο ἴδοι, he came that he might see this (§ 216);

ἐφοβεῖτο μὴ τοῦτο γένοιτο, he feared lest this should happen (§ 218).

Εἰ ἔλθοι, τοῦτ᾽ ἂν ποιήσαιμι, if he should come, I should do this (§ 224);

εἴ τις ἔλθοι, τοῦτ᾽ ἐποίουν, if any one (ever) came, I (always) did this (§ 225).

Ὅτε ἔλθοι, τοῦτ᾽ ἂν ποιήσαιμι, whenever he should come (at any time when he should come), I should do this (§ 232, 4);

ὅτε τις ἔλθοι, τοῦτ᾽ ἐποίουν, whenever any one came, I (always) did this (§ 233).

Ἐπεμελεῖτο ὅπως τοῦτο γενήσοιτο, he took care that this should happen (§ 217).

Εἶπεν (or ἔλεγεν) ὅτι τοῦτο ποιοίη (ποιήσοι or ποιήσειε), he said that he was doing (would do or had done) this (§ 243).

Ἔλθοι ἄν, he might go (if he should wish to) (§ 226, 2). Εἴθε μὴ ἀπόλοιντο, O that they may not perish! Μὴ γένοιτο, may it not

happen (§ 251, 1).

These constructions are explained in the sections referred to.

Remark. The optative in many of its uses is a vaguer and less distinct form of expression than the subjunctive, in constructions of the same general character. This appears especially in its independent uses; as in the Homeric Ἑλένην ἄγοιτο, he may take Helen away (cf. ἀγέσθω, let him take); ἴοιμεν, may we go (cf. ἴωμεν, let us go); μὴ γένοιτο, may it not happen (cf. μὴ γένηται, let it not happen); ἕλοιτο ἄν (Hom. sometimes ἕλοιτο alone), he would take (cf. Hom. ἕληται, sometimes with κέ, he will take). So in future conditions; as εἰ γένοιτο, if it should happen (cf. ἐὰν γένηται, if it shall happen).

In other dependent clauses it is generally a correlative of the subjunctive, sometimes of the indicative; it expresses the changed relation of a dependent subjunctive or indicative in these constructions when the verb on which it depends is changed from present or future to past time. The same change in relation is expressed in English by a change from shall, will, may, do, is, &c. to should, would, might, did, was, &c. To illustrate these last relations, compare ἔρχεται ἵνα ἴδῃ, φοβεῖται μὴ γένηται, ἐάν τις ἔλθῃ τοῦτο ποιῶ, ἐπιμελεῖται ὅπως τοῦτο γενήσεται, and λέγει ὅτι τοῦτο ποιεῖ, with the corresponding forms after past leading verbs given in § 213, 3.

The imperative is used to express commands and prohibitions; as τοῦτο ποίει, do this; μὴ φεύγετε, do not fly.

The infinitive is a verbal noun, which expresses the simple idea of a verb without restriction of person or number.

§ 214

The following sections (§§ 215-257) treat of all constructions which require any other form of the finite verb than the indicative in simple assertions (§ 213, 1). The infinitive and participle are included here only so far as they are used in indirect discourse or in protasis and apodosis. These constructions are divided as follows: —

I. Final and Object clauses after ἵνα, ὡς, ὅπως, and μή.

II. Conditional sentences.

III. Relative and Temporal sentences.

IV. Indirect Discourse.

V. Causal sentences.

VI. Wishes.

VII. Commands, Exhortations, and Prohibitions.

VIII. Homeric Subjunctive (like Future Indicative). — Interrogative Subjunctive. — Οὐ μή with Subjunctive or Future Indicative.

§ 215

The clauses which depend on the so-called final particles ἵνα, ὡς, ὅπως, that, in order that, and μή, that not, lest, may be divided into three classes: —

A. Final clauses, expressing the purpose or motive; as

ἔρχεται ἵνα τοῦτο ἴδῃ, he is coming that he may see this.

Here all the final particles may be used.

B. Object clauses with ὅπως after verbs signifying to strive for, to care for, to effect; as

σκόπει ὅπως τοῦτο γενήσεται, see to it that this is done.

C. Object clauses with μή after verbs of fear or caution; as

φοβεῖται μὴ τοῦτο γένηται, he fears that (or lest) this may happen.

Remark. The first two classes (sometimes classed together as final) are to be distinguished with special care. The object clauses in B are the direct object of the leading verb, and can even stand in apposition to an object accusative like τοῦτο; as σκόπει τοῦτο, ὅπως μή σε ὄψεται, see to this, namely, that he does not see you. But a final clause could stand in apposition only to τούτου ἕνεκα, for the sake of this, or διὰ τοῦτο, to this end; as ἔρχεται τούτου ἕνεκα, ἵνα ἡμᾶς ἴδῃ, he is coming for this purpose, namely, that he may see us.

Note. 1. The negative adverb in all these clauses is μή; except after μή, lest, where οὐ is used.

Note. 2. Ὄφρα, that, is used as a final particle in Epic and Lyric poetry.

A. Final Clauses.

§ 216

Final clauses take the subjunctive after primary tenses, and the optative after secondary tenses. E.g.

Διανοεῖται τὴν γέφυραν λῦσαι, ὡς μὴ διαβῆτε, he thinks of breaking up the bridge, that you may not pass over.

Λυσιτελεῖ ἐᾶσαι ἐν τῷ παρόντι, μὴ καὶ τοῦτον πολέμιον προσθώμεθα, it is expedient to allow it for a time, lest we may add him to the number of our enemies.

Παρακαλεῖς ἰατροὺς, ὅπως μὴ ἀποθάνῃ, you call in physicians, that he may not die.

Φίλος ἐβούλετο εἶναι τοῖς μέγιστα δυναμένοις, ἵνα ἀδικῶν μὴ διδοίη δίκην, he wished to be a friend to the most powerful, that he might do wrong and not be punished.

Τούτου ἕνεκα φίλων ᾤετο δεῖσθαι, ὡς συνέργους ἔχοι, he thought he needed friends for this purpose, namely, that he might have helpers.

Note. 1. The future indicative very rarely takes the place of the subjunctive in final clauses after ὅπως, ὄφρα, and μή. This is almost entirely confined to poetry. See Odyss. i. 56, iv. 163; Il. xx. 301.

Note. 2. The adverb ἄν (κέ) is sometimes joined with ὡς, ὅπως, and ὄφρα before the subjunctive in final clauses; as ὡς ἂν μάθῃς, ἀντάκουσον, hear the other side, that you may learn. It adds nothing to the sense that can be made perceptible in English. In Homer and Herodotus it occasionally occurs even before an optative.

As final clauses express the purpose or motive of some person, they admit the double construction of indirect discourse (§ 242). Hence, instead of the optative after secondary tenses, we can have the mood and tense which would be used when a person conceived the purpose in his own mind; that is, we can say either ἦλθεν ἵνα ἴδοι, he came that he might see (§ 216, 1), or ἦλθεν ἵνα ἴδῃ, because the person himself would have said ἔρχομαι ἵνα ἴδω, I come that I may see. (See § 248, Note.)

On this principle the subjunctive in final clauses after secondary tenses is nearly as common as the more regular optative. E.g.

Τὰ πλοῖα κατέκαυσεν, ἵνα μὴ Κῦρος διαβῇ, he burned the vessels, that Cyrus might not pass over.

The secondary tenses of the indicative are used in final clauses with ἵνα, sometimes with ὡς or ὅπως, to denote that the end or object is dependent on some unfulfilled condition or some unaccomplished wish, and therefore is not or was not attained. E.g.

Τί μ᾽ οὐ λαβὼν ἔκτεινας εὐθὺς, ὡς ἔδειξα μήποτε; &c., why did you not take me and kill me at once, that I might never have shown? &c.

Φεῦ, φεῦ, τὸ μὴ τὰ πράγματ᾽ ἀνθρώποις ἔχειν φωνὴν, ἵν᾽ ἦσαν μηδὲν οἱ δεινοὶ λόγοι, Alas! alas! that the facts have no voice for men, so that words of eloquence might be as nothing.

B. Object Clauses with ὅπως after Verbs of Striving, &c.

§ 217

Object clauses depending on verbs signifying to strive for, to care for, to effect, regularly take the future indicative after both primary and secondary tenses.

The future optative may be used after secondary tenses, as the correlative of the future indicative, but commonly the indicative is retained on the principle explained in § 216, 2. (See § 202, 4.) E.g.

Φρόντιζ᾽ ὅπως μηδὲν ἀνάξιον τῆς τιμῆς ταύτης πράξεις, take heed that you do nothing unworthy of this honor.

Ἐμηχανώμεθα ὅπως μηδεὶς τοῦτο γνώσοιτο, we were planning that nobody should know this (here γνώσεται would be more common).

Ἔπρασσον ὅπως τις βοήθεια ἥξει, they were trying to effect (this), that some assistance should come.

Note. 1. Sometimes the present or aorist subjunctive or optative is used after these verbs, as in final clauses. In this case ὡς also may be used. Ὅπως ἄν or ὡς ἄν may be used before the subjunctive, never before the regular future indicative. Μή is sometimes used for ὅπως μή, generally with the subjunctive.

Note. 2. The future indicative with ὅπως sometimes follows verbs of exhorting, entreating, commanding, and forbidding, which commonly take an infinitive of the object; as διακελεύονται ὅπως τιμωρήσεται πάντας τοὺς τοιούτους, they exhort him to take vengeance on all such.

Note. 3. The construction of § 217 is not found in Homer; but such verbs as are mentioned in Note 2, and verbs signifying to consider, to try, and the like, take ὅπως or ὡς with the subjunctive and optative, as in final clauses. E.g.

Λίσσεσθαι δέ μιν αὐτὸς ὅπως νημερτέα εἴπῃ, and implore him thyself to speak the truth;

λίσσετο δ᾽ αἰεὶ Ἥφαιστον κλυτοεργὸν ὅπως λύσειεν Ἄρηα, he implored him to liberate Ares.

So φράσσεται ὥς κε νέηται; βούλευον ὅπως ὄχ᾽ ἄριστα γένοιτο.

Note. 4. Both ὅπως and ὅπως μή are often used with the future indicative in exhortations or prohibitions, some imperative like σκόπει or σκοπεῖτε, take care, being understood. E.g.

Ὅπως οὖν ἔσεσθε ἄξιοι τῆς ἐλευθερίας, (see that you) prove yourselves worthy of freedom.

Ὅπως μοι μὴ ἐρεῖς ὅτι ἔστι τὰ δώδεκα δὶς ἕξ, see that you do not tell me that twelve is twice six.

For a similar ellipsis of a verb of fearing, see § 218, N. 2.

C. Object Clauses with μή after Verbs of Fearing, &c.

§ 218

After verbs denoting fear, caution, or danger, μή, that or lest, takes the subjunctive after primary tenses, and the optative after secondary tenses.

The subjunctive may also follow secondary tenses, to retain the mood in which the fear originally occurred to the mind. E.g.

Φοβοῦμαι μὴ τοῦτο γένηται (vereor ne accidat), I fear that this may happen;

φοβοῦμαι μὴ οὐ τοῦτο γένηται (vereor ut accidat), I fear that this may not happen (§ 215, N. 1).

Φροντίζω μὴ κράτιστον ᾖ μοι σιγᾶν, I am anxious lest it may be best for me to be silent.

Οὐκέτι ἐπετίθεντο, δεδιότες μὴ ἀποτμηθείησαν, they no longer made attacks, fearing lest they should be cut off.

Ἐφοβοῦντο μή τι πάθῃ, they feared lest he should suffer anything (§ 216, 2).

Note. 1. The future indicative is very rarely used after μή in this construction. But ὅπως μή is sometimes used here, as in the object clauses of § 217, with both future indicative and subjunctive.

Note. 2. Μή with the subjunctive, or ὅπως μή with the future indicative, may be used elliptically, a verb of fear or caution being understood. E.g.

Μὴ ἀγροικότερον ἢ τὸ ἀληθὲς εἰπεῖν, (I fear that) the truth may be too rude a thing to say.

Ἀλλὰ μὴ οὐ τοῦτ᾽ ᾖ χαλεπόν, but (I fear that) this may not be a difficult thing. See § 217, N. 4.

Note. 3. Verbs of fearing may refer to objects of fear which are present or past. Here μή takes the present and past tenses of the indicative. E.g.:

Δέδοικα μὴ πληγῶν δέει, I fear that you need blows.

Φοβούμεθα μὴ ἀμφοτέρων ἅμα ἡμαρτήκαμεν, we fear that we have missed both at once.

Δείδω μὴ δὴ πάντα θεὰ νημερτέα εἶπεν, I fear that all which the Goddess said was true. Hom.

Ὅρα μὴ παίζων ἔλεγεν, beware lest he was speaking in jest.

§ 219

In conditional sentences the clause containing the condition is called the protasis, and that containing the conclusion is called the apodosis. The protasis is introduced by εἰ, if.

The Doric αἰ for εἰ is sometimes used in Homer.

The adverb ἄν (Epic κέ) is regularly joined to εἰ in the protasis when the verb is in the subjunctive; εἰ with ἄν forming ἐάν, ἄν (ᾱ), or ἤν. (See § 207, 2.) The simple εἰ is used with the indicative and optative. The same adverb ἄν is used in the apodosis with the optative, and with the secondary tenses of the indicative in the construction of § 222.

The negative adverb of the protasis is regularly μή, that of the apodosis is οὐ.

Note. When οὐ stands in a protasis, it always belongs to some particular word (as in οὐ πολλοί, few, οὔ φημι, I deny), and not to the protasis as a whole; as ἐάν τε σὺ καὶ Ἄνυτος οὐ φῆτε ἐάν τε φῆτε, both if you and Anytus deny it and if you admit it.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.

§ 220

Conditional sentences in Greek have six forms. The classification is based chiefly on the time to which the supposition refers, partly on what is implied with regard to the fulfilment of the condition, and partly on the distinction between particular and general suppositions explained in III.

I. Four Forms of Ordinary Conditions.

The most obvious distinction of conditions is that of (a) present or past and (b) future.

Present and Past Conditions.

(a) In present or past conditions, the question of fulfilment has already been decided (in point of fact), but we may or may not wish to imply by our form of statement how this has been decided. In Greek (as in English or Latin) we may, therefore, state such a condition in one of two ways: –

We may simply state a present or past condition, implying nothing as to its fulfilment; as if he is (now) doing this, εἰ τοῦτο πράσσει; – if he was doing it, εἰ ἔπρασσε; – if he did it, εἰ ἔπραξε; – if he has (already) done it, εἰ πέπραχε. The apodosis here expresses simply what is (was or will be) the result of the fulfilment of the condition. Thus we may say: –

Εἰ πράσσει τοῦτο, καλῶς ἔχει, if he is doing this, it is well;

εἰ πράσσει τοῦτο, ἡμάρτηκεν, if he is doing this, he has erred;

εἰ πράσσει τοῦτο, καλῶς ἕξει, if he is doing this, it will be well.

Εἰ ἔπραξε τοῦτο, καλῶς ἔχει (εἶχεν, ἔσχεν, or ἕξει), if he did this, it is (was or will be) well.

So with the other tenses of the indicative. (See § 221.)

So in Latin: Si hoc facit, bene est; Si hoc fecit, bene erit.

We may state a present or past condition so as to imply that it is not or was not fulfilled; as if he were (now) doing this, εἰ τοῦτο ἔπρασσε; – if he had done this, εἰ τοῦτο ἔπραξε (both implying the opposite). The apodosis here expresses what would be (or would have been) the result if the condition were (or had been) fulfilled. The adverb ἄν in the apodosis distinguishes these forms from otherwise similar forms under (a) 1. Thus we may say: –

Εἰ ἔπρασσε τοῦτο, καλῶς ἂν εἶχεν. if he were (now) doing this, it would be well;

εἰ ἔπραξε τοῦτο, καλῶς ἂν ἔσχεν, if he had done this, it would have been well. (See § 222.)

In Latin: Si hoc faceret, bene esset; Si hoc fecisset, bene fuisset.

The Greek has no form implying that a condition is or was fulfilled, and it is hardly conceivable that any language should find such a form necessary or useful.

Future Conditions.

(b) We may state a future condition in Greek (as in English and Latin) in either of two ways.

We may say if he shall do this, ἐὰν πράσσῃ (or πράξῃ) τοῦτο (or, still more vividly, εἰ πρά ξει τοῦτο), making a distinct supposition of a future case. The apodosis expresses what will be the result if the condition shall be fulfilled. Thus we may say: –

Ἐὰν πράσσῃ (or πράξῃ) τοῦτο, καλῶς ἕξει, if he shall do this, it will be well (sometimes εἰ πράξει τοῦτο). (See § 223.)

In Latin: Si hoc faciet (or si hoc fecerit), bene erit; sometimes Si hoc faciat.

We may also say if he should do this, εἰ πράσσοι (or πράξειε) τοῦτο, still supposing a case in the future, but less distinctly and vividly than before. The apodosis corresponds to this in form (with the addition of ἄν), and expresses what would be the result if the condition should be fulfilled. Thus we can say: –

Εἰ πράσσοι (or πράξειε) τοῦτο, καλῶς ἂν ἔχοι, if he should do this, it would be well. (See § 224.)

In Latin: Si hoc faciat, bene sit.

II. Present and Past General Suppositions.

The supposition contained in a protasis may be either particular or general. A particular supposition refers to a definite act or a definite series of acts; as if he (now) has this, he will give it; if he had it, he gave it; if he had had the power, he would have helped me; if he shall receive it (or if he receives it), he will give it; if he should receive it, he would give it. A general supposition refers to any one of a class of acts, which may occur (or may have occurred) on any one of a series of possible occasions; as if ever he receives anything, he (always) gives it; if ever he received anything, he (always) gave it; if he had (on each occasion) had the power, he would (always) have helped me; if ever any one shall (or should) wish to go, he will (or would) always be permitted.

Although this distinction is seen in all classes of conditions (as the examples show), it is only in the present and past conditions which do not imply non-fulfilment, i.e. in those of (a) 1, that the Greek distinguishes general from particular suppositions in construction. Here, however, we have two classes of conditions which contain only general suppositions.

(a) When the apodosis has a verb of present time expressing a customary or repeated action (§ 205), the protasis may refer (in a general way) to any one of a class of acts which can be supposed to occur within the period represented in English as present. Thus we may say: –

Ἐάν τις κλέπτῃ, κολάζεται, if (ever) any one steals, he is (in all such cases) punished;

ἐάν τις πράσσῃ (or πράξῃ) τοιοῦτόν τι, χαλεπαίνομεν αὐτῷ, if (ever) any one does such a thing, we are (always) angry with him. (See § 225.)

(b) When the apodosis has a verb of past time expressing a customary or repeated action, the protasis may refer (in a general way) to any one of a class of acts which can be supposed to have occurred in the past. Thus we may say: –

Εἴ τις κλέπτοι, ἐκολάζετο, if (ever) any one stole, he was (in all such cases) punished;

εἴ τις πράσσοι (or πράξειε) τοιοῦτόν τι, ἐχαλεπαίνομεν αὐτῷ, if (ever) any one did such a thing, we were (always) angry with him. (See § 225.)

Note. 1. Although the Latin sometimes agrees with the Greek in distinguishing general conditions from ordinary present and past conditions, using si faciat and si faceret like ἐὰν πράσσῃ and εἰ πράσσοι above, it yet commonly agrees with the English in not recognizing the distinction, and uses the indicative alike in both classes. Even the Greek sometimes (especially in poetry) neglects the distinction, and uses the indicative in these general conditions (§ 225, N. 1).

Note. 2. In external form the present general condition coincides with the more vivid future condition, (b) 1, both being expressed by ἐάν and the subjunctive, and the form of the apodosis alone distinguishing them. But in sense there is a much closer connection between the general present condition and the ordinary present condition expressed by εἰ and the present indicative, (a) 1, with which in most languages (and sometimes even in Greek) it coincides also in form (see Remark 1). On the other hand, ἐάν with the subjunctive in a future condition generally agrees in sense with εἰ and the future indicative (§ 223, N. 1), and is never interchangeable with εἰ and the present indicative.

I. FOUR FORMS OF ORDINARY CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.

A. Present and Past Conditions.

Simple Particular Suppositions.

§ 221

When the protasis simply states a present or past particular supposition, implying nothing as to the fulfilment of the condition, it takes the indicative with ei. Any form of the verb may stand in the apodosis. E.g.

Εἰ ἡσυχίαν Φίλιππος ἄγει, οὐκέτι δεῖ λέγειν, if Philip is keeping peace (with us), we need talk no longer.

Εἰ ἐγὼ Φαῖδρον ἀγνοῶ, καὶ ἐμαυτοῦ ἐπιλέλησμαι· ἀλλὰ γὰρ οὐδέτερά ἐστι τούτων, if I do not know Phaedrus, I have forgotten myself; but neither of these is so.

Εἰ θεοῦ ἦν, οὐκ ἦν αἰσχροκερδής, if he was the son of a God, he was not avaricious.

Ἀλλ᾽ εἰ δοκεῖ σοι, πλέωμεν, but if it pleases you, let us sail.

Κάκιστ᾽ ἀπολοίμην, Ξανθίαν εἰ μὴ φιλῶ, may I die most wretchedly, if I do not love Xanthias.

Note. Even the future indicative can stand in a protasis of this class if it expresses merely a present intention or necessity that something shall be done; as αἶρε πλῆκτρον, εἰ μαχεῖ, raise your spur, if you are going to fight. Aristoph. Here εἰ μέλλεις μάχεσθαι would be the more common expression in prose. It is important to notice that a future of this kind could not be changed to the subjunctive, like the ordinary future in protasis. (For the latter see § 223, N. 1.)

With Supposition contrary to Fact.

§ 222

When the protasis states a present or past supposition, implying that the condition is not or was not fulfilled, the secondary tenses of the indicative are used in both protasis and apodosis. The apodosis takes the adverb ἄν.

The imperfect here refers to present time or to a continued or repeated action in past time, the aorist to an action simply occurring in past time, and the (rare) pluperfect to an action finished in past or present time. E.g.

Ταῦτα οὐκ ἂν ἐδύναντο ποιεῖν, εἰ μὴ διαίτῃ μετρίᾳ ἐχρῶντο, they would not be able (as they are) to do this, if they did not lead an abstemious life.

Εἰ ἦσαν ἄνδρες ἀγαθοὶ, ὡς σὺ φὴς, οὐκ ἄν ποτε ταῦτα ἔπασχον, if they had been good men, as you say, they would never have suffered these things (referring to several cases).

Καὶ ἴσως ἂν ἀπέθανον, εἰ μὴ ἡ ἀρχὴ κατελύθη, and perhaps I should have perished, if the government had not been put down.

Εἰ ἀπεκρίνω, ἱκανῶς ἂν ἤδη ἐμεμαθήκη (§ 113, 2, N. 4), if you had answered, I should already have learned enough (which now I have not done).

Εἰ μὴ ὑμεῖς ἤλθετε, ἐπορευόμεθα ἂν ἐπὶ τὸν βασιλέα, if you had not come (aor.), we should now be on our way (impf.) to the King.

Note. 1. Sometimes ἄν is omitted in the apodosis, as in English we may say it had been for it would have been, or in Latin aequius fuerat for aequius fuisset; as εἰ μὴ ᾖσμεν, φόβον παρέσχεν, if we had not known, this had (would have) caused us fear. So καλὸν ἢν αὐτῷ εἰ οὐκ ἐγεννήθη ὁ ἄνθρωπος ἐκεῖνος, it had been good for that man if he had not been born. N. T.

Note 2. The imperfects ἔδει, χρῆν or ἐχρῆν, ἐξῆν, and others denoting necessity, propriety, obligation, possibility, and the like, are often used with the infinitive to form an apodosis implying the non-fulfilment of a condition. Ἄν is not used here, as these phrases simply express in other words what is usually expressed by the indicative with ἄν. Thus, ἔδει σε τοῦτον φιλεῖν, you ought to love him (but do not), or you ought to have loved him (but did not), is equivalent to you would love him, or would have loved him (ἐφίλεις ἂν τοῦτον), if you did your duty (τὰ δέοντα). So ἐξῆν σοι τοῦτο ποιῆσαι; you might have done this; εἰκὸς ἦν σε τοῦτο ποιῆσαι, you would properly have done this. The real apodosis is here always in the infinitive. Ὤφελον with the infinitive in wishes is used in the same way; see § 251, 2, N. 1, and the examples.

When the present infinitive is used, the construction refers to the present or to continued or repeated action in the past; when the aorist is used, it refers to the past.

Note 3. In Homer the imperfect indicative in this class of sentences (§ 222) always refers to the past. We occasionally find a present optative in Homer in the sense in which Attic writers use the imperfect indicative; and in a few passages even the aorist optative with κέ in the place of the aorist indicative (see Il. v. 311 and 388).

B. Future Conditions.

Subjunctive in Protasis with Future Apodosis.

§ 223

When a supposed future case is stated distinctly and vividly (as in English, if I shall go, or if I go), the protasis takes the subjunctive with ἐάν (Epic εἴ κε). The apodosis takes the future indicative or some other form expressing future time. E.g.

Εἰ μέν κεν Μενέλαον Ἀλέξανδρος καταπέφνῃ, αὐτὸς ἔπειθ᾽ Ἑλένην ἐχέτω καὶ κτήματα πάντα, if Alexander shall slay Menelaus, then let him have Helen and all the goods himself. Hom.

Ἄν τις ἀνθιστῆται, πειρασόμεθα χειροῦσθαι, if any one shall stand opposed to us, we shall try to overcome him.

Ἐὰν οὖν ἴῃς νῦν, πότε ἔσει οἴκοι; if therefore you go now, when will you be at home?

Remark. The older English forms if he shall go and if he go express the force of the Greek subjunctive; but the ordinary modern English uses if he goes even when the time is clearly future.

Note. 1. The future indicative with εἰ is very often used for the subjunctive in conditions of this class, as a still more vivid form of expression; as εἰ μὴ καθέξεις γλῶσσαν, ἔσται σοι κακά, if you do not (shall not) restrain your tongue, you will have trouble. This common use of the future, in which it is merely a more vivid form than the subjunctive, must not be confounded with that of § 221, Note.

Note. 2. In Homer εἰ (without ἄν or κέ) is often used with the subjunctive, apparently in the same sense as εἴ κε or ἤν; as εἰ δὲ νῆ᾽ ἐθέλῃ ὀλέσαι, but if he shall wish to destroy our ship. The same use of εἰ for ἐάν is found occasionally even in Attic poetry. See § 239, N. 1.

For the Homeric subjunctive with κέ in apodosis, see § 255, Note.

Optative in Protasis and Apodosis.

§ 224

When a supposed future case is stated in a less distinct and vivid form (as in English, if I should go), the protasis takes the optative with εἰ, and the apodosis takes the optative with ἄν. E.g.

Εἴης φορητὸς οὐκ ἂν, εἰ πράσσοις καλῶς, you would not be endurable, if you should be in prosperity.

Οὐ πολλὴ ἂν ἀλογία εἴη, εἰ φοβοῖτο τὸν θάνατον ὁ τοιοῦτος; would it not be a great absurdity, if such a man should fear death?

Οἶκος δ᾽ αὐτὸς, εἰ φθογγὴν λάβοι, σαφέστατ᾽ ἂν λέξειεν, but the house itself, if it should find a voice, would speak most plainly.

The future optative cannot be used in protasis or apodosis, except in indirect discourse representing the future indicative (see the third example under § 247).

Note. 1. Ἄν is very rarely omitted in an apodosis of this class.

Most examples occur in Homer; as ὃ οὐ δύο γ᾽ ἄνδρε φέροιεν, which two men could not carry (if they should try). But ἄν is sometimes omitted in the Attic poets after such expressions as οὐκ ἔσθ᾽ ὅπως and οὐκ ἔστιν ὅστις (see Aesch. Prom. 292, Eur. Alc. 52).

Note 2. For the Homeric optative used like the past tenses of the indicative in conditions, see § 222, N. 3.

II. PRESENT AND PAST GENERAL SUPPOSITIONS.

§ 225

In general suppositions, the apodosis expresses a customary or repeated action or a general truth, and the protasis refers in a general way to any one of a class of acts. Here the protasis has the subjunctive with ἐάν after present tenses, and the optative with εἰ after past tenses. The apodosis has the present or imperfect indicative, or some other form which implies repetition. E.g.

Ἣν ἐγγὺς ἔλθῃ θάνατος, οὐδεὶς βούλεται θνήσκειν, if death comes near, no one is (ever) willing to die.

Ἅπας λόγος, ἂν ἀπῇ τὰ πράγματα, μάταιόν τι φαίνεται καὶ κενόν, all speech, if deeds are wanting, appears a vain and empty thing.

Εἴ τινας θορυβουμένους αἴσθοιτο, κατασβεννύναι τὴν ταραχὴν ἐπειρᾶτο, if he saw any falling into disorder (or whenever he saw, &c.), he (always) tried to quiet the confusion.

Εἴ τις ἀντείποι, εὐθὺς τεθνήκει, if any one refused, he was immediately put to death.

Remark. The gnomic aorist (§ 205, 2), which is a primary tense (§ 201), can always be used here in the apodosis with the subjunctive depending on it; as ἤν τις παραβαίνῃ, ζημίαν αὐτοῖς ἐπέθεσαν, if any one transgresses, they impose a penalty on him.

Note 1. The indicative is occasionally used in the place of the subjunctive or optative in general suppositions; that is, these sentences may follow the construction of ordinary present and past suppositions (§ 221), as in Latin and English; as εἴ τις δύο ἢ καὶ πλείους τις ἡμέρας λογίζεται, μάταιός ἐστιν, if any one counts on two or even more days, he is a fool. See § 233, N. 1.

Note 2. Here, as in ordinary protasis (§ 223, N. 2), εἰ is sometimes used with the subjunctive in poetry for ἐάν or εἴ κε.

Peculiar Forms of Conditional Sentences.

Ellipsis and Substitution in Protasis or Apodosis.

§ 226

The protasis sometimes is not expressed in its regular form with εἰ or ἐάν, but is contained in a participle, or implied in an adverb or some other part of the sentence. When a participle represents the protasis, its tense is always that in which the verb itself would have stood in the indicative, subjunctive, or optative. The present (as usual) includes the imperfect. E.g.

Πῶς δίκης οὔσης ὁ Ζεὺς οὐκ ἀπόλωλεν; how is it that Zeus has not been destroyed, if Justice exists? (εἰ δίκη ἐστίν).

Σὺ δὲ κλύων εἴσει τάχα, but you will soon know, if you listen (= ἐὰν κλύῃς).

Ἀπολοῦμαι μὴ τοῦτο μαθών, I shall be ruined unless I learn this (ἐὰν μὴ μάθω).

Τοιαῦτά τἂν γυναιξὶ συνναίων ἔχοις, such things would you have to endure if you should dwell among women (i.e. εἰ συνναίοις).

Ἠπίστησεν ἄν τις ἀκούσας; any one would have disbelieved such a thing if he had heard it (i.e. εἰ ἤκουσεν).

Μαμμᾶν δ᾽ ἂν αἰτήσαντος (sc. σοῦ) ἧκόν σοι φέρων ἂν ἄρτον, and if you (ever) cried for food (εἰ αἰτήσειας, § 225), I used to come to you with bread (§ 206).

Διά γε ὑμᾶς αὐτοὺς πάλαι ἂν ἀπολώλειτε, if it had depended on yourselves, you would long ago have been ruined.

Οὕτω γὰρ οὐκέτι τοῦ λοιποῦ πάσχοιμεν ἂν κακῶς, for in that case we should no longer suffer harm (the protasis being in οὕτω).

Οὐδ᾽ ἂν δικαίως ἐς κακὸν πέσοιμί τι, nor should I justly (i.e. if I had justice) fall into any trouble.

The protasis is often altogether omitted, leaving the optative or indicative with ἄν alone as an apodosis.

(a) Here there is sometimes a definite protasis suggested by the context or by the circumstances. E.g.

οὐκ ἐσθίουσι πλείω ἢ δύνανται φέρειν· διαρραγεῖεν γὰρ ἄν, they do not eat more than they can carry; for (if they did) they would burst.

Ἤγετε τὴν εἰρήνην ὅμως· οὐ γὰρ ἦν ὅ τι ἂν ἐποιεῖτε, you still kept the peace; for there was nothing which you could have done (if you had not).:

(b) Sometimes, however, the implied protasis is too indefinite to be expressed (in Greek or in English), as often when it is merely if he pleased, if he could, if he should try, if there should be an opportunity, if we should consider, if what is natural (or likely) should happen, &c. Sometimes it is even too vague to be really present in the mind. Thus arises the potential optative and indicative (with ἄν), corresponding to the English forms with may, can, must, might, could, would, and should. E.g.

Ἴσως ἄν τις ἐπιτιμήσειε τοῖς εἰρημένοις, perhaps some one might (or may) find fault with what has been said.

Ἡδέως δ᾽ ἂν ἔγωγ᾽ ἐροίμην Λεπτίνην, and I should be glad to ask Leptines.

Τοῦτο οὔτ᾽ ἂν οὗτος ἔχοι λέγειν οὔθ᾽ ὑμεῖς πεισθείητε, neither could (can) he say this, nor would you believe it (if he should).

Οὐκ ἂν μεθείμην τοῦ θρόνου, I won't give up the throne (I wouldn't on any condition).

Ποῖ οὖν τραποίμεθ᾽ ἄν; whither then can we turn?

Θᾶττον ἤ τις ἂν ᾤετο, quicker than one would have thought.

Κτύπον πᾶς τις ἤσθετ᾽ ἂν σαφῶς, every one must have heard the sound.

So ἡγήσω ἄν, you would have thought; εἶδες ἄν, you might have seen; cf. Latin crederes, diceres, videres, &c.

So βουλοίμην ἄν (velim), I should wish (in some future case); ἐβουλόμην ἄν (vellem), I should (now) wish, I should prefer (on some condition not fulfilled).

Note. 1. The potential optative sometimes expresses a mild command, and sometimes is hardly more than a future, or a softer expression for a mere assertion; as χωροῖς ἂν εἴσω, you may go in; λέγοις ἂν, you may speak (for speak); κλύοις ἂν ἤδη, Φοῖβε, hear me now, Phoebus. Οὐκ ἂν οὖν πάνυ γέ τι σπουδαῖον εἴη ἡ δικαιοσύνη, Justice will not then turn out to be anything very excellent: see also the fourth and fifth examples under (b). Οὐκ ἂν ἀρνοίμην τοῦτο, I will not (would not) deny it.

In these cases and in most of those under (b), the form of an apodosis was unconsciously used with no reference to any definite condition.

Note. 2. The potential indicative sometimes expresses what would have been likely to happen, i.e. might have happened (and perhaps did happen), with no reference to any unfulfilled condition; as ἢ γάρ μιν ζωόν γε κιχήσεαι, ἤ κεν Ὀρέστης κτεῖνεν ὑποφθάμενος, for either you will find him alive, or else Orestes may already have killed him before you (Od. iv. 546); ὃ θεασάμενος πᾶς ἄν τις ἀνὴρ ἠράσθη δάϊος εἶναι, every man who saw this (the ‘Seven against Thebes’) would have longed to be a warrior (Aristoph.). See § 206, Rem.

The apodosis may be expressed by an infinitive or participle in indirect discourse, each tense representing its own tenses of the indicative or optative (§ 203, with Note 1). If the finite verb in the apodosis would have taken ἄν, this particle is used with the infinitive or participle. E.g.

Ἡγοῦμαι, εἰ τοῦτο ποιεῖτε, πάντα καλῶς ἔχειν, I believe that, if you are doing this, all is well;

ἡγοῦμαι, ἐὰν τοῦτο ποιῆτε, πάντα καλῶς ἕξειν, I believe that, if you shall do this, all will be well;

οἶδα ὑμᾶς ἐὰν ταῦτα γένηται εὖ πράξοντας, I know that you will prosper if this is (shall be) done.

For examples of the infinitive and participle with ἄν, see § 211.

The apodosis may be expressed in an infinitive not in indirect discourse (§ 260, 1), especially one depending on a verb of wishing, commanding, advising, &c., from which the infinitive receives a future meaning. E.g.

Βούλεται ἐλθεῖν ἐὰν τοῦτο γένηται, he wishes to go if this shall be done;

κελεύω ὑμᾶς ἐὰν δύνησθε ἀπελθεῖν, I command you to depart if you can (§ 223).

For the principle of indirect discourse which appears in the protasis here after past tenses, see § 248, 1.

Note. 1. Sometimes the apodosis is merely implied in the context, and in such cases εἰ or ἐάν is often to be translated supposing that or in case that; as ἄκουσον καὶ ἐμοῦ, ἐάν σοι ταὐτὰ δοκῇ, hear me also, in case the same shall please you (i.e. that then you may assent to it); οἱ δ᾽ ᾤκτειρον, εἰ ἁλώσοιντο, and others pitied them, in case they should be captured (i.e. thinking what they would suffer if they should be captured). See § 248, 2. So πρὸς τὴν πόλιν, εἰ ἐπιβοηθοῖεν; ἐχώρουν, they marched towards the city, in case they (the citizens) should rush out (i.e. to meet them if they should rush out). On this principle we must explain αἴ κέν πως βούλεται, Il. i. 66; αἴ κ᾽ ἐθέλῃσθα, Od. iii. 92; and similar passages.

Note. 2. The apodosis is sometimes entirely suppressed for effect; as εἰ μὲν δώσουσι γέρας, if they (shall) give me a prize, - very well (Il. i. 185; cf. i, 580).

Mixed Constructions. – Δέ in Apodosis.

§ 227

The protasis and apodosis sometimes belong to different forms. This happens especially when an indicative with εἰ in the protasis is followed by an optative with ἄν in the apodosis, the latter sometimes having another protasis implied, and sometimes being a potential optative (§ 226, 2). E.g.

Εἰ νῦν γε δυστυχοῦμεν, πῶς τἀναντί᾽ ἂν πράττοντες οὐ σωζοίμεθ᾽ ἄν; if we are now unfortunate, how could we help being saved if we should do the opposite?

Εἰ οὗτοι ὀρθῶς ἀπέστησαν, ὑμεῖς ἂν οὐ χρεὼν ἄρχοιτε, if these had a right to secede, you cannot (could not) possibly hold your power rightfully.

Note. Sometimes a protasis contains the adverb ἄν, belonging not to εἰ, but to the verb. Here the verb is also an apodosis at the same time; as εἰ μὴ ποιήσαιτ᾽ ἂν τοῦτο, if (it is true that) you would not do this (i.e. if it should be necessary), which differs entirely from εἰ μὴ ποιήσαιτε τοῦτο, if you should not do this; εἰ τοῦτο ἰσχυρὸν ἢν ἂν αὐτῷ τεκμήριον, if this would have been a strong proof for him (if he had had it).

The apodosis is sometimes introduced by the conjunction δέ, which cannot be translated in English. E.g.

Εἰ δέ κε μὴ δώωσιν, ἐγὼ δέ κεν αὐτὸς ἕλωμαι, but if they do not give her up, then I will take her myself.

Εἰ after Verbs of Wondering, &c.

§ 228

Some verbs expressing wonder, contentment, disappointment, indignation, &c. take a protasis with εἰ where a causal sentence would seem more natural. So miror si in Latin. E.g.

Θαυμάζω δ᾽ ἔγωγε εἰ μηδεὶς ὑμῶν μήτ᾽ ἐνθυμεῖται μήτ᾽ ὀργίζεται, and I wonder that no one of you is either concerned or angry (lit. if no one of you is, &c., I wonder).

See also § 248, 2, for the principle of indirect discourse applied to these sentences.

Note. Such verbs are especially θαυμάζω, αἰσχύνομαι, ἀγαπάω, and ἀγανακτέω. They sometimes take ὅτι, because, and a causal sentence (§ 250).

Note. The principles of construction of relative clauses include all temporal clauses. Those introduced by ἕως, πρίν, and other particles meaning until, have special peculiarities, and are therefore treated separately (§§ 239, 240).

§ 229.

The antecedent of a relative is either definite or indefinite. It is definite when the relative refers to a definite person or thing, or to some definite time, place, or manner; it is indefinite when no such definite person, thing, time, place, or manner is referred to. Both definite and indefinite antecedents may be either expressed or understood. E.g.

(Definite.) Ταῦτα ἃ ἔχω ὁρᾷς, you see these things which I have; or ἃ ἔχω ὁρᾷς. Ὅτε ἐβούλετο ἦλθεν, (once) when he wished, he came.

(Indefinite.) Πάντα ἃ ἂν βούλωνται ἕξουσιν, they will have everything which they may want; or ἃ ἂν βούλωνται ἕξουσιν, they will have whatever they may want. Ὅταν ἔλθῃ, τοῦτο πράξω, when he shall come (or when he comes), I will do this. Ὅτε βούλοιτο, τοῦτο ἔπρασσεν, whenever he wished, he (always) did this. Ὡς ἂν εἴπω, ποιῶμεν, as I shall direct, let us act.

Definite Antecedent.

§ 230

A relative as such has no effect on the mood of the following verb. A relative with a definite antecedent therefore may take the indicative (with οὐ for its negative) or any other construction which could occur in an independent sentence. E.g.

Τίς ἔσθ᾽ ὁ χῶρος δῆτ᾽ ἐν ᾧ βεβήκαμεν; i.e. the place in which, &c.

Ἕως ἐστὶ καιρὸς, ἀντιλάβεσθε τῶν πραγμάτων, (now) while there is an opportunity, &c.

Τοῦτο οὐκ ἐποίησεν, ἐν ᾧ τὸν δῆμον ἐτίμησεν ἄν, he did not do this, in which he would have honored the people.

So ὃ μὴ γένοιτο, may this not happen.

Indefinite Antecedent. — Conditional Relative.

§ 231

A relative clause with an indefinite antecedent has a conditional force, and is often called a protasis, the antecedent clause being called the apodosis. Such a relative is called a conditional relative. The negative particle is μή.

Note. Relative words (like εἰ, if) take ἄν before the subjunctive. (See § 207, 2.) With ὅτε, ὁπότε, ἐπεί, and ἐπειδή, ἄν forms ὅταν, ὁπόταν, ἐπάν or ἐπήν (Ionic ἐπεάν), and ἐπειδάν. Ἅ with ἄν may form ἅν. In Homer we generally find ὅτε κε, &c. (like εἴ κε, § 219, 2), or ὅτε, &c. alone (§ 234).

§ 232

The conditional relative sentence has four forms (two of present and past, and two of future conditions) which correspond to the four forms of ordinary protasis (§§ 221-224).

Present or past condition simply stated (§ 221). E.g.

Ὅ τι βούλεται δώσω, I will give him whatever he (now) wishes (like εἴ τι βούλεται, δώσω, if he (now) wishes anything, I will give it).

Ἃ μὴ οἶδα, οὐδὲ οἴομαι εἰδέναι, what I do not know, I do not even think I know (like εἴ τινα μὴ οἶδα, if there are any things which I do not know).

Present or past condition stated so as to imply that the condition is not or was not fulfilled (supposition contrary to fact, § 222). E.g.

Ἃ μὴ ἐβούλετο δοῦναι, οὐκ ἂν ἔδωκεν, he would not have given what he had not wished to give (like εἴ τινα μὴ ἐβούλετο δοῦναι, οὐκ ἂν ἔδωκεν, if he had not wished to give certain things, he would not have given them).

Οὐκ ἂν ἐπεχειροῦμεν πράττειν ἃ μὴ ἠπιστάμεθα, we should not (then) be undertaking to do (as we now are) things which we do not understand (like εἴ τινα μὴ ἠπιστάμεθα, if there were any things which we did not understand, the whole belonging to a supposition not realized). So ὃν γῆρας ἔτετμεν, Od. i. 217.

This case occurs much less frequently than the others.

Future condition in the more vivid form (§ 223). E.g.:

Ὅ τι ἂν βούληται, δώσω, I will give him whatever he may wish (like ἐάν τι βούληται, δώσω, if he shall wish anything, I will give it).

Ὅταν μὴ σθένω, πεπαύσομαι, when I (shall) have no more strength, I shall cease.

Ἀλόχους καὶ νήπια τέκνα ἄξομεν ἐν νήεσσιν, ἐπὴν πτολίεθρον ἕλωμεν, we will carry them as soon as we shall have taken the city. Hom.

Note. The future indicative cannot generally be substituted for the subjunctive here, as it can in common protasis (§ 223, N. 1).

Future condition in the less vivid form (§ 224). E.g.

Ὅ τι βούλοιτο, δοίην ἄν, I should give him whatever he might wish (like εἴ τι βούλοιτο, δοίην ἄν, if he should wish anything, I should give it).

Πεινῶν φάγοι ἂν ὁπότε βούλοιτο, if he were hungry, he would eat whenever he might wish (like εἴ ποτε βούλοιτο, if he should ever wish).

§ 233

The conditional relative sentence has the same forms as other conditional sentences (§ 225) in present and past general suppositions, taking the subjunctive after present tenses, and the optative after past tenses. E.g.

Ὅ τι ἂν βούληται δίδωμι, I (always) give him whatever he wants (like ἐάν τι βούληται, if he ever wants anything). Ὅ τι βούλοιτο ἐδίδουν, I (always) gave him whatever he wanted (like εἴ τι βούλοιτο).

Συμμαχεῖν τούτοις ἐθέλουσιν ἅπαντες, οὓς ἂν ὁρῶσι παρεσκευασμένους, all wish to be allies of those whom they see prepared.

Ἡνίκ᾽ ἂν οἴκοι γένωνται, δρῶσιν οὐκ ἀνάσχετα, when they get home, they do things unbearable.

Οὓς μὲν ἴδοι εὐτάκτως ἰόντας, τίνες τε εἶεν ἠρώτα, καὶ ἐπεὶ πύθοιτο ἐπήνει, he (always) asked those whom he saw (at any time) marching in good order, who they were; and when he learned, he praised them.

Ἐπειδὴ δὲ ἀνοιχθείη, εἰσήειμεν παρὰ τὸν Σωκράτη, and (each morning) when the prison was opened, we went in to Socrates.

Note. 1. The indicative sometimes takes the place of the subjunctive or optative here, as in the general suppositions of common protasis (see § 225, N. 1). This occurs especially in poetry after the indefinite relative ὅστις, which itself expresses the same idea of indefiniteness which ὅς with the subjunctive or optative usually expresses; as ὅστις μὴ τῶν ἀρίστων ἅπτεται βουλευμάτων, κάκιστος εἶναι δοκεῖ, whoever does not cling to the best counsels seems to be most base. Soph. Antig. 178. (Here ὃς ἂν μὴ ἅπτηται would be the common prose expression.) Such examples belong under § 232, 1.

Note 2. Homeric similes sometimes have ὡς, ὥς τε, ὡς ὅτε, ὡς ὅς (seldom ὥς κε, &c.), with the subjunctive, where we should expect the present indicative, which is sometimes used; as ὡς γυνὴ κλαίῃ, ... ὡς Ὀδυσεὺς, &c., as a wife weeps, so did Ulysses, &c. Odyss. viii. 523. See Odyss. v. 328; Il. x. 5; xi. 67.

§ 234

Conditional relative sentences have most of the peculiarities and irregularities of common protasis. Thus, the protasis and apodosis may have different forms (§ 227, 1); the simple relative is sometimes found in poetry with the subjunctive (like εἰ for ἐάν or εἴ κε, § 223, N. 2); the relative clause may depend on an infinitive, participle, or other construction (§ 226, 3 and 4); and the conjunction δέ may connect the relative clause to a following antecedent clause (§ 227, 2).

Assimilation in Conditional Relative Clauses.

§ 235

When a conditional relative clause referring to the future depends on a subjunctive or optative referring to the future, it regularly takes by assimilation the same mood with its leading verb. E.g.

Ἐάν τινες οἱ ἂν δύνωνται τοῦτο ποιῶσι, καλῶς ἕξει, if any who may be able shall do this, it will be well;

εἴ τινες οἱ δύναιντο τοῦτο ποιοῖεν, καλῶς ἂν ἔχοι, if any who should be (or were) able should do this, it would be well.

Εἴθε πάντες οἱ δύναιντο τοῦτο ποιοῖεν, O that all who may be (or were) able would do this. (Here the optative ποιοῖεν, § 251, 1, makes οἱ δύναιντο preferable to οἱ ἂν δύνωνται, which would express the same idea).

Τεθναίην ὅτε μοι μηκέτι ταῦτα μέλοι, may I die whenever I shall no longer care for these (ὅταν μέλῃ would express the same idea).

So in Latin: Injurias quas ferre nequeas defugiendo relinquas.

Likewise, when a conditional relative sentence depends on a secondary tense of the indicative implying the non-fulfilment of a condition, it takes by assimilation a similar form. E.g.

Εἴ τινες οἱ ἐδύναντο τοῦτο ἔπραξαν, καλῶς ἂν εἶχεν, if any who had been able had done this, it would have been well.

Εἰ ἐν ἐκείνῃ τῇ φωνῇ τε καὶ τῷ τρόπῳ ἔλεγον ἐν αἷς ἐτεθράμμην, if I were speaking to you in the dialect and in the manner in which I had been brought up (all introduced by εἰ ξένος ἐτύγχανον ὤν, if I happened to be a foreigner).

So in Latin: Si solos eos diceres miseros quibus moriendum esset, neminem tu quidem eorum qui viverent exciperes.

Note. All clauses which come under this principle of assimilation are really protases, and belong equally under § 232, 2, 3, or 4. This principle often decides which form shall be used in future conditions.

Relative Clauses expressing Purpose, Result, or Cause.

§ 236

The relative is used with the future indicative to express a purpose. E.g.

Πρεσβείαν πέμπειν ἥτις ταῦτ᾽ ἐρεῖ καὶ παρέσται τοῖς πράγμασιν, to send an embassy to say this, and to be present at the transactions.

Οὐ γὰρ ἔστι μοι χρήματα, ὁπόθεν ἐκτίσω, for I have no money to pay the fine with.

The antecedent here may be definite or indefinite; but the negative particle is always μή, as in final clauses.

Note 1. In Homer, the subjunctive (with κέ joined to the relative) is commonly found in this construction after primary tenses, and the optative (without κέ) after secondary tenses. The optative is sometimes found even in Attic prose, usually depending on another optative.

Note 2. Ἐφ᾽ ᾧ or ἐφ᾽ ᾧτε, on condition that, which commonly takes the infinitive (§ 267), sometimes takes the future indicative; as ἐπὶ τούτῳ ὑπεξίσταμαι, ἐφ᾽ ᾧτε ὑπ᾽ οὐδενὸς ὑμέων ἄρξομαι, I withdraw on this condition, that I shall be ruled by none of you. Hdt.

Note 3. In this construction the future indicative is very rarely changed to the future optative after past tenses.

§ 237

Ὥστε (sometimes ὡς), so that, which generally takes the infinitive (§ 266, 1), is sometimes followed by the indicative to express a result. The negative is οὐ. E.g.

Οὕτως ἀγνωμόνως ἔχετε, ὥστε ἐλπίζετε αὐτὰ χρηστὰ γενήσεσθαι; are you so senseless that you expect them to become good?

Remark. When ὥστε takes the infinitive (with negative μή), the action of the verb is stated more distinctly as a result depending on the action of the leading verb; the indicative emphasizes the action rather as an independent fact. Thus, in the preceding example, we might have had ἐλπίζειν, when the more natural translation would have been are you so senseless as to expect. Sometimes it is indifferent whether the indicative or the infinitive is used with ὥστε.

Note. A simple relative sentence with és or ὅστις sometimes denotes a result, where ὥστε would be expected; as τίς οὕτως εὐήθης ἐστὶν, ὅστις ἀγνοεῖ; who is so simple as not to know?

§ 238

The relative is sometimes equivalent to ὅτι, because, and a personal or demonstrative. The verb is in the indicative, as in ordinary causal sentences (§ 250). E.g.

Θαυμαστὸν ποιεῖς, ὃς ἡμῖν οὐδὲν δίδως, you doa strange thing in giving us nothing (like ὅτι σὺ οὐδὲν δίδως).

Δόξας ἀμαθὴς εἶναι, ὃς.... ἐκέλευε, having seemed unlearned, because he commanded, &c.

Compare causal relative sentences in Latin.

Temporal Particles signifying Until and Before that.

§ 239

When ἕως, ἔστε, ἄχρι, μέχρι, and ὄφρα, until, refer to a definite point of past time, they take the indicative. E.g.

Νῆχον πάλιν, ἕως ἐπῆλθον εἰς ποταμόν, I swam on again, until I came into a river. Hom.

Ταῦτα ἐποίουν, μέχρι σκότος ἐγένετο, this they did until darkness came on.

These particles follow the construction of conditional relatives in the last three forms which correspond to ordinary protasis, and in general suppositions. E.g.

Ἐπίσχες, ἔστ᾽ ἂν καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ προσμάθῃς, wait until you (shall) learn the rest besides (§ 282, 8).

Εἴποιμ᾽ ἂν.... ἕως παρατείναιμι τοῦτον, I would tell him, &c., until I put him to the torture (§ 232, 4; § 235, 1).

Ἡδέως ἂν τούτῳ ἔτι διελεγόμην, ἕως αὐτῷ... ἀπέδωκα, I should (in that case) gladly have continued to talk with him until I had given him back, &c. (§ 232, 2; § 235, 2).

Ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἀσύντακτα ᾖ, ἀνάγκη ταῦτα ἀεὶ πράγματα παρέχειν, ἕως ἂν χώραν λάβῃ, whatever things are in disorder, these must always make trouble until they are put in order (§ 233).

Περιεμένομεν ἑκάστοτε, ἕως ἀνοιχθείη τὸ δεσμωτήριον; we waited each day until the prison was opened (§ 233), or until the prison should be opened (Note 2).

Note. 1. The omission of ἄν after these particles and πρίν, when the verb is in the subjunctive, is more common than it is after εἰ or ordinary relatives (§ 228, N. 2), occurring sometimes in Attic prose; as μέχρι πλοῦς γένηται, Thuc. i. 187.

Note. 2. Clauses introduced by ἕως, &c. and by πρίν frequently imply a purpose; see the examples under 2. When these clauses depend upon a past tense, they admit the double construction of indirect discourse (§ 248, 3), like final clauses (§ 216, 2). See examples under § 248, 3.

§ 240

When πρίν, before, until, is not followed by the infinitive (see below, 2), it takes the indicative, subjunctive, or optative, following the principles already stated for ἕως (§ 239). E.g.

Οὐκ ἦν ἀλέξημ᾽ οὐδὲν, πρίν γ᾽ ἐγώ σφισιν ἔδειξα, &c., there was no relief, until I showed them, &c. (§ 259, 1).

Οὐ χρή με ἐνθένδε ἀπελθεῖν, πρὶν ἂν δῷ δίκην, I must not leave this place until he is punished (§ 232, 3).

Οὐκ ἂν εἰδείης πρὶν πειρηθείης, you would not know until you had (should have) tested it (§ 232, 4; § 235, 1).

Ἐχρῆν μὴ πρότερον συμβουλεύειν, πρὶν ἡμᾶς ἐδίδαξαν, &c., they ought not to have given advice until they had instructed us, &c. (§ 232, 2; § 235, 2).

Ὁρῶσι τοὺς πρεσβυτέρους οὐ πρόσθεν ἀπιόντας, πρὶν ἂν ἀφῶσιν οἱ ἄρχοντες, they see that the elders never go away until the authorities dismiss them (§ 233).

Οὐδαμόθεν ἀφίεσαν, πρὶν παραθεῖεν αὐτοῖς ἄριστον, they dismissed them from no place before they had set a meal before them (§ 233).

Ἀπηγόρευε μηδένα βάλλειν, πρὶν Κῦρος ἐμπλησθείη θηρῶν, he forbade any one to shoot until Cyrus should be sated with the hunt (§ 239, 2, N. 2; § 248, 3).

For πρίν without ἄν with the subjunctive, see § 239, N. 1.

In constructions in which πρίν (following the principle of ἕως, § 239) might take the subjunctive or optative, these moods are generally used only when the leading verb is negative or interrogative with an implied negative. It takes the indicative (when that would be allowed by the construction) after both negative and affirmative sentences, but chiefly after negatives.

When πρίν does not take the indicative, subjunctive, or optative, it is followed by the infinitive (§ 274). In Homer, the infinitive is the form regularly used after πρίν, without regard to the leading sentence.

Note. Πρίν is by ellipsis for πρὶν ἤ (priusquam), and is probably for προ-ιον (προ-ιν), a comparative of πρό, before. Πρὶν ἤ, πρότερον ἤ, and πρόσθεν ἤ may be used in the same constructions as πρίν itself.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

§ 241

A direct quotation or question gives the exact words of the original speaker or writer. In an indirect quotation or question the original words conform to the construction of the sentence in which they are quoted.

Thus the words ταῦτα βούλομαι may be quoted either

directly, λέγει τις “ταῦτα βούλομαι,”

or indirectly, λέγει τις ὅτι ταῦτα βούλεται or φησί τις ταῦτα βούλεσθαι, some one says that he wishes for this.

So ἐρωτᾷ “τί βούλει;” he asks, “what do you want?”

But ἐρωτᾷ τί βούλεται, he asks him what he wants.

Indirect quotations may be introduced by ὅτι or ὡς, that, or by the infinitive (as in the example given above); sometimes also by the participle.

Note. Ὅτι, that, occasionally introduces even a direct quotation; as in Anab. i. 6, 8.

Indirect questions follow the same rule as indirect quotations in regard to their moods and tenses.

Note. The term indirect discourse applies to all clauses (even single clauses in sentences of different construction) which indirectly express the words or thought of any person, even past thoughts of the speaker himself (§ 248).

§ 242

Indirect quotations after ὅτι and ὡς and indirect questions follow these general rules:-

(a) After primary tenses, each verb retains both the mood and the tense of the direct discourse.

(b) After secondary tenses, each indicative or subjunctive of the direct discourse may be either changed to the same tense of the optative or retained in its original mood and tense. But all secondary tenses of the indicative implying non-fulfilment of a condition (§ 222) and all optatives are retained unchanged.

Note. The imperfect and pluperfect, having no tenses in the optative, generally remain unchanged in all kinds of sentences. The aorist indicative likewise remains unchanged when it belongs to a dependent clause of the direct discourse (§ 247); but when it belongs to the leading clause, it is changed to the optative like the primary tenses (§ 248).

When the quotation depends on a verb which takes the infinitive or participle, its leading verb is changed to the corresponding tense of the infinitive or participle (ἄν being retained when there is one), and its dependent verbs follow the preceding rule.

Ἄν is never omitted with the indicative or optative in indirect discourse, if it was used in the direct form; but ἄν belonging to a relative word or particle in the direct form (§ 207, 2) is regularly dropped when the subjunctive is changed to the optative in indirect discourse.

Note. Ἄν is never added in the indirect discourse when it was not used in the direct form.

The negative particle of the direct discourse is regularly retained in the indirect form. But the infinitive and participle occasionally have μή where οὐ would be used in direct discourse (§ 283, 3).

SIMPLE SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

Indicative and Optative after ὅτι and ὡς, and in Indirect Questions.

§ 243

When the direct form is an indicative (without ἄν), the principle of § 242, 1, gives the following rule for indirect quotations after ὅτι or ὡς and for indirect questions: –

After primary tenses the verb retains both its mood and its tense. After secondary tenses it is either changed to the same tense of the optative or retained in the original mood and tense. E.g.

Λέγει ὅτι γράφει, he says that he is writing;

λέγει ὅτι ἔγραφεν; he says that he was writing;

λέγει ὅτι ἔγραψεν, he says that he wrote;

λέξει ὅτι γέγραφεν, he will say that he has written.

Ἐρωτᾷ τί βούλονται, he asks what they want;

ἀγνοῶ τί ποιήσουσιν, I do not know what they will do.

Εἶπεν ὅτι γράφοι or ὅτι γράφει, he said that he was writing (he said γράφω).

Εἶπεν ὅτι γράψοι or ὅτι γράψει, he said that he would write (he said γράψω).

Εἶπεν ὅτι γράψειεν or ὅτι ἔγραψεν, he said that he had written (he said ἔγραψα, I wrote).

Ἐἶπεν ὅτι γεγραφὼς εἴη or ὅτι γέγραφεν, he said that he had written (he said γέγραφα, I have written).

(Opt.) Ἐπειρώμην αὐτῷ δεικνύναι, ὅτι οἴοιτο μὲν εἶναι σοφὸς, εἴη δ᾽ οὔ, I tried to show him that he believed himself to be wise, but was not (i.e. οἴεται μὲν... ἔστι δ᾽ οὔ). Ὑπειπὼν ὅτι αὐτὸς τἀκεῖ πράξοι, ᾧχετο, hinting that he would himself attend to things there, he departed (he said αὐτὸς τἀκεῖ πράξω). Ἔλεξαν ὅτι πέμψειε σφᾶς ὁ Ἰνδῶν βασιλεύς, κελεύων ἐρωτᾶν ἐξ ὅτου ὁ πόλεμος εἴη, they said that the king of the Indians had sent them, commanding them to ask on what account there was the war (they said ἔπεμψεν ἡμᾶς, and the question was ἐκ τίνος ἐστὶν ὁ πόλεμος;). Ἤρετο εἴ τις ἐμοῦ εἴη σοφώτερος, he asked whether there was any one wiser than I (i.e. ἔστι τις σοφώτερος;).

(Indicat.) Ἔλεγον ὅτι ἐλπίζουσι σὲ καὶ τὴν πόλιν ἕξειν μοι χάριν, they said that they hoped you and the state would be grateful to me. Ἧκε δ᾽ ἀγγέλλων τις ὡς Ἠλάτεια κατείληπται, some one was come with a report that Elatea had been taken (here the perfect optative might have been used). Ἀποκρινάμενοι ὅτι πέμψουσι πρέσβεις, εὐθὺς ἀπήλλαξαν, having replied that they would send ambassadors, they dismissed them at once. Ἠπόρουν τί ποτε λέγει, I was uncertain what he meant (τί ποτε λέγει;). Ἐβουλεύοντο τίν᾽ αὐτοῦ καταλείψουσιν, they were considering (the question) whom they should leave here.

Note. 1. The imperfect and pluperfect regularly remain unchanged in this construction after secondary tenses (§ 242, 1, N.). But occasionally the present optative represents the imperfect here; as ἀπεκρίναντο ὅτι οὐδεὶς μάρτυς παρείη, they replied that there had been no witness present (οὐδεὶς παρῆν), Where the context makes it clear that παρείη does not stand for πάρεστι. See § 203, N. 1.

Note. 2. In a few cases the Greek changes a present indicative to the imperfect, or a perfect to the pluperfect, in this construction, instead of retaining it or changing it to the optative; as ἐν ἀπορίᾳ ἦσαν, ἐννοούμενοι ὅτι ἐπὶ ταῖς βασιλέως θύραις ἦσαν, προὐδεδώκεσαν δὲ αὐτοὺς οἱ βάρβαροι, they were in despair, considering that they were at the King’s gates, and that the barbarians had betrayed them. (See the whole passage, Anab. iii. 1, 2.) This is also the English usage.

Subjunctive or Optative representing the Interrogative Subjunctive.

§ 244

In indirect questions, after a primary tense, an interrogative subjunctive (§ 256) retains its mood and tense; after a secondary tense, it may be either changed to the same tense of the optative or retained in the subjunctive. E.g.

Βουλεύομαι ὅπως σε ἀποδρῶ, I am trying to think how I shall escape you (πῶς σε ἀποδρῶ;).

Οὐκ οἶδ᾽ εἰ Χρυσάντᾳ τούτῳ δῶ, I do not know whether I shall give them to Chrysantas here.

Οὐκ ἔχω τί εἴπω, I do not know what I shall say (τί εἴπω;). Non habeo quid dicam.

Ἐπήροντο εἰ παραδοῖεν τὴν πόλιν, they asked whether they should give up the city (παραδῶμεν τὴν πόλιν; shall we give up the city?).

Ἠπόρει ὅ τι χρήσαιτο τῷ πράγματι, he was at a loss how to deal with the matter (τί χρήσωμαι;).

Ἐβουλεύοντο εἴτε κατακαύσωσιν εἴτε τι ἄλλο χρήσωνται, they were deliberating whether they should burn them or dispose of them in some other way.

Note. 1. An interrogative subjunctive may be changed to the optative when the leading verb is in the optative, contrary to the general usage in indirect discourse (§ 201, N. 2); as οὐκ ἂν ἔχοις ὅ τι εἴποις, you would not know what to say.

Note. 2. In these cases εἰ (not ἐάν) is used for whether, before the subjunctive as well as the optative: see the second example.

Indicative or Optative with ἄν.

§ 245

An indicative or optative with ἄν retains its mood and tense (with ἄν) unchanged in indirect discourse after ὅτι or ὡς and in indirect questions. E.g.

Λέγει (or ἔλεγεν) ὅτι τοῦτο ἂν ἐγένετο, he says (or said) that this would have happened;

ἔλεγεν ὅτι οὗτος δικαίως ἂν ἀποθάνοι, he said that this man would justly die.

Ἠρώτων εἰ δοῖεν ἂν τὰ πιστά, they asked whether they would give the pledges (δοῖτε ἄν;).

Infinitive and Participle in Indirect Quotation.

§ 246

When the infinitive or participle is used in indirect discourse, its tense represents the tense of the finite verb in the direct form to which it corresponds, the present and perfect including the imperfect and pluperfect. Each tense with ἄν can represent the corresponding tenses of either indicative or optative with ἄν. E.g.

Ἀρρωστεῖν προφασίζεται, he pretends that he is ill,

ἐξώμοσεν ἀρρωστεῖν τουτονί, he took an oath that this man was ill.

Κατασχεῖν φησι τούτους, he says that he detained them.

Ἔφη χρήμαθ᾽ ἑαυτῷ τοὺς Θηβαίους ἐπικεκηρυχέναι, he said that the Thebans had offered a reward for him.

Ἐπαγγέλλεται τὰ δίκαια ποιήσειν, he promises to do what is right.

See examples under § 203, and N. 1.

Ἤγγειλε τούτους ἐρχομένους, he announced that these were coming (οὗτοι ἔρχονται);

ἀγγέλλει τούτους ἐλθόντας, he announces that these came;

ἀγγέλλει τοῦτο γενησόμενον, he announces that this will be done;

ἤγγειλε τοῦτο γενησόμενον, he announced that this would be done;

ἤγγειλε τοῦτο γεγενημένον, he announced that this had been done (τοῦτο γεγένηται).

See examples of ἄν with infinitive and participle under § 211.

Note. The infinitive is said to stand in indirect discourse and its tenses correspond to those of the finite moods, when it depends on a verb implying thought or the expression of thought, and when also the thought, as originally conceived, would have been expressed by some tense of the indicative (with or without ἄν) or optative (with ἄν), and can therefore be transferred without change of tense to the infinitive. Thus in βούλεται ἐλθεῖν, he wishes to go, ἐλθεῖν represents no form of either aorist indicative or aorist optative, and is not in indirect discourse. But in φησὶν ἐλθεῖν, he says that he went, ἐλθεῖν represents ἦλθον of the direct discourse.

INDIRECT QUOTATION OF COMPOUND SENTENCES.

§ 247

When a compound sentence is indirectly quoted, its leading verb follows the rule for simple sentences (§§ 243-246). After primary tenses the dependent verbs of the quotation retain the same mood and tense. After secondary tenses, all primary tenses of the indicative and all subjunctives may either be changed to the same tense of the optative or retain the mood and tense of the direct form. But dependent secondary tenses of the indicative are kept unchanged. E.g.

Ἂν ὑμεῖς λέγητε, ποιήσειν (φησὶν) ὃ μήτ᾽ αἰσχύνην μήτ᾽ ἀδοξίαν αὐτῷ φέρει, if you (shall) say so, he says he will do whatever does not bring shame or discredit to him.

Here no change is made, except in ποιήσειν (§ 246).

Ἀπεκρίνατο ὅτι μανθάνοιεν ἃ οὐκ ἐπίσταιντο, he replied, that they were learning what they did not understand (he said μανθάνουσιν ἃ οὐκ ἐπίστανται, which might have been retained).

Εἴ τινα φεύγοντα λήψοιτο, προηγορεύειν ὅτι ὡς πολεμίῳ χρήσοιτο, he announced that if he should catch any one running away, he should treat him as an enemy (he said εἴ τινα λήψομαι, χρήσομαι, § 223, N. 1).

Ἐνόμιζεν, ὅσα τῆς πόλεως προλάβοι, πάντα ταῦτα βεβαίως ἕξειν, he believed that he should hold all those places securely which he should take from the city beforehand (ὅσ᾽ ἂν προλάβω, ἕξω).

Ἐδόκει μοι ταύτῃ πειρᾶσθαι σωθῆναι, ἐνθυμουμένῳ ὅτι, ἐὰν μὲν λάθω, σωθήσομαι, it seemed best to me to try to gain safety in this way, thinking that, if I should escape notice, I should be saved (here we might have had εἰ λάθοιμι, σωθησοίμην).

Ἔφασαν τοὺς ἄνδρας ἀποκτενεῖν οὓς ἔχουσι ζῶντας, they said that they should kill the men whom they had living (ἀποκτενοῦμεν οὓς ἔχομεν, which might have been changed to ἀποκτενεῖν οὓς ἔχοιεν).

Πρόδηλον ἦν (τοῦτο) ἐσόμενον, εἰ μὴ κωλύσετε, it was plain that this would be so unless you should prevent (τοῦτο ἔσται, εἰ μὴ κωλύσετε, which might have become εἰ μὴ κωλύσοιτε).

Ἤλπιζον τοὺς Σικελοὺς ταύτῃ, οὓς μετεπέμψαντο, ἀπαντήσεσθαι, they hoped the Sikels whom they had sent for would meet them here (N. 2).

Note. 1. One verb may be changed to the optative while another is retained; as δηλώσας ὅτι ἕτοιμοί εἰσι μάχεσθαι, εἴ τις ἐξέρχοιτο, having shown that they were ready to fight if any one should come forth (ἕτοιμοί εἰσιν, ἐάν τις ἐξέρχηται). This sometimes causes a great variety of constructions in the same sentence.

Note. 2. The aorist indicative is not changed to the aorist optative in dependent clauses, because the latter tense is commonly used to represent the aorist- subjunctive. In dependent clauses in which confusion would be impossible (as in causal sentences, which never have a subjunctive), even an aorist indicative may become optative.

For the imperfect and pluperfect see § 242, 1 (b), Note.

Note. 3. A dependent optative of the direct form naturally remains unchanged in all indirect discourse.

Note. 4. Occasionally a dependent present or perfect indicative is changed to the imperfect or pluperfect, as in the leading clause (§ 248, N. 2).

§ 248

The principles of § 247 apply also to any dependent clause (in a sentence of any kind) which expresses indirectly the past thoughts of any person, even of the speaker himself.

This applies especially to the following constructions: —

Clauses depending on an infinitive after verbs of wishing, commanding, advising, &c., which imply thought, although the infinitive after them is not in indirect discourse (§ 246, Note).

Clauses containing a protasis with the apodosis implied in the context (§ 226, 4, N. 1), or with the apodosis expressed in a verb like θαυμάζω (§ 228).

Temporal clauses expressing a past intention or purpose, especially those introduced by ἕως or πρίν after past tenses.

Even ordinary relative sentences, which would regularly take the indicative. This affects the construction of course only after past tenses. E.g.

(1) Ἐβούλοντο ἐλθεῖν, εἰ τοῦτο γένοιτο, they wished to go if this should happen. (Here ἐβούλοντο ἐλθεῖν, ἐὰν τοῦτο γένηται might be used, expressing the form, if this shall happen, in which the wish would be conceived. Here ἐλθεῖν is not in indirect discourse. (§ 226, 4; § 246, N.) Ἐκέλευσεν ὅ τι δύναιντο λαβόντας μεταδιώκειν, he commanded them to take what they could and pursue (he said ὅ τι ἂν δύνησθε, what you can, and therefore we might have had ὅ τι ἂν δύνωνται). Προεῖπον αὐτοῖς μὴ ναυμαχεῖν Κορινθίοις, ἣν μὴ ἐπὶ Κέρκυραν πλέωσι καὶ μέλλωσιν ἀποβαίνειν, they instructed them not to engage in a sea fight with Corinthians, unless these should be sailing against Corcyra and should be on the point of landing. (Here the direct forms are retained, for which εἰ μὴ πλέοιεν καὶ μέλλοιεν might. have been used.)

(2) ᾤκτειρον, εἰ ἁλώσοιντο, they pitied them, in case they should be captured (the thought being εἰ ἁλώσονται, which might have been retained). Φύλακας συμπέμπει, ὅπως φυλάττοιεν αὐτὸν, καὶ εἰ τῶν ἀγρίων τι φανείη θηρίων, he sends (sent) guards, to guard him and (to be ready) in case any of the savage beasts should appear (the thought being ἐάν τι φανῇ). Τἄλλα, ἢν ἔτι ναυμαχεῖν οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι τολμήσωσι, παρεσκευάζοντο, they made the other preparations, (to be ready) in case the Athenians should still venture a naval battle. Ἔχαιρον ἀγαπῶν εἴ τις ἐάσοι, I rejoiced, being content if any one would let it pass (the thought was ἀγαπῶ εἴ τις ἐάσει). Ἐθαύμαζεν εἴ τις ἀργύριον πράττοιτο, he wondered that any one demanded money (Xen. Mem. i. 2, 7); but in the same book (i. 1, 18) we find ἐθαύμαζε δ᾽ εἰ μὴ φανερὸν αὐτοῖς ἐστιν, he wondered that it was not plain.

(3) Σπονδὰς ἐποιήσαντο ἕως ἀπαγγελθείη τὰ λεχθέντα εἰς Λακεδαίμονα, they made a truce, (to continue) until what had been said should be reported at Sparta (their thought was ἕως ἂν ἀπαγγελθῇ, which might have been retained). Οὐ γὰρ δὴ σφέας ἀπίει ὁ θεὸς τῆς ἀποικίης, πρὶν δὴ ἀπίκωνται ἐς αὐτὴν Λιβύην, i.e. until they should come, &c. (where ἀπίκοιντο might have been used). Hdt. Μένοντες ἕστασαν ὁππότε πύργος Τρώων ὁρμήσειε, they stood waiting until (for the time when) a column should rush upon the Trojans. Hom.

(4) Καὶ ᾔτεε σῆμα ἰδέσθαι, ὅ τι ῥά οἱ γαμβροῖο πάρα Προίτοιο φέροιτο, he asked to see the token, which he was bringing (as he said) from Proetus. Κατηγόρεον τῶν Αἰγινητέων τὰ πεποιήκοιεν προδόντες τὴν Ἑλλάδα, they accused the Aeginetans for what (as they said) they had done in betraying Greece.

For the same principle in causal sentences, see § 250, Note.

Note. On this principle, final and object clauses with ἵνα, ὅπως, ὡς, μή, &c. admit the double construction of indirect discourse, and allow either the subjunctive or future indicative (as the case may be) to stand unchanged after secondary tenses. (See § 216, 2.) The same principle extends to all conditional and all conditional relative and temporal sentences depending on final or object clauses, as these too belong to the indirect discourse.

Ὅπως AND HOMERIC Ὅ IN INDIRECT QUOTATIONS.

§ 249

In a few cases ὅπως is used for ὡς or ὅτι in indirect quotations, chiefly in poetry. E.g.

Τοῦτο μή μοι φράζ᾽, ὅπως οὐκ εἶ κακός, do not tell me this, that you are not base. Soph.

Homer rarely uses ὅ (neuter of ὅς) for ὅτι. E.g.

Λεύσσετε γὰρ τό γε πάντες, ὅ μοι γέρας ἔρχεται ἄλλῃ, for you all see this, that my prize goes another way.

Τιγνώσκων ὅ οἱ αὐτὸς ὑπείρεχε χεῖρας Ἀπόλλων, knowing that Apollo himself held over him his hands.

Causal sentences express a cause or reason, and are introduced by ὅτι, ὡς, because, ἐπεί, ἐπειδή, ὅτε, ὁπότε, since, and by other particles of similar meaning. They take the indicative after both primary and secondary tenses. The negative particle is οὐ. E.g.

Κήδετο γὰρ Δαναῶν, ὅτι ῥα θνήσκοντας ὁρᾶτο, for he pitied the Danai, because he saw them dying.

Ὅτε τοῦθ᾽ οὕτως ἔχει, προσήκει, &c., since this is so, it is becoming, &c.

Note. On the principle of indirect discourse (§ 248), the optative may be used in a causal sentence after a past tense, to imply that the cause is assigned on the authority of some other person than the speaker; as τὸν Περικλέα ἐκάκιζον, ὅτι στρατηγὸς ὢν οὐκ ἐπεξάγοι, they abused Pericles, because (as they said) being general he did not lead them out. Thuc. (This assigns the Athenians’ reason for abusing him, and does not show the historian’s opinion.)

When a wish refers to the future, it is expressed by the optative, either with or without εἴθε or εἰ γάρ (Hom. αἴθε, αἰ γάρ), O that, O if. The negative is μή, which can stand alone with the optative. E.g.

Αἰ γὰρ ἐμοὶ τοσσήνδε θεοὶ δύναμιν παραθεῖεν, O that the Gods would clothe me with so much strength. Hom.

Τὸ μὲν νῦν ταῦτα πρήσσοις τάπερ ἐν χερσὶν ἔχεις, for the present may you continue to do these things which you have now in hand. Hdt.

Εἴθε φίλος ἡμῖν γένοιο, O that you may become our friend.

Μηκέτι ζῴην ἐγώ, may I no longer live.

Τεθναίην, ὅτε μοι μηκέτι ταῦτα μέλοι, may I die when I shall no longer care for these things (§ 235, 1).

For the distinction between the present and aorist see § 202, 1.

Note. 1. In poetry εἰ alone is sometimes used with the optative in wishes; as εἴ μοι γένοιτο φθόγγος ἐν βραχίοσιν, O that I might

find a voice in my arms. Eur.

Note. 2. The poets, especially Homer, sometimes prefix ὡς (not translatable) to the optative in wishes; as ὡς ἀπόλοιτο καὶ ἄλλος ὅτις τοιαῦτά γε ῥέζοι, likewise may any other perish who may do the like.

Note. 3. In poetry, especially in Homer, the optative alone sometimes expresses a concession or permission, sometimes a command or exhortation; as αὖτις Ἀργείην Ἑλένην Μενέλαος ἄγοιτο, Menelaus may take back Argive Helen. Τεθναίης, ὦ Προῖτ᾽, ἢ κάκτανε Βελλεροφόντην, either die, or kill Bellerophontes. Here, and in the optative alone in wishes, we probably have an original independent use of the optative; while all the forms of wishes introduced by εἴθε, εἰ γάρ, or εἰ are elliptical protases, as is seen by the use of εἰ, and by the force of the tenses, which is the same as it is in protasis.

When a wish refers to the present or the past, and it is implied that its object is not or was not attained, it is expressed by a secondary tense of the indicative with εἴθε or εἰ γάρ, which here cannot be omitted. The imperfect and aorist are distinguished here as in protasis (§ 222). E.g.

Εἴθε τοῦτο ἐποίει, O that he were doing this, or O that he had done this.

Εἴθε τοῦτο ἐποίησεν, O that he had done this; εἰ γὰρ μὴ ἐγένετο τοῦτο, O that this had not happened.

Εἴθ᾽ εἶχες βελτίους φρένας, O that thou hadst a better understanding.

Εἰ γὰρ τοσαύτην δύναμιν εἶχον, O that I had so great power.

Εἴθε σοι τότε συνεγενόμην, O that I had then met with you.

Note. 1. The aorist ὤφελον of ὀφείλω, debeo, and in Homer sometimes the imperfect ὥφελλον, are used with the infinitive in wishes, with the same meaning as the secondary tenses of the indicative; as ὤφελε τοῦτο ποιεῖν, would that he were doing this (lit. he ought to be doing this), or would that he had done this (habitually); ὤφελε τοῦτο ποιῆσαι, would that he had done this. For the distinction made by the different tenses of the infinitive, see § 222, N. 2.

Note. 2. Ὤφελον is negatived by μή (not οὐ), and it may even be preceded by εἴθε, εἰ γάρ, or ὡς; as μή ποτ᾽ ὤφελον λιπεῖν τὴν Σκῦρον, O that I had never left Scyros; εἰ γὰρ ὦ φελον οἷοί τε εἶναι, O that they were able, &c.; so ὡς ὤφελες ὀλέσθαι. As this is really an apodosis, like ἔδει, &c., with the infinitive (§ 222, N. 2), the use of εἴθε and εἰ γάρ with it is an anomaly: μή should perhaps be constructed with the infinitive.

§ 252

The imperative expresses a command, exhortation, or entreaty; as λέγε, speak thou; φεῦγε, begone! ἐλθέτω, let him come; χαιρόντων, let them rejoice.

Note. A combination of a command and a question is found in such phrases as οἶσθ᾽ ὃ δρᾶσον; do — dost thou know what?

§ 253

The first person of the subjunctive (generally plural) is used in exhortations. Its negative is μή. E.g.

Ἴωμεν, let us go; ἴδωμεν, let us see; μὴ τοῦτο ποιῶμεν, let us not do this.

Note. Both subjunctive and imperative may be preceded by ἄγε (ἄγετε), φέρε, or ἴθι, come! These words are used without regard to the number or person of the verb which follows; as ἄγε μίμνετε πάντες.

§ 254

In prohibitions, in the second and third persons, the present imperative or the aorist subjunctive is used with μή and its compounds. E.g.

Μὴ ποίει τοῦτο, do not do this (habitually), or do not go on doing this;

μὴ ποιήσῃς τοῦτο, (simply) do not do this.

Μὴ κατὰ τοὺς νόμους δικάσητε' μὴ βοηθήσητε τῷ πεπονθότι δεινά- μὴ εὐορκεῖτε, do not judge according to the laws; do not help him who has suffered outrages; do not abide by your oaths.

The two forms have merely the usual distinction between the present and aorist (§ 202, 1).

Note. The third person of the aorist imperative sometimes occurs in prohibitions; the second person very rarely.

§ 255

In Homer, the subjunctive in independent sentences sometimes has the force of a future indicative. E.g.

Οὐ γάρ πω τοίους ἴδον ἀνέρας, οὐδὲ ἴδωμαι, for I never yet saw nor shall I ever see such men.

Καί ποτέ τις εἴπῃσιν, and one will (or may) some time say.

Note. This subjunctive may, like the future indicative, take ἄν or κέ to form an apodosis.

See § 209, 2, with the example.

§ 256

The first person of the subjunctive, and sometimes the third, may be used in questions of doubt, where a person asks himself or another what he is to do. It is negatived by μή. It is often introduced by βούλει or βούλεσθε (in poetry θέλεις or θέλετε). E.g.

Εἴπω ταῦτα; shall I say this? or βούλει εἴπω ταῦτα; do you wish that I should say this?

Ποῖ τράπωμαι; ποῖ πορευθῶ; whither shall I turn? whither shall I go?

Ποῦ δὴ βούλει καθιζόμενοι ἀναγνῶμεν; where now wilt thou that we sit down and read?

Τί τις εἶναι τοῦτο φῇ; what shall any one (i.e. I) say this is?

So in τί πάθω; what will become of me? what harm will it do me?

§ 257

The subjunctive and future indicative are used with the double negative οὐ μή in the sense of the future indicative with οὐ, but with more emphasis. E.g.

Οὐ μὴ πίθηται, he will not obey.

Οὔτε γὰρ γίγνεται, οὔτε γέγονεν, οὐδὲ οὖν μὴ γένηται, for there is not, nor has there been, nor will there ever be, &c.

Οὔ ποτ᾽ ἐξ ἐμοῦ γε μὴ πάθῃς τόδε, you never shall suffer this at my hands.

Οὔ τοι μήποτέ σε ... ἄκοντά τις ἄξει, no one shall ever take you against your will, &c.

The double negative here seems to have merely the force of emphasis, and the subjunctive is a relic of the old usage (§ 255). The aorist subjunctive is generally used in these expressions.

Note. This construction in the second person sometimes expresses a strong prohibition; as οὐ μὴ καταβήσει, do not come down (lit. you shall not come down); οὐ μὴ σκώψῃς, do not mock. The future indicative and the aorist subjunctive are both allowed in this sense. The imperative force is to be explained as in the future used imperatively (§ 200, N. 8).

§ 258

The infinitive has the force of a neuter verbal noun, and may take the neuter article in all its cases. It may at the same time, like a verb, have a subject or object; and it is qualified by adverbs, not by adjectives.

§ 259

The infinitive as nominative may be the subject of a finite verb, especially of an impersonal verb (§ 134, N. 2) or of ἐστί; or it may be a predicate (§ 136). As accusative it may be the subject of another infinitive. E.g.

Συνέβη αὐτῷ ἐλθεῖν, it happened to him to go; ἐξῆν μένειν, it was possible to remain;

ἡδὺ πολλοὺς ἐχθροὺς ἔχειν; is it pleasant to have many enemies?

φησὶν ἐξεῖναι τούτοις μένειν, he says it is possible for these to remain (μένειν being subject of ἐξεῖναι).

Τὸ γνῶναι ἐπιστήμην λαβεῖν ἐστιν, to learn is to acquire knowledge.

Τοῦτό ἐστι τὸ ἀδικεῖν, this is to commit injustice.

Τὸ γὰρ θάνατον δεδιέναι οὐδὲν ἄλλο ἐστὶν ἢ δοκεῖν σοφὸν εἶναι μὴ ὄντα, for to fear death (the fear of death) is nothing else than to seem to be wise without being so.

Note. These infinitives usually stand without the article; but whenever it is desired to make the infinitive more prominent as a noun (see the last examples), the article can be added. See § 260, 1, N. 2.

§ 260

The infinitive without the article may be the object of a verb. It generally has the force of an object accusative, sometimes that of a cognate accusative, and sometimes that of an object genitive.

The object infinitive not in indirect discourse may follow any verb whose action naturally implies another action as its object. Such verbs are in general the same in Greek as in English, and others must be learned by practice. E.g.

Βούλεται ἐλθεῖν, he wishes to go;

βούλεται τοὺς πολίτας πολεμικοὺς εἶναι, he wishes the citizens to be warlike;

παραινοῦμέν σοι μένειν, we advise you to remain;

προείλετο πολεμῆσαι, he preferred to make war;

κελεύει σε μὴ ἀπελθεῖν, he commands you not to depart;

ἀξιοῦσιν ἄρχειν, they claim the right to rule;

ἀξιοῦται θανεῖν, he is thought to deserve to die;

δέομαι ὑμῶν συγγνώμην μοι ἔχειν, I ask you to have consideration for me.

So κωλύει σε βαδίζειν, he prevents you from marching;

οὐ πέφυκε δουλεύειν, he is not born to be a slave;

ἀναβάλλεται τοῦτο ποιεῖν, he postpones doing this;

κινδυνεύει θανεῖν, he is in danger of death.

Note. 1. The tenses here used are chiefly the present and aorist, and these do not differ in their time (§ 202, 1, 2, and 3). In this construction the infinitive has no more reference to time than any other verbal noun would have, but the meaning of the verb generally gives it a reference to the future; as in ἀξιοῦται θανεῖν (above) θανεῖν expresses time only so far as θανάτου would do so in its place. Its negative is μή (§ 283, 3).

Note. 2. When the infinitive is the object of a verb which does not commonly take this construction, it generally has the article; as τὸ τελευτῆσαι πάντων ἣ πεπρωμένη κατέκρινεν, Fate adjudged death to all. Occasionally even the ordinary verbs included in § 260, 1 (as verbs of wishing) take the infinitive with τό as an object accusative, chiefly in poetry; as τὸ δρᾶν οὐκ ἠθέλησαν, they were not willing to act.

The object infinitive in indirect discourse (§ 203) follows a verb implying thought or the expression of thought, or some equivalent phrase. Here each tense of the infinitive corresponds in time to the same tense of some finite mood. See § 246, with the examples and Note.

Note. 1. Of the three common verbs meaning to say, —

(a) φημί regularly takes the infinitive in indirect discourse;

(b) εἶπον takes ὅτι or ὡς with the indicative or optative;

(c) λέγω allows either construction, but in the active voice it generally takes ὅτι or ὡς.

Note. 2. A relative clause depending on an infinitive in indirect discourse sometimes takes the infinitive by assimilation; as ἐπειδὴ δὲ γενέσθαι ἐπὶ τῇ οἰκίᾳ, (ἔφη) ἀνεῳγμένην καταλαμβάνειν τὴν θύραν, and when they came to the house, they found the door open (he said). Herodotus allows this even after εἰ, if, and διότι, because.

§ 261

The infinitive without the article limits the meaning of many adjectives and nouns. E.g.

Δυνατὸς ποιεῖν τοῦτο, able to do this;

δεινὸς λέγειν, skilled in speaking;

ἄξιος τοῦτο λαβεῖν, worthy to receive this.

πρόθυμος λέγειν, eager to speak;

μαλακοὶ καρτερεῖν, (too) effeminate to endure;

ἐπιστήμων λέγειν τε καὶ σιγᾶν, knowing how both to speak and to be silent.

Ἀνάγκη ἐστὶ πάντας ἀπελθεῖν, there is a necessity that all should withdraw;

κίνδυνος ἢν αὐτῷ παθεῖν τι, he was in danger of suffering something;

ὥρα ἀπιέναι, it is time to go away; ἐλπίδας ἔχει τοῦτο ποιῆσαι, he has hopes of doing this.

Note. 1. Adjectives of this class are especially those denoting ability, fitness, desert, readiness, and their opposites; and, in general, those corresponding in meaning to verbs which take the infinitive (§ 260, 1). Nouns of this class are such as form with a verb (generally εἰμί) an expression equivalent to a verb which takes the object infinitive. Most nouns take the infinitive with the article as an adnominal genitive (§ 262, 2).

Note. 2. The article is sometimes prefixed to the infinitive here, as after verbs (§ 260, 1, N. 2). This shows more clearly its character as an object accusative; as τὸ βίᾳ πολιτῶν δρᾶν ἔφυν ἀμήχανος, I am incapable of acting in defiance of the citizens.

Any adjective or adverb may take the infinitive without the article as an accusative of specification (§ 160, 1). E.g.

Θέαμα αἰσχρὸν ὁρᾶν, a sight disgraceful to behold; λόγοι ὑμῖν χρησιμώτατοι ἀκοῦσαι, words most useful for you to hear;

τὰ χαλεπώτατα εὑρεῖν, the things hardest to find;

πολιτεία χαλεπὴ συζῆν, a government hard to live under.

Κάλλιστα (adv.) ἰδεῖν, in a manner most delightful to behold.

Remark. This infinitive is generally active rather than passive; as πρᾶγμα χαλεπὸν ποιεῖν, a thing hard to do, rather than χαλεπὸν ποιεῖσθαι, hard to be done.

Note. Nouns and even verbs may take the infinitive on this principle; as θαῦμα ἰδέσθαι, a wonder to behold. Ἀριστεύεσκε μάχεσθαι, he was the first in fighting (like μάχην). Hom.

§ 262

The infinitive may depend on a preposition, in which case the article τοῦ, τῷ, or τό must be prefixed. E.g.

Πρὸ τοῦ τοὺς ὅρκους ἀποδοῦναι, before taking the oaths;

πρὸς τῷ μηδὲν ἐκ τῆς πρεσβείας λαβεῖν, besides receiving nothing by the embassy;

διὰ τὸ ξένος εἶναι οὐκ ἂν οἴει ἀδικηθῆναι; do you think you would not be wronged on account of your being a stranger?

The genitive and dative of the infinitive, with the article, can stand in most of the constructions belonging to those cases; as in that of the adnominal genitive, the genitive after a comparative or after verbs and adjectives, the dative of manner, means, &c., the dative after verbs and adjectives, and sometimes in that of the genitive of cause or purpose (§ 178, 1). E.g.

Τοῦ πιεῖν ἐπιθυμία, a desire to drink;

κρεῖττον τοῦ λαλεῖν, better than prating;

ἐπέσχομεν τοῦ δακρύειν, we ceased our weeping (§ 263);

ἀήθεις τοῦ κατακούειν τινός εἶσιν, they are unused to obeying any one.

Τῷ φανερὸς εἶναι τοιοῦτος ὤν, by having it evident that he was such a man;

τῷ κοσμίως ζῆν πιστεύειν, to trust in an orderly life;

ἴσον τῷ προστένειν, equal to lamenting beforehand.

Μίνως τὸ λῃστικὸν καθῄρει, τοῦ τὰς προσόδους μᾶλλον ἰέναι αὐτῷ, Minos put down piracy, that his revenues might come in more abundantly. Thuc.

§ 263

Verbs and expressions denoting hindrance or freedom from anything allow either the infinitive with τοῦ (§ 262, 2) or the simple infinitive (§ 260, 1). As the infinitive after such verbs can take the negative μή without affecting the sense (§ 283, 6), we have a third and fourth form, still with the same meaning. (See Note, and § 263, 2.) E.g.

Εἴργει σε τοῦτο ποιεῖν, εἴργει σε τοῦ τοῦτο ποιεῖν, εἴργει σε μὴ τοῦτο ποιεῖν, εἴργει σε τοῦ μὴ τοῦτο ποιεῖν, all meaning he prevents you from doing this.

Τὸν Φίλιππον παρελθεῖν οὐκ ἐδύναντο κωλῦσαι, they could not hinder Philip from passing through.

Τοῦ δραπετεύεἰν ἀπείργουσι, they restrain them from running away.

Ὅπερ ἔσχε μὴ τὴν Πελοπόννησον πορθεῖν, which prevented (him) from ravaging Peloponnesus.

Ἕξει αὐτοὺς τοῦ μὴ καταδῦναι, it will keep them from sinking.

Note. When the leading verb is negatived (or interrogative implying a negative), the double negative μὴ οὐ is generally used rather than the simple μή with the infinitive (§ 283, 7), so that we can say οὐκ εἴργει σε μὴ οὐ τοῦτο ποιεῖν, he does not prevent you from doing this. Τοῦ μὴ οὐ ποιεῖν is rarely (if ever) used.

The infinitive with τὸ μή (sometimes with τό alone) may be used after expressions denoting hindrance, and also after all which even imply prevention, omission, or denial. This infinitive with τό is less closely connected with the leading verb than are the forms just mentioned (1), and it may often be considered an accusative of specification (§ 160, 1), and sometimes (as after verbs of denial) an object accusative. Sometimes it expresses merely a result. E.g.

Τὸν ὅμιλον εἶργον τὸ μὴ τὰ ἐγγὺς τῆς πόλεως κακουργεῖν, they prevented the crowd from injuring the neighboring parts of the city.

Κωλύσει σε τὸ δρᾶν, he will prevent you from acting (§ 260, 1, N. 2).

Κίμωνα παρὰ τρεῖς ἀφεῖσαν ψήφους τὸ μὴ θανάτῳ ζημιῶσαι; they allowed Cimon by three votes to escape the punishment of death (they let him off from the punishment of death).

Φόβος ἀνθ᾽ ὕπνου παραστατεῖ, τὸ μὴ βλέφαρα συμβαλεῖν, fear stands by me instead of sleep, preventing me from closing my eyelids.

Thus we have a fifth and a sixth form, εἴργει σε τὸ μὴ τοῦτο ποιεῖν and εἴργει σε τὸ τοῦτο ποιεῖν, added to those given in § 263, 1, as equivalents of the English he prevents you from doing this.

Note. Here, as above (1, Note) μὴ οὐ is used when the leading verb is negatived; as οὐδὲν γὰρ αὐτῷ ταῦτ᾽ ἐπαρκέσει τὸ μὴ οὐ πεσεῖν, for this will not at all suffice to prevent him from falling.

§ 264

The infinitive with its subject, object, or other adjuncts (sometimes including dependent clauses) may be preceded by the article, the whole standing as a single noun in any ordinary construction. E.g.

Τὸ δὲ μήτε πάλαι τοῦτο πεπονθέναι, πεφηνέναι τέ τινα ἡμῖν συμμαχίαν τούτων ἀντίρροπον, ἂν βουλώμεθα χρῆσθαι, τῆς παρ᾽ ἐκείνων εὐνοίας εὐεργέτημ᾽ ἂν ἔγωγε θείην, but the fact that we have not suffered this long ago, and that an alliance has appeared to us to balance these, if we shall wish to use it, — this I should ascribe as a benefaction to their good-will. Dem. (Here the whole sentence Τὸ ... χρῆσθαι is the object of θείην.)

§ 265

The infinitive without the article may express a purpose. E.g.

Οἱ ἄρχοντες, οὓς εἵλεσθε ἄρχειν μου, the rulers, whom you chose to rule me.

Τὴν πόλιν φυλάττειν αὐτοῖς παρέδωκαν, they delivered the city to them to guard.

Αἱ γυναῖκες πιεῖν φέρουσαι, the women bringing them (something) to drink.

Note. In Homer, where ὥστε is seldom used in its sense of so as (§ 266, N. 3), the simple infinitive may express a result; as τίς σφωε ξυνέηκε μάχεσθαι; who brought them into conflict so as to contend?

§ 266

The infinitive after ὥστε, so that, so as, expresses a result. E.g.

Ἦν πεπαιδευμένος οὕτως, ὥστε πάνυ ῥᾳδίως ἔχειν ἀρκοῦντα, he had been so educated as very easily to have enough.

Σὺ δὲ σχολάζεις, ὥστε θαυμάζειν ἐμέ, and you delay, so that I wonder.

The infinitive after ὥστε sometimes expresses a condition, like that after ἐφ᾽ ᾧ or ἐφ᾽ ᾧτε (§ 267); and sometimes a purpose, like a final clause. E.g.

Ἐξὸν αὐτοῖς τῶν λοιπῶν ἄρχειν Ἑλλήνων, ὥστ᾽ αὐτοὺς ὑπακούειν βασιλεῖ, it being in their power to rule the rest of the Greeks, on condition that they should themselves obey the King.

Πᾶν ποιοῦσιν ὥστε δίκην μὴ διδόναι, they do everything so that they may not suffer punishment (ἵνα μὴ διδῶσι might have been used).

Note. 1. Ὡς sometimes takes the infinitive like ὥστε, generally to express a result, seldom to express a purpose.

Note. 2. Ὥστε may also take the indicative to express a result (§ 237). For the distinction see § 237, Rem.

Note. 3. Ὥστε in Homer usually means as, like ὥσπερ. (See § 265, Note.)

Note. 4. (a) The infinitive with ὥστε or ὡς sometimes follows a comparative with ἤ; as ἐλάττω ἔχων δύναμιν ἢ ὥστε τοὺς φίλους ὠφελεῖν, having too little power to aid his friends.;

(b) Sometimes ὥστε is omitted; as νόσημα μεῖζον ἢ φέρειν, a disease too great to bear (§ 261, 2, with Rem.).

Note. 5. Verbs, adjectives, and nouns which commonly take the simple infinitive occasionally have the infinitive with ὥστε or ὡς; as ψηφισάμενοι ὥστε ἀμύνειν, having voted to defend them; πείθουσιν ὥστε ἐπιχειρῆσαι, they persuade them to make an attempt; φρονιμώτεροι ὥστε μαθεῖν, wiser in learning; ὀλίγοι ὡς ἐγκρατεῖς εἶναι, too few to have the power; ἀνάγκη ὥστε κινδυνεύειν, a necessity of incurring risk (§ 261, 1).

§ 267

The infinitive follows ἐφ᾽ ᾧ or ἐφ᾽ ᾧτε, on condition that, sometimes for the purpose of. E.g.

Ἀφίεμέν σε, ἐπὶ τούτῳ μέντοι, ἐφ᾽ ᾧτε μηκέτι φιλοσοφεῖν, we release you, but on this condition, that you shall no longer be a philosopher.

Αἱρεθέντες ἐφ᾽ ᾧτε ξυγγράψαι νόμους, chosen for the purpose of compiling laws.

For the future indicative after these words, see § 236, N. 2.

§ 268

The infinitive may stand absolutely in parenthetical phrases, generally with ὡς or ὅσον. E.g.

Τὸ Δέλτα ἐστὶ νεωστὶ, ὡς λόγῳ εἰπεῖν, ἀναπεφηνός, the Delta has recently, so to speak, made its appearance.

So ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν, so to speak; ὡς συντόμως (or συνελόντι, § 184, 5) εἰπεῖν, to speak concisely;

τὸ ξύμπαν εἰπεῖν, on the whole; ὡς ἀπεικάσαι, to judge (i.e. as far as we can judge);

ὅσον γέ μ᾽ εἰδέναι, as far as I know;

ὡς ἐμοὶ δοκεῖν, or ἐμοὶ δοκεῖν, as it seems to me;

οὐ πολλῷ λόγῳ εἰπεῖν, not to make a long story, in short.

So ὀλίγου δεῖν, to want little, i.e. almost; in which δεῖν can be omitted.

Note. In certain cases εἶναι seems to be superfluous; especially in ἑκὼν εἶναι, willing or willingly, which generally stands in a negative sentence. So τὸ νῦν εἶναι, at present; τὸ τήμερον εἶναι, to-day; τὸ ἐπ’ ἐκείνοις εἶναι, as far as depends on them; τὴν πρώτην εἶναι, at first (Hdt.); ὡς πάλαια εἶναι, considering their age (Thuc.); and some other phrases.

§ 269

The infinitive is sometimes used like the imperative, especially in Homer. E.g.

Μή ποτε καὶ σὺ γυναικί περ ἤπιος εἶναι, be thou never indulgent to thy wife.

Note. The subject is here in the nominative; but in the three following constructions it is in the accusative.

§ 270

The infinitive sometimes expresses a wish, like the optative. This occurs chiefly in poetry. E.g.

Ζεῦ πάτερ, ἣ Αἴαντα λαχεῖν ἢ Τυδέος υἱόν, Father Zeus, may the lot fall either on Ajax or on the son of Tydeus (Hom.).

Note. This construction depends in thought on some word like εὔχομαι, I pray, or δός, grant, which is often expressed; as δὸς τίσασθαι.

§ 271

In laws, treaties, and proclamations the infinitive often depends on ἔδοξε or δέδοκται, be it enacted, or κελεύεται, it is commanded; which may be expressed in a previous sentence or understood. E.g.

Δικάζειν δὲ τὴν ἐν Ἀρείῳ πάγῳ φόνου, &c., and (be it enacted) that the Senate on the Areopagus shall have jurisdiction in cases of murder, &c.

Ἔτη δὲ εἶναι τὰς σπονδὰς πεντήκοντα, and that the treaty shall continue fifty years.

§ 272

The infinitive, with or without τό, may be used to express surprise or indignation. E.g.

Τῆς μωρίας· τὸ Δία νομίζειν, ὄντα τηλικουτονί, what folly: to believe in Zeus when you are so big!

So in Latin: Mene incepto desistere victam!

§ 273

In narration, the infinitive often seems to stand for the indicative, when it depends on some word like λέγεται, it is said, in a preceding sentence. E.g.

Ἀπικομένους δὲ ἐς τὸ Ἄργος, διατίθεσθαι τὸν φόρτον, and coming to Argos, they were (it is said) setting out their cargo for sale (διατίθεσθαι is an imperfect infinitive, § 203, N. 1). Hdt. i. 1. See Hdt. i. 24, and Xen. Cyr. i. 3, 5.

§ 274

Πρίν, before, before that, until, besides taking the indicative, subjunctive, and optative (§ 240), also takes the infinitive. This happens in Attic Greek chiefly after affirmative sentences, but in Homer without regard to the leading verb. E.g.

Ἀποπέμπουσιν αὐτὸν πρὶν ἀκοῦσαι, they send him away before hearing him.

Μεσσήνην εἵλομεν πρὶν Πέρσας λαβεῖν τὴν βασιλείαν, we took Messene before the Persians obtained their kingdom.

For πρίν with the finite moods, see § 240.

Note. Πρὶν ἤ, πρότερον ἤ, πρόσθεν ἤ, before that, sooner than, and even ὕστερον ἤ, later than, may take the infinitive like πρίν alone. See § 240, Note.

§ 275

The participle is a verbal adjective, and has three uses. First, it may express a simple attribute, like an ordinary adjective; secondly, it may define the circumstances under which an action takes place; thirdly, it may form part of the predicate with certain verbs, often having a force resembling that of the infinitive.

§ 276

The participle, like any other adjective, may qualify a noun. Here it must often be translated by a relative and a finite verb, especially when it is preceded by the article. E.g.

Ὁ παρὼν χρόνος, the present time;

θεοὶ αἰὲν ἐόντες, immortal Gods (Hom.);

πόλις κάλλει διαφέρουσα, a city excelling in beauty;

ἀνὴρ καλῶς πεπαιδευμένος, a man who has been well educated (or a well-educated man);

οἱ πρέσβεις οἱ ὑπὸ Φιλίππου πεμφθέντες, the ambassadors who were sent by Philip;

ἄνδρες οἱ τοῦτο ποιήσοντες, men who are to do this.

The participle preceded by the article may be used substantively, like any other adjective. It is then equivalent to he who or those who with a finite verb. E.g.

Οἱ πεπεισμένοι, those who have been convinced;

παρὰ τοῖς ἀρίστοις δοκοῦσιν εἶναι, among those who seem to be best;

ὁ τὴν γνώμην ταύτην εἰπών, the one who gave this opinion;

τοῖς Ἀρκάδων σφετέροις οὖσι ξυμμάχοις προεῖπον, they proclaimed to those who were their allies among the Arcadians.

§ 277

The participle may define the circumstances of an action. It expresses the following relations: —

Time; the tenses denoting various points of time, which is relative to that of the verb of the sentence (§ 204). E.g.

Ταῦτα ἔπραττε στρατηγῶν, he did this while he was general;

ταῦτα πράξει στρατηγῶν, he will do this while he is general;

τυραννεύσας δὲ ἔτη τρία Ἱππίας ἐχώρει ἐς Σίγειον, and when he had been tyrant three years, Hippias withdrew to Sigeum.

Cause, manner, means, and similar relations, including manner of employment. E.g.

Λέγω δὲ τούτου ἕνεκα, βουλόμενος δόξαι σοι ὅπερ ἐμοί, and I speak for this reason, because I wish that to seem good to you which, &c.

Προείλετο μᾶλλον τοῖς νόμοις ἐμμένων ἀποθανεῖν ἢ παρανομῶν ζῆν, he preferred to die abiding by the laws rather than to live transgressing them;

τοῦτο ἐποίησε λαθών, he did this secretly; ἀπεδήμει τριηραρχῶν, he was absent on duty as trierarch. Ληϊζόμενοι ζῶσιν, they live by plunder.

Purpose or intention; generally expressed by the future participle. E.g.

Ἦλθε λυσόμενος θύγατρα, he came to ransom his daughter. Hom.

Πέμπειν πρέσβεις ταῦτα ἐροῦντας καὶ Λύσανδρον αἰτήσοντας, to send ambassadors to say this and to ask for Lysander.

Condition; the tenses of the participle representing the corresponding tenses of the indicative, subjunctive, or optative, in all classes of protasis. See § 226, 1, where examples will be found.

Opposition or limitation; where the participle is generally to be translated by although and a verb. E.g.

Ὀλίγα δυνάμενοι προορᾶν πολλὰ ἐπιχειροῦμεν πράττειν, although we are able to foresee few things, we try to do many things.

Any attendant circumstance, the participle being merely descriptive. E.g.

Ἔρχεται τὸν υἱὸν ἔχουσα, she comes bringing her son;

παραλαβόντες τοὺς Βοιωτοὺς ἐστράτευσαν ἐπὶ Φάρσαλον, taking the Boeotians with them, they marched against Pharsdlus.

Note. 1. (a) The adverbs ἅμα, μεταξύ, εὐθύς, αὐτίκα, and ἐξαίφνης are often connected (in position and in sense) with the temporal participle, while grammatically they qualify the verb of the sentence; as ἅμα καταλαβόντες προσεκέατό οἱ, as soon as they overtook them, they pressed hard upon them; Νεκὼς μεταξὺ ὀρύσσων ἐπαύσατο, Necho stopped while digging (the canal). Hdt.

(b) The participle denoting opposition is often strengthened by καίπερ or καί, even (poetic also καί ... περ), in negative sentences οὐδέ or μηδέ, with or without περ; or by καὶ ταῦτα, and that too; as ἐποικτείρω νιν, καίπερ ὄντα δυσμενῆ, I pity him, even though he is an enemy. Οὐκ ἂν προδοίην, οὐδέ περ πράσσων κακῶς, I would not be faithless, even though I am in a wretched state.

Note. 2. (a) The participles denoting cause or purpose are often preceded by ὡς. This shows that they express the idea of the subject of the leading verb or that of some other person prominent in the sentence, without implying that it is also the idea of the speaker or writer; as τὸν Περικλέα ἐν αἰτίᾳ εἶχον ὡς πείσαντα σφᾶς πολεμεῖν, they found fault with Pericles, on the ground that he had persuaded them to the war; ἀγανακτοῦσιν ὡς μεγάλων τινῶν ἀπεστερημένοι, they are indignant, because (as they say) they have been deprived of some great blessings.

(b) The participle denoting cause is often emphasized by ἅτε, οἷον, or οἷα, as, inasmuch as; but these particles have no such force as ὡς (above); as ἅτε παῖς ὤν, ἥδετο, inasmuch as he was a child, he was pleased.

Note. 3. Ὥσπερ, as, very often precedes a conditional participle, belonging to an implied apodosis, to which the participle forms the protasis; as ὥσπερ ἤδη σαφῶς εἰδότες, οὐκ ἐθέλετ᾽ ἀκούειν, you are unwilling to hear, as (you would be) if you already knew it well. Here ὥσπερ means merely as; the if belongs to the meaning of the participle. Compare ὥσπερ εἰ λέγοις, as if you should say.

We find even ὥσπερ ἂν εἰ ... ἡγούμενοι, as if you believed (Dem.).

The participle thus used with ὥσπερ has οὐ for its negative, not μή (§ 283, 4).

§ 278

When a participle denoting any of the relations included in § 277 belongs to a noun which is not connected with the main construction of the sentence, they stand together in the genitive absolute.

See § 183, and the examples there given. All the particles mentioned in the notes to § 277 can be used here.

Note. Sometimes a participle stands alone in the genitive absolute, when a subject can easily be supplied from the context, or when some general subject, like ἀνθρώπων or πραγμάτων, is understood; as οἱ πολέμιοι, προσιόντων, τέως μὲν ἡσύχαζον, but the enemy, as they (men before mentioned) came on, kept quiet for a time; οὕτω δ᾽ ἐχόντων, εἰκός ἐστιν, κ.τ.λ., and this being the case (sc. πραγμάτων), it is likely, &c. So with verbs like ὕει, &c. (§ 134, N. 1, 6); as ὕοντος πολλῷ, when it was raining heavily (where originally Διός was understood).

The participles of impersonal verbs stand in the accusative absolute, in the neuter singular, when others would be in the genitive absolute. So with passive participles and ὄν when they are used impersonally. E.g.

Οἱ δ᾽ οὐ βοηθήσαντες, δέον, ὑγιεῖς ἀπῆλθον; and did those who brought no aid when it was needed, escape safe and sound?

So εὖ δὲ παρασχόν, and when a good opportunity offered;

οὐ προσῆκον, improperly (it being not becoming);

τυχόν, by chance (it having happened);

προσταχθέν μοι, when I had been commanded;

εἰρημένον, when it has been said;

ἀδύνατον ὄν, it being impossible;

ἀπόρρητον πόλει (Sc. ὄν), when it is forbidden by the state.

Note. The participles of personal verbs sometimes stand with their nouns in the accusative absolute; but very seldom unless they are preceded by ὡς or ὥσπερ (§ 277, Notes 2 and 3).

§ 279

The participle may be used to limit the meaning of certain verbs, in a sense which often resembles that of the infinitive (§ 260, 1).

In this sense the participle is used with the subject of verbs signifying to begin, to continue, to endure, to persevere, to cease, to repent, to be weary of, to be pleased, displeased, or ashamed; and with the object of verbs signifying to cause to cease. E.g.

Ἄρξομαι λέγων, I will begin to speak;

οὐκ ἀνέξομαι ζῶν, I shall not endure to live;

τοῦτο ἔχων διατελεῖ, he continues to have this (4, Note);

ἀπείρηκα τρέχων, I am tired of running;

τοῖς ἐρωτῶσι χαίρω ἀποκρινόμενος, I delight to answer questioners;

ἐλεγχόμενοι ἤχθοντο, they were displeased at being tested;

αἰσχύνεται τοῦτο λέγων, he is ashamed to say this (which he says);

τὴν φιλοσοφίαν παῦσον ταῦτα λέγουσαν, make Philosophy stop talking in this style.

Note. 1. Some of these verbs also take the infinitive, but generally with some difference of meaning; thus, αἰσχύνεται τοῦτο λέγειν, he is ashamed to say this (and does not say it), — see above; ἀποκάμνει τοῦτο ποιεῖν; he ceases to do this, through weariness (but τοῦτο ποιῶν, he is weary of doing this). But see the last example under 3.

Note. 2. The aorist (sometimes the perfect) participle with ἔχω may form a periphrastic perfect, especially in Attic poetry; as θαυμάσας ἔχω τόδε, I have wondered at this. In prose, ἔχω with a participle generally has its common force; as τὴν προῖκα ἔχει λαβών, he has received and has the dowry (not simply he has taken it).

The participle may be used with the object of verbs signifying to perceive (in any way), to find, or to represent, denoting an act or state in which the object is perceived, found, or represented. E.g.

Ὁρῶ σε κρύπτοντα, I see you hiding;

ἤκουσά σου λέγοντος, I heard you speak;

εὗρε Κρονίδην ἄτερ ἥμενον ἄλλων, he found the son of Cronos sitting apart from the others (Hom.);

πεποίηκε τοὺς ἐν Ἅιδου τιμωρουμένους, he has represented those in Hades as suffering punishment.

Note. This must not be confounded with indirect discourse, in which ὁρῶ σε κρύπτοντα would mean I see that you are hiding; ἀκούω σε λέγοντα, I hear that you say (ἀκούω taking the accusative). See § 280.

With verbs signifying to overlook or see, in the sense of allow, περιοράω and ἐφοράω, with περιεῖδον and ἐπεῖδον, sometimes εἶδον, — the participle is used in the sense of the object infinitive (§ 260, 1), the present and aorist participles differing merely as the present and aorist infinitives would differ in similar constructions (§ 202, 1). E.g.

Μὴ περιίδωμεν ὑβρισθεῖσαν τὴν Λακεδαίμονα καὶ καταφρονηθεῖσαν, let us not allow Lacedaemon to be insulted and despised.

Μή μ᾽ ἰδεῖν θανόνθ᾽ ὑπ᾽ ἀστῶν, not to see me killed by citizens (Eur.).

Περιιδεῖν τὴν γῆν τμηθεῖσαν, to allow the land to be ravaged (Thuc. ii 18). (But in ii. 20, we find περιιδεῖν τὴν γῆν τμηθῆναι, referring to the same thing.) See § 204, N. 2.

With the following verbs the participle contains the leading idea of the expression: λανθάνω, escape the notice of; τυγχάνω, happen; φθάνω, anticipate. The aorist participle here does not denote past time in itself, but coincides in time with the verb (§ 204, N. 2). E.g.

Λήσετε διαφθαρέντες, you will be corrupted before you know it.

Ἔτυχον καθήμενος ἐνταῦθα, I happened to be sitting there;

ἔτυχε κατὰ τοῦτο τοῦ καιροῦ ἐλθών, he happened to come (not to have come) just at that time.

Ἔφθησαν τοὺς Πέρσας ἀπικόμενοι, they came before the Persians (Hdt.).

οὐδ᾽ ἄρα Κίρκην ἐλθόντες ἐλήθομεν, nor did we come without Circe’s knowing it (Hom.).

See examples under § 204, N. 2.

The perfect participle here has its ordinary force.

Note. The participle with διατελέω, continue (§ 279, 1), οἴχομαι, be gone (§ 277, 2), θαμίζω, be wont or be frequent, and some others, expresses the leading idea; but the aorist participle with these has no peculiar force; as οἴχεται φεύγων, he has taken flight (§ 200, N. 8); οὐ θαμίζεις καταβαίνων εἰς τὸν Πειραιᾶ, you don’t come down to the Peiraeus very often.

§ 280

With many verbs the participle stands in indirect discourse, each tense representing the corresponding tense of the indicative or optative. Such verbs are chiefly those signifying to see, to know, to hear or learn, to remember, to forget, to show, to appear, to prove, to acknowledge, and ἀγγέλλω, to announce. E.g.

Ὁρῶ δέ μ᾽ ἔργον δεινὸν ἐξειργασμένην, but I see that I have done a dreadful deed;

ἤκουσε Κῦρον ἐν Κιλικίᾳ ὄντα, he heard that Cyrus was in Cilicia (cf. § 279, 2, with N.);

ὅταν κλύῃ ἢξοντ᾽ Ὀρέστην, when she hears that Orestes will come;

οἶδα οὐδὲν ἐπιστάμενος, I know that I understand nothing;

οὐκ ᾔδεσαν αὐτὸν τεθνηκότα, they did not know that he was dead;

ἐπειδὰν γνῶσιν ἀπιστούμενοι, after they find out that they are distrusted;

μέμνημαι ἐλθών, I remember that I went;

μέμνημαι αὐτὸν ἐλθόντα, I remember that he went;

δείξω τοῦτον ἐχθρὸν ὄντα, I shall show that this man is an enemy (pass. οὗτος δειχθήσεται ἐχθρὸς ὤν);

αὐτῷ Κῦρον στρατεύοντα πρῶτος ἤγγειλα, I first announced to him that Cyrus was on his march.

See § 246 and examples; and § 211 for examples of the participle with ἄν representing both indicative and optative with ἄν.

Note. 1. Δῆλός εἰμι and φανερός εἰμι take the participle in indirect discourse, where we use an impersonal construction; as δῆλος ἦν οἰόμενος, &c., it was evident that he thought, &c. (like δῆλον ἦν ὅτι οἴοιτο).

Note. 2. With σύνοιδα or συγγιγνώσκω and a dative of the reflexive, a participle may be in either the nominative or dative; as σύνοιδα ἐμαυτῷ ἠδικημένῳ (or ἠδικημένος), I am conscious to myself that I have been wronged.

Note. 3. Most of the verbs included in § 280 may take a clause with ὅτι in indirect discourse. Most of them are found also with the infinitive. Οἶδα takes the infinitive regularly when it means I know how; as οἶδα τοῦτο μαθεῖν, I know how to learn this (but οἶδα τοῦτο μαθών, I know that I learned this).

Note. 4. Ὡς may be used before this participle in the sense explained in § 277, N. 2. The genitive absolute with ὡς is sometimes found where we should expect the participle to agree with the object of the verb; as ὡς πολέμου ὄντος παρ᾽ ὑμῶν ἀπαγγελῶ; shall I announce from you that there is war? (lit. assuming that there is war, shall I announce it from you?) where we might have πόλεμον ὄντα with less emphasis, and in closer connection with the verb.

The verbal in -τέος has both a personal and an impersonal construction.

In the personal construction it is passive in sense, and expresses necessity, like the Latin participle in -dus. E.g.

Ὠφελητέα σοι ἡ πόλις ἐστίν, the city must be benefited by you.

Ἄλλας μεταπεμπτέας εἶναι (ἔφη), he said that other (ships) must be sent for.

Ὃ λέγω ῥητέον ἐστίν, what I say must be spoken.

The noun denoting the agent is here in the dative (§ 188, 4).

In the impersonal construction the verbal is in the neuter of the nominative singular (sometimes plural), with ἐστί expressed or understood. It is active in sense, and is equivalent to δεῖ with the infinitive.

The agent is generally expressed by the dative, sometimes by the accusative. These verbals may have an object like their verbs. E.g.

Ταῦτα ἡμῖν (or ἡμᾶς) ποιητέον ἐστίν, we must do this (equivalent to ταῦτα ἡμᾶς δεῖ ποιῆσαι, § 184, 2, N. 1).

Οἰστέον τάδε, we must bear these things (sc. ἡμῖν).

Τί ἂν αὐτῷ ποιητέον εἴη; what would he be obliged to do?

Ἐψηφίσαντο πολεμητέα εἶναι, they voted that they must go to war (= δεῖν πολεμεῖν).

Τοὺς ξυμμάχους οὐ παραδοτέα τοῖς Ἀθηναίοις, we must not abandon our allies to the Athenians.

The Latin has this construction (but seldom with verbs which take an object accusative); as Eundum est tibi (ἰτέον ἐστί σοι), — Moriendum est omnibus. So Bello utendum est nobis (τῷ πολέμῳ χρηστέον ἐστὶν ἡμῖν), we must go to war. (See Madvig’s Latin Grammar, § 421.)

All interrogative pronouns, pronominal adjectives, and adverbs can be used in both direct and indirect questions. The relative ὅστις and most other relative words may be used in indirect questions. (See § 149.)

The principal direct interrogative particles are ἦ and ἄρα. These imply nothing as to the answer expected; but ἄρα οὐ implies that an affirmative, ἄρα μή that a negative, answer is expected. Οὐ and μή alone are often used with the same force as with ἄρα. So μῶν (for μὴ οὖν). E.g.

Ἦ σχολὴ ἔσται; will there be leisure?

Ἆρ᾽ εἰσί τινες ἄξιοι; are there any deserving ones?

Ἆρ᾽ οὐ βούλεσθε ἐλθεῖν; or οὐ βούλεσθε ἐλθεῖν; do you not wish to go (i.e. you wish, do you not)?

Ἆρα μὴ βούλεσθε ἐλθεῖν; or μὴ (or μῶν) βούλεσθε ἐλθεῖν; do you wish to go. (you don’t wish to go, do you)?

This distinction between οὐ and μή does not apply to the interrogative subjunctive (§ 256), which allows only μή.

Ἄλλο τι ἤ; is it anything else than? or simply ἄλλο τι; is it not? is sometimes used as a direct interrogative. E.g.

Ἄλλο τι ἢ ἀδικοῦμεν; are we not (is it anything else than that we are) in the wrong? — ἄλλο τι ὁμολογοῦμεν; do we not agree?

Indirect questions may be introduced by εἰ, whether; and in Homer by ἦ or ἠέ. E.g.

Ἠρώτησα εἰ βούλοιτο ἐλθεῖν, I asked whether he wished to go.

ᾬχετο πευσόμενος ἤ που ἔτ᾽ εἴης, he was gone to inquire whether possibly you were still living (Hom.).

Οὐκ οἶδα εἰ τοῦτο δῶ, I do not know whether I shall give this (here εἰ is used even with the subjunctive: see § 244).

Alternative questions (both direct and indirect) may be introduced by πότερον (πότερα) ... ἤ, whether ... or. Indirect alternative questions can also be introduced by εἰ ... ἤ, εἴτε ... εἴτε, εἴτε ... ἤ, whether ... or; and in Homer by ἤ (ἠέ) ... ἤ (ἠέ). E.g.

Πότερον ἐᾷς ἄρχειν ἢ ἄλλον καθίστης; do you allow him to rule, or do you appoint another?

Ἐβουλεύετο εἰ πέμποιέν τινας ἢ πάντες ἴοιεν, he was deliberating whether they should send some or should all go.

The Greek has two negative adverbs, οὐ and μή. What is said of each of these applies generally to its compounds, — οὐδείς, οὐδέ, οὔτε, &c., and μηδείς, μηδέ, μήτε, &c.

Οὐ is used with the indicative and optative in all independent sentences (except wishes, which are generally elliptical protases, § 251, 1, N. 3); also in indirect discourse after ὅτι and ὡς, and in causal sentences.

Note. In indirect questions, introduced by εἰ, whether, μή can be used as well as οὐ; as βούλομαι ἐρέσθαι εἰ μαθών τίς τι καὶ μεμνημένος μὴ οἶδεν, I want to ask whether one who has learnt a thing and remembers it does not know it? Also, in the second part of an indirect alternative question (§ 282, 5), both οὐ and μή are allowed; as σκοπῶμεν εἰ πρέπει ἢ οὔ, let us look and see whether it is becoming or not; εἰ δὲ ἀληθὲς ἢ μὴ, πειράσομαι μαθεῖν, but I will try to learn whether it is true or not.

Μή is used with the subjunctive and imperative in all constructions (except the Homeric subjunctive, § 255, which has the force of a future indicative). Μή is used in all final and object clauses after ἵνα, ὅπως, &c.; except after μή, lest, which takes οὐ. It is used in all conditional sentences, in relative sentences with an indefinite antecedent (§ 231) and the corresponding temporal sentences after ἕως, πρίν, &c. (§§ 239, 240), in relative sentences expressing a purpose (§ 236), and in all expressions of a wish with both indicative and optative (§ 251).

Μή is used with the infinitive in all constructions, both with and without the article, except that of indirect discourse. The infinitive in indirect discourse regularly has οὐ, to retain the negative of the direct discourse; but some exceptions occur.

When a participle expresses a condition (§ 277, 4) it takes μή; so when it is equivalent to a relative clause with an indefinite antecedent, as οἱ μὴ βουλόμενοι, any who do not wish. (See, however, § 277, N. 3.) Otherwise it takes οὐ. In indirect discourse it sometimes, like the infinitive, takes μή irregularly (3).

Adjectives follow the same principle with participles, taking μή only when they do not refer to definite persons or things (i. e. when they can be expressed by a relative clause with an indefinite antecedent); as οἱ μὴ ἀγαθοὶ πολῖται, (any) citizens who are not good, but οἱ οὐκ ἀγαθοὶ πολῖται means special citizens who are not good.

When verbs which contain a negative idea (as those of hindering, forbidding, denying, concealing, and distrusting) are followed by the infinitive, the negative μή can be added to the infinitive to strengthen the negation. Such a negative cannot be translated in English, and can always be omitted in Greek. For examples see § 263.

When an infinitive would regularly be negatived by μή, — either in the ordinary way (3) or to strengthen a preceding negation (6), — if the verb on which it depends has a negative, it generally takes the double negative μὴ οὐ. Thus –

δίκαιόν ἐστι μὴ τοῦτον ἀφεῖναι, it is just not to acquit him, becomes, if we negative the leading verb, οὐ δίκαιόν ἐστι μὴ οὐ τοῦτον ἀφεῖναι, it is not just not to acquit him.

So ὡς οὐχ ὅσιόν σοι ὂν μὴ οὐ βοηθεῖν δικαιοσύνῃ, since (as you said) it was a failure in piety for you not to assist justice.

Again, εἴργει σε μὴ τοῦτο ποιεῖν (§ 263, 1), he prevents you from doing this, becomes, with εἴργει negatived, οὐκ εἴργει σε μὴ οὐ τοῦτο ποιεῖν, he does not prevent you from doing this.

Note. Μὴ οὐ is used also when the leading verb is interrogative implying a negative; as τί ἐμποδὼν μὴ οὐχὶ ὑβριζομένους ἀποθανεῖν; what is there to prevent (us) from being insulted and perishing? It is sometimes used with participles, or even nouns, to express an exception to a negative statement; as πόλεις χαλεπαὶ λαβεῖν, μὴ οὐ πολιορκίᾳ, cities hard to capture, except by siege.

When a negative is followed by a simple negative (οὐ or μή) in the same clause, each retains its own force. If they belong to the same word or expression, they make an affirmative; as –

οὐδὲ τὸν Φορμίωνα οὐχ ὁρᾷ, nor does he not see Phormio (i. e. he sees Phormio well enough).

But if they belong to different words, each is independent of the other; as –

οὐ δ᾽ ἀπειρίαν γε οὐ φήσεις ἔχειν ὅ τι εἴπῃς, it is not surely through inexperience that you will deny that you have anything to say;

οὐ μόνον οὐ πείθονται, they not only do not obey;

εἰ μὴ Πρόξενον οὐχ ὑπεδέξαντο, if they had not refused to receive Proxenus (had not not received him).

Note. An interrogative οὐ (§ 282, 2), belonging to the whole sentence, is not counted as a negative in these cases; as οὐκ ἐπὶ τὸν δῆμον... οὐκ ἠθέλησαν συστρατεύειν; were they not unwilling, &c.?

But when a negative is followed by a compound negative negation is strengthened; as ἄνευ τούτου οὐδεὶς εἰς οὐδὲν οὐδενὸς ἂν ὑμῶν οὐδέποτε γένοιτο ἄξιος, if it were not for this, no one of you would ever come to be of any value for anything.

For the double negative οὐ μή, see § 257.

§184-190

THE CASES: IV. DATIVE

THE CASES: IV. DATIVE

Note. The primary use of the dative case is to denote that to or for which anything is or is done: this includes the dative of the remote or indirect object, and the dative of interest. It also denotes that by which or with which, and the time (sometimes the place) in which, anything takes place, -i.e. it is not merely a dative, but also an instrumental and a locative case. (See Remark before § 157.) The object of motion after to is not regularly expressed by the Greek dative, but by the accusative with a preposition. (See § 162.)

Dative expressing To or For.

§ 184

The dative is used to denote that to or for which anything is or is done. This includes, –

The dative of the indirect object after transitive verbs, which is generally introduced in English by to. E.g.

Δίδωσι μισθὸν τῷ στρατεύματι, he gives pay to the army; ὑπισχνεῖταί σοι δέκα τάλαντα, he promises ten talents to you (or he promises you ten talents); βοήθειαν πέμψομεν τοῖς συμμάχοις, we will send aid to our allies; ἔλεγον τῷ βασιλεῖ τὰ γεγενημένα, they told the king what had happened.

The dative after certain intransitive verbs, many of which in English take a direct object without to. E.g.

Εὔχομαι τοῖς θεοῖς, I pray (to) the Gods; δικαιοσύνη λυσιτελεῖ τῷ ἔχοντι; justice is advantageous to (or profits) the one having it; τοῖς νόμοις πείθεται, he is obedient to the laws (he obeys the laws); βοηθεῖ τοῖς φίλοις, he assists his friends; ἀρέσκει τοῖς πολίταις, it is pleasing to (or it pleases) the citizens; εἶκε ἀνάγκῃ, yield to necessity; οὐ πιστεύει τοῖς φίλοις, he does not trust his friends; τοῖς Θηβαίοις ὀνειδίζουσιν, they reproach the Thebans: τί ἐγκαλεῖς ἡμῖν; what hare you to blame us for? ἐπηρεάζουσιν ἀλλήλοις, they revile one another; ὀργίζεσθε τοῖς ἀδικοῦσιν, you are angry with the offenders. So πρέπει μοι λέγειν, it is becoming me to speak; προσήκει μοι; it belongs to me; δοκεῖ μοι, it seems to me; δοκῶ μοι, methinks.

The verbs of this class which are not translated with to in English are chiefly those signifying to benefit, serve, obey, defend, assist, please, trust, satisfy, advise, exhort, or any of their opposites; also those expressing friendliness, hostility, abuse, reproach, envy, anger, threats.

Note. 1. (a) The impersonals δεῖ, μέτεστι, μέλει, μεταμέλει, and προσήκει take the dative of a person with the genitive of a thing; as δεῖ μοι τούτου, I have need of this; μέτεστί μοι τούτου, I have a share in this; μέλει μοι τούτου, I am interested in this: προσήκει μοι τούτου, I am concerned in this. (For the gen. see § 170, 2, § 172, N. 2.)

(b) Δεῖ and χρή take the accusative (very rarely the dative) when an infinitive follows. For δεῖ (in poetry) with the accusative and the genitive, see § 172, N. 2.

Note. 2. Some verbs of this class may take the accusative. Others, whose meaning would place them here (as μισέω, hate), take only the accusative. Λοιδορέω, revile, has the accusative, but λοιδορέομαι (middle) the dative. Κελεύω in Attic Greek has only the accusative (commonly with the infinitive); in Homer generally the dative.

The dative of interest (or of advantage or disadvantage), which is generally introduced in English by for. E.g.

Πᾶς ἀνὴρ αὑτῷ πονεῖ, every man labors for himself; Σόλων Ἀθηναίοις νόμους ἔθηκε, Solon made laws for the Athenians: οἱ καιροὶ προεῖνται τῇ πόλει, lit. the opportunities have been sacrificed for the state (for its disadvantage); ἐλπίδα ἔχει σωτηρίας τῇ πόλει, he has hope of safety for the state.

Note. 1. A peculiar use of this dative is found in statements of time; as τῷ ἤδη δύο γενεαὶ ἐφθίατο, two generations had already passed away for him (i.e. he had seen them pass away). Hom. Ἡμέραι ἦσαν τῇ Μυτιλήνῃ ἑαλωκυίᾳ ἑπτά, for Mitylene captured (i.e. since its capture) there had been seven days. Ἡμέρα ἦν πέμπτη ἐπιπλέουσι τοῖς Ἀθηναίοις, it was the fifth day for the Athenians sailing on (i.e. it was the fifth day of their voyage).

Note. 2. Here belong such Homeric expressions as τοῖσιν ἀνέστη, he rose up for them (i.e. to address them); τοῖσι μύθων ἦρχεν, he began to speak before them.

Note. 3. In Homer, verbs signifying to ward off take an accusative of the thing and a dative of the person; as Δαναοῖσι λοιγὸν ἄμυνον, ward off destruction from the Danai (lit. for the Danai). Here the accusative may be omitted, so that Δαναοῖσι ἀμύνειν means to defend the Danai. For other constructions of ἀμύνω see the Lexicon.

Δέχομαι, receive, takes a dative in Homer by a similar idiom; as δέξατό οἱ σκῆπτρον; he took his sceptre from him (lit. for him).

Note. 4. Sometimes this dative has nearly the same force as a possessive genitive; as of ἵπποι αὐτοῖς δέδενται, their horses are tied (lit. the horses are tied for them); διὰ τὸ ἐσπάρθαι αὐτῷ τὸ στράτευμα, because his army has been scattered (for him); ἦρχον τοῦ ναυτικοῦ τοῖς Συρακοσίοις, they commanded the navy for the Syracusans (i.e. the Syracusans’ navy).

Note. 5. The participles βουλόμενος, ἡδόμενος, προσδεχόμενος, ἀχθόμενος, and a few others, may agree with a dative, the phrase being equivalent to the verb of the participle; as αὐτῷ βουλομένῳ ἐστίν, it is to him wishing it (i.e. he wishes it).

Note. 6. Here belong the so-called ethical dative, in which the personal pronouns have the force of for my sake, &c., and sometimes cannot easily be translated; as τί σοι μαθήσομαι; what am I to learn for you? πῶς ἡμῖν ἔχεις; how are you (we wish to know)?

The dative of possession, after εἰμί, γίγνομαι, and similar verbs. E.g.

Πολλοί μοι φίλοι εἰσίν, I have many friends; πάντα σοι γενήσεται, all things will belong to you; ἔστιν ἀνθρώπῳ λογισμός, man has reason; Ἱππίᾳ μόνῳ τῶν ἀδελφῶν παῖδες ἐγένοντο, to Hippias alone of the brothers there were children born.

The dative denoting that with respect to which a statement is made, — often belonging to the whole sentence rather than to any special word. E.g.

Ἅπαντα τῷ φοβουμένῳ ψοφεῖ, everything sounds to one who is afraid; σφῷν μὲν ἐντολὴ Διὸς ἔχει τέλος, as regards you two, the order of Zeus is fully executed.

So in such expressions as these: ἐν δεξιᾷ ἐσπλέοντι, on the right as you sail in (with respect to one sailing in); συνελόντι, or ὡς συνελόντι εἰπεῖν, concisely, or to speak concisely (lit. for one having made the matter concise). So ὡς ἐμοί, in my opinion.

§ 185

The dative follows many adjectives and adverbs of kindred meaning with the verbs included in § 184, and some verbal nouns. E.g.

Δυσμενὴς τοῖς φίλοις, hostile to his friends; ὕποχος τοῖς νόμοις, subject to the laws; ἐπικίνδυνον τῇ πόλει, dangerous to the state; βλαβερὸν τῷ σώματι, hurtful to the body; εὔνους ἑαυτῷ, kind to himself; ἐναντίος αὐτῷ, opposed to him. (For the genitive after ἐναντίος, see § 181, Note.) Συμφερόντως αὑτῷ, profitably to himself; ἐμποδὼν ἐμοί, in my way. So καταδούλωσις τῶν Ἑλλήνων τοῖς Ἀθηναίοις, subjugation of the Greeks to the Athenians.

Dative of Resemblance and Union.

§ 186

The dative is used with all words implying resemblance, union, or approach. This includes verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and nouns. E.g.

Σκιαῖς ἐοικότες, like shadows; ὁμιλοῦσι τοῖς κακοῖς, they associate with the bad; τοὺς φεύγοντας αὐτοῖς ξυνήλλαξεν, he reconciled the exiles with them; ὁμολογοῦσιν ἀλλήλοις, they agree with one another; διαλέγονται τούτοις, they converse with these; τοὺς ἵππους ψόφοις πλησιάζειν, to bring the horses near to noises. Ὅμοιοι τοῖς τυφλοῖς, like the blind; κύματα ἴσα ὄρεσσιν, waves like mountains (Hom.); τοῖς αὐτοῖς Κύρῳ ὅπλοις ὡπλισμένοι, armed with the same arms as Cyrus. Ἐγγὺς ὁδῷ, near a road (also the genitive, § 182, 2); ἅμα τῇ ἡμέρᾳ, as soon as (it was) day; ὁμοῦ τῷ πηλῷ, together with the mud; τὰ τούτοις ἐφεξῆς, what comes next to these.

Note. 1. To this class belong not merely such verbs as διαλέγομαι, discourse with, but also μάχομαι, πολεμέω, and others signifying contend with, quarrel with; as μάχεσθαι τοῖς Θηβαίοις, to fight with the Thebans; πολεμοῦσιν ἡμῖν, they are at war with us; ἐρίζουσιν ἀλλήλοις, they contend with each other; διαφέρεσθαι τοῖς πονηροῖς, to be at variance with the base. So ἐς χεῖρας ἐλθεῖν τινι, or ἐς λόγους ἐλθεῖν τινι, to come to a conflict (or words) with any one.

Note. 2. After adjectives of likeness, an abridged form of expression may be used; as κόμαι Χαρίτεσσιν ὁμοῖαι, hair like (that of) the Graces (Hom.); τὰς ἴσας πληγὰς ἐμοί, the same number of blows with me.

Dative after Compound Verbs.

§ 187

The dative follows many verbs compounded with ἐν, σύν, or ἐπί; and some compounded with πρός, παρά, περί, and ὑπό. E.g.

Τοῖς νόμοις ἐμμένων, abiding by the laws; αἱ ἡδοναὶ ἐπιστήμην οὐδεμίαν ψυχῇ ἐμποιοῦσιν, pleasures produce no knowledge in the soul; ἐνέκειτο τῷ Περικλεῖ, they pressed hard on Pericles; ἐμαυτῷ συνῄδειν οὐδὲν ἐπισταμένῳ, I was conscious to myself that I knew nothing (lit. with myself); ἤδη ποτέ σοι ἐπῆλθεν; did it ever occur to you? Προσβάλλειν τῷ τειχίσματι, to attack the fortification; ἀδελφὸς ἀνδρὶ παρείη, let a brother stand by a man (i.e. let a man’s brother stand by him); τοῖς κακοῖς περιπίπτουσιν, they are involved in evils; ὑπόκειται τὸ πεδίον τῷ ἱερῷ, the plain lies below the temple. This dative sometimes depends on the preposition (§ 193), and sometimes on the idea contained in the compound as a whole.

Causal and Instrumental Dative.

§ 188

The dative is used to denote the cause, manner, means, or instrument. E.g.

CAUSE: Ἀποθνήσκει νόσῳ, he dies of disease; πολλάκις ἀγνοίᾳ ἁμαρτάνομεν, we often err through ignorance. MANNER: Δρόμῳ ἠπείγοντο, they pressed forward on a run; πολλῇ κραυγῇ ἐπελθεῖν, to advance with a loud shout; τῇ ἀληθείᾳ, in truth; τῷ ὄντι, in reality; βίᾳ, forcibly; ταύτῃ, in this manner, thus.

MEANS or INSTRUMENT: Ὁρῶμεν τοῖς ὀφθαλμοῖς, we see with our eyes; ἐγνώσθησαν τῇ σκευῇ τῶν ὅπλων, they were recognized by the fashion of their arms; κακοῖς ἰᾶσθαι κακά, to cure evils by evils; οὐδεὶς ἔπαινον ἡδοναῖς ἐκτήσατο, no one gains praise by pleasures (§ 205, 2).

Note. 1. The dative of respect is a form of the dative of manner; as δυνατὸς τῷ σώματι, strong in his body;πόλις, Θάψακος ὀνόματι, a city, Thapsacus by name (cf. § 160, 1).

Note. 2. Χράομαι, to use (to serve one’s self by), takes the instrumental dative; as χρῶνται ἀργυρίῳ, they use money. A neuter pronoun (e.g. τί, τι, ὅ τι, or τοῦτο) may be added as a cognate accusative (§ 159, N. 2); as τί τούτοις χρήσομαι; what shall I do with these? (lit. what use shall I make of these?). Νομίζω has sometimes the same meaning and construction as χράομαι.

The dative of manner is used with comparatives to denote the degree of difference. E.g.

Πολλῷ κρεῖττόν ἐστιν, it is much better (better by much); τῇ κεφαλῇ μείζων (or ἐλάττων), a head taller (or shorter); τοσούτῳ ἥδιον ζῶ, I live so much the more happily; τέχνη ἀνάγκης ἀσθενεστέρα μακρῷ; art is weaker than necessity by far.

So sometimes with superlatives, and even with other expressions which imply comparison; as μακρῷ κάλλιστά τε καὶ ἄριστα, by far the most beautiful and the best; δέκα ἔτεσι πρὸ τῆς ἐν Σαλαμῖνι ναυμαχίας, ten years before the battle of Salamis.

The dative sometimes denotes the agent with passive verbs, especially with the perfect and pluperfect. E.g.

Τοῦτο ἤδη σοι πέπρακται, this has now been done by you; ἐπειδὴ παρεσκεύαστο τοῖς Κορινθίοις, when preparation had been made by the Corinthians (when the Corinthians had their preparation made).

Here there seems to be a reference to the agent’s interest in the result of the completed action expressed by the perfect and pluperfect. With other tenses, the agent is regularly expressed by ὑπό, &c. and the genitive (§ 197, 1); rarely by the dative, except in poetry.

With the verbal adjective in -τέος, in its personal (passive) construction, the agent is expressed by the dative; in its impersonal (active) construction, by the dative or the accusative. See § 281.

The dative is used to denote that by which any person or thing is accompanied. E.g.

Ἦλθον οἱ Πέρσαι παμπληθεῖ στόλῳ, the Persians came with an army in full force; ἡμεῖς καὶ ἵπποις τοῖς δυνατωτάτοις καὶ ἀνδράσι πορευώμεθα, let us march both with the strongest horses and with men; οἱ Λακεδαιμόνιοι τῷ τε κατὰ γῆν στρατῷ προσέβαλλον τῷ τειχίσματι καὶ ταῖς ναυσίν, the Lacedaemonians attacked the wall both with their land army and with their ships.

This dative is used chiefly in reference to military forces, and is originally connected with the dative of means or instrument. The last example might be placed equally well under § 188, 1.

Note. This dative sometimes takes the dative of αὐτός for emphasis; as μίαν (ναῦν) αὐτοῖς ἀνδράσιν εἷλον, they took one (ship) men and all (see § 145, 1). Here the instrumental force disappears, and the dative may refer to any class of persons or things: thus δένδρεα αὐτῇσιν ῥίζῃσι, trees with their very roots. Hom.

Dative of Time.

§ 189

The dative without a preposition often denotes time when. This is confined chiefly to nouns denoting day, night, month, or year, and to names of festivals. E.g.

Τῇ αὐτῇ ἡμέρᾳ ἀπέθανεν, he died on the same day; Ἑρμαῖ μιᾷ νυκτὶ οἱ πλεῖστοι περιεκόπησαν, the most of the Hermae were mutilated in one night; οἱ Σάμιοι ἐξεπολιορκήθησαν ἐνάτῳ μηνί, the Samians were taken by siege in the ninth month; τετάρτῳ ἔτει ξυνέβησαν, they came to terms in the fourth year; ὡσπερεὶ Θεσμοφορίοις νηστεύομεν, we fast as if it were on the Thesmophoria. So τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ (sc. ἡμέρᾳ), on the following day, and δευτέρᾳ, τρίτῃ, on the second, third, &c., in giving the day of the month (§ 139, 1, Note).

Note. 1. Even the words mentioned, except names of festivals, generally take ἐν when no adjective word is joined with them. Thus ἐν νυκτί, at night (rarely, in poetry, νυκτί), but μιᾷ νυκτί, in one night.

Note. 2. A few expressions occur like ὑστέρῳ χρόνῳ, in after time; χειμῶνος ὥρᾳ, in the winter season; νουμηνίᾳ (new-moon day), on the first of the month; and others in poetry.

Dative of Place (Poetic).

§ 190

In poetry, the dative without a preposition often denotes the place where. E.g.

Ἑλλάδι ναίων, dwelling in Hellas; αἰθέρι ναίων, dwelling in heaven; οὔρεσι, on the mountains; τόξ᾽ ὤμοισιν ἔχων, having the bow on his shoulders; μίμνει ἀγρῷ, he remains in the country. Hom. Ἧσθαι δόμοις, to sit at home. Aesch. Νῦν ἀγροῖσι τυγχάνει, now he happens to be in the country. Soph.

Note. 1. In prose, the dative of place is chiefly confined to the names of Attic demes; as Μαραθῶνι μάχη, the battle at Marathon; but ἐν Ἀθήναις. Still some exceptions occur.

Note. 2. Some adverbs of place are really local datives; as ταύτῃ, τῇδε, here; οἴκοι, at home; κύκλῳ, in a circle, all around. See § 61, N. 2.

Note. The primary use of the dative case is to denote that to or for which anything is or is done: this includes the dative of the remote or indirect object, and the dative of interest. It also denotes that by which or with which, and the time (sometimes the place) in which, anything takes place, -i.e. it is not merely a dative, but also an instrumental and a locative case. (See Remark before § 157.) The object of motion after to is not regularly expressed by the Greek dative, but by the accusative with a preposition. (See § 162.)

Dative expressing To or For.

§ 184

The dative is used to denote that to or for which anything is or is done. This includes, –

1. The dative of the indirect object after transitive verbs, which is generally introduced in English by to. E.g.

Δίδωσι μισθὸν τῷ στρατεύματι, he gives pay to the army; ὑπισχνεῖταί σοι δέκα τάλαντα, he promises ten talents to you (or he promises you ten talents); βοήθειαν πέμψομεν τοῖς συμμάχοις, we will send aid to our allies; ἔλεγον τῷ βασιλεῖ τὰ γεγενημένα, they told the king what had happened.

2. The dative after certain intransitive verbs, many of which in English take a direct object without to. E.g.

Εὔχομαι τοῖς θεοῖς, I pray (to) the Gods; δικαιοσύνη λυσιτελεῖ τῷ ἔχοντι; justice is advantageous to (or profits) the one having it; τοῖς νόμοις πείθεται, he is obedient to the laws (he obeys the laws); βοηθεῖ τοῖς φίλοις, he assists his friends; ἀρέσκει τοῖς πολίταις, it is pleasing to (or it pleases) the citizens; εἶκε ἀνάγκῃ, yield to necessity; οὐ πιστεύει τοῖς φίλοις, he does not trust his friends; τοῖς Θηβαίοις ὀνειδίζουσιν, they reproach the Thebans: τί ἐγκαλεῖς ἡμῖν; what hare you to blame us for? ἐπηρεάζουσιν ἀλλήλοις, they revile one another; ὀργίζεσθε τοῖς ἀδικοῦσιν, you are angry with the offenders. So πρέπει μοι λέγειν, it is becoming me to speak; προσήκει μοι; it belongs to me; δοκεῖ μοι, it seems to me; δοκῶ μοι, methinks.

The verbs of this class which are not translated with to in English are chiefly those signifying to benefit, serve, obey, defend, assist, please, trust, satisfy, advise, exhort, or any of their opposites; also those expressing friendliness, hostility, abuse, reproach, envy, anger, threats.

Note. 1. (a) The impersonals δεῖ, μέτεστι, μέλει, μεταμέλει, and προσήκει take the dative of a person with the genitive of a thing; as δεῖ μοι τούτου, I have need of this; μέτεστί μοι τούτου, I have a share in this; μέλει μοι τούτου, I am interested in this: προσήκει μοι τούτου, I am concerned in this. (For the gen. see § 170, 2, § 172, N. 2.)

(b) Δεῖ and χρή take the accusative (very rarely the dative) when an infinitive follows. For δεῖ (in poetry) with the accusative and the genitive, see § 172, N. 2.

Note. 2. Some verbs of this class may take the accusative. Others, whose meaning would place them here (as μισέω, hate), take only the accusative. Λοιδορέω, revile, has the accusative, but λοιδορέομαι (middle) the dative. Κελεύω in Attic Greek has only the accusative (commonly with the infinitive); in Homer generally the dative.

3. The dative of interest (or of advantage or disadvantage), which is generally introduced in English by for. E.g.

Πᾶς ἀνὴρ αὑτῷ πονεῖ, every man labors for himself; Σόλων Ἀθηναίοις νόμους ἔθηκε, Solon made laws for the Athenians: οἱ καιροὶ προεῖνται τῇ πόλει, lit. the opportunities have been sacrificed for the state (for its disadvantage); ἐλπίδα ἔχει σωτηρίας τῇ πόλει, he has hope of safety for the state.

Note. 1. A peculiar use of this dative is found in statements of time; as τῷ ἤδη δύο γενεαὶ ἐφθίατο, two generations had already passed away for him (i.e. he had seen them pass away). Hom. Ἡμέραι ἦσαν τῇ Μυτιλήνῃ ἑαλωκυίᾳ ἑπτά, for Mitylene captured (i.e. since its capture) there had been seven days. Ἡμέρα ἦν πέμπτη ἐπιπλέουσι τοῖς Ἀθηναίοις, it was the fifth day for the Athenians sailing on (i.e. it was the fifth day of their voyage).

Note. 2. Here belong such Homeric expressions as τοῖσιν ἀνέστη, he rose up for them (i.e. to address them); τοῖσι μύθων ἦρχεν, he began to speak before them.

Note. 3. In Homer, verbs signifying to ward off take an accusative of the thing and a dative of the person; as Δαναοῖσι λοιγὸν ἄμυνον, ward off destruction from the Danai (lit. for the Danai). Here the accusative may be omitted, so that Δαναοῖσι ἀμύνειν means to defend the Danai. For other constructions of ἀμύνω see the Lexicon.

Δέχομαι, receive, takes a dative in Homer by a similar idiom; as δέξατό οἱ σκῆπτρον; he took his sceptre from him (lit. for him).

Note. 4. Sometimes this dative has nearly the same force as a possessive genitive; as of ἵπποι αὐτοῖς δέδενται, their horses are tied (lit. the horses are tied for them); διὰ τὸ ἐσπάρθαι αὐτῷ τὸ στράτευμα, because his army has been scattered (for him); ἦρχον τοῦ ναυτικοῦ τοῖς Συρακοσίοις, they commanded the navy for the Syracusans (i.e. the Syracusans’ navy).

Note. 5. The participles βουλόμενος, ἡδόμενος, προσδεχόμενος, ἀχθόμενος, and a few others, may agree with a dative, the phrase being equivalent to the verb of the participle; as αὐτῷ βουλομένῳ ἐστίν, it is to him wishing it (i.e. he wishes it).

Note. 6. Here belong the so-called ethical dative, in which the personal pronouns have the force of for my sake, &c., and sometimes cannot easily be translated; as τί σοι μαθήσομαι; what am I to learn for you? πῶς ἡμῖν ἔχεις; how are you (we wish to know)?

4. The dative of possession, after εἰμί, γίγνομαι, and similar verbs. E.g.

Πολλοί μοι φίλοι εἰσίν, I have many friends; πάντα σοι γενήσεται, all things will belong to you; ἔστιν ἀνθρώπῳ λογισμός, man has reason; Ἱππίᾳ μόνῳ τῶν ἀδελφῶν παῖδες ἐγένοντο, to Hippias alone of the brothers there were children born.

5. The dative denoting that with respect to which a statement is made, — often belonging to the whole sentence rather than to any special word. E.g.

Ἅπαντα τῷ φοβουμένῳ ψοφεῖ, everything sounds to one who is afraid; σφῷν μὲν ἐντολὴ Διὸς ἔχει τέλος, as regards you two, the order of Zeus is fully executed.

So in such expressions as these: ἐν δεξιᾷ ἐσπλέοντι, on the right as you sail in (with respect to one sailing in); συνελόντι, or ὡς συνελόντι εἰπεῖν, concisely, or to speak concisely (lit. for one having made the matter concise). So ὡς ἐμοί, in my opinion.

§ 185

The dative follows many adjectives and adverbs of kindred meaning with the verbs included in § 184, and some verbal nouns. E.g.

Δυσμενὴς τοῖς φίλοις, hostile to his friends; ὕποχος τοῖς νόμοις, subject to the laws; ἐπικίνδυνον τῇ πόλει, dangerous to the state; βλαβερὸν τῷ σώματι, hurtful to the body; εὔνους ἑαυτῷ, kind to himself; ἐναντίος αὐτῷ, opposed to him. (For the genitive after ἐναντίος, see § 181, Note.) Συμφερόντως αὑτῷ, profitably to himself; ἐμποδὼν ἐμοί, in my way. So καταδούλωσις τῶν Ἑλλήνων τοῖς Ἀθηναίοις, subjugation of the Greeks to the Athenians.

Dative of Resemblance and Union.

§ 186

The dative is used with all words implying resemblance, union, or approach. This includes verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and nouns. E.g.

Σκιαῖς ἐοικότες, like shadows; ὁμιλοῦσι τοῖς κακοῖς, they associate with the bad; τοὺς φεύγοντας αὐτοῖς ξυνήλλαξεν, he reconciled the exiles with them; ὁμολογοῦσιν ἀλλήλοις, they agree with one another; διαλέγονται τούτοις, they converse with these; τοὺς ἵππους ψόφοις πλησιάζειν, to bring the horses near to noises. Ὅμοιοι τοῖς τυφλοῖς, like the blind; κύματα ἴσα ὄρεσσιν, waves like mountains (Hom.); τοῖς αὐτοῖς Κύρῳ ὅπλοις ὡπλισμένοι, armed with the same arms as Cyrus. Ἐγγὺς ὁδῷ, near a road (also the genitive, § 182, 2); ἅμα τῇ ἡμέρᾳ, as soon as (it was) day; ὁμοῦ τῷ πηλῷ, together with the mud; τὰ τούτοις ἐφεξῆς, what comes next to these.

Note. 1. To this class belong not merely such verbs as διαλέγομαι, discourse with, but also μάχομαι, πολεμέω, and others signifying contend with, quarrel with; as μάχεσθαι τοῖς Θηβαίοις, to fight with the Thebans; πολεμοῦσιν ἡμῖν, they are at war with us; ἐρίζουσιν ἀλλήλοις, they contend with each other; διαφέρεσθαι τοῖς πονηροῖς, to be at variance with the base. So ἐς χεῖρας ἐλθεῖν τινι, or ἐς λόγους ἐλθεῖν τινι, to come to a conflict (or words) with any one.

Note. 2. After adjectives of likeness, an abridged form of expression may be used; as κόμαι Χαρίτεσσιν ὁμοῖαι, hair like (that of) the Graces (Hom.); τὰς ἴσας πληγὰς ἐμοί, the same number of blows with me.

Dative after Compound Verbs.

§ 187

The dative follows many verbs compounded with ἐν, σύν, or ἐπί; and some compounded with πρός, παρά, περί, and ὑπό. E.g.

Τοῖς νόμοις ἐμμένων, abiding by the laws; αἱ ἡδοναὶ ἐπιστήμην οὐδεμίαν ψυχῇ ἐμποιοῦσιν, pleasures produce no knowledge in the soul; ἐνέκειτο τῷ Περικλεῖ, they pressed hard on Pericles; ἐμαυτῷ συνῄδειν οὐδὲν ἐπισταμένῳ, I was conscious to myself that I knew nothing (lit. with myself); ἤδη ποτέ σοι ἐπῆλθεν; did it ever occur to you? Προσβάλλειν τῷ τειχίσματι, to attack the fortification; ἀδελφὸς ἀνδρὶ παρείη, let a brother stand by a man (i.e. let a man’s brother stand by him); τοῖς κακοῖς περιπίπτουσιν, they are involved in evils; ὑπόκειται τὸ πεδίον τῷ ἱερῷ, the plain lies below the temple. This dative sometimes depends on the preposition (§ 193), and sometimes on the idea contained in the compound as a whole.

Causal and Instrumental Dative.

§ 188

1. The dative is used to denote the cause, manner, means, or instrument. E.g.

CAUSE: Ἀποθνήσκει νόσῳ, he dies of disease; πολλάκις ἀγνοίᾳ ἁμαρτάνομεν, we often err through ignorance. MANNER: Δρόμῳ ἠπείγοντο, they pressed forward on a run; πολλῇ κραυγῇ ἐπελθεῖν, to advance with a loud shout; τῇ ἀληθείᾳ, in truth; τῷ ὄντι, in reality; βίᾳ, forcibly; ταύτῃ, in this manner, thus.

MEANS or INSTRUMENT: Ὁρῶμεν τοῖς ὀφθαλμοῖς, we see with our eyes; ἐγνώσθησαν τῇ σκευῇ τῶν ὅπλων, they were recognized by the fashion of their arms; κακοῖς ἰᾶσθαι κακά, to cure evils by evils; οὐδεὶς ἔπαινον ἡδοναῖς ἐκτήσατο, no one gains praise by pleasures (§ 205, 2).

Note. 1. The dative of respect is a form of the dative of manner; as δυνατὸς τῷ σώματι, strong in his body;πόλις, Θάψακος ὀνόματι, a city, Thapsacus by name (cf. § 160, 1).

Note. 2. Χράομαι, to use (to serve one’s self by), takes the instrumental dative; as χρῶνται ἀργυρίῳ, they use money. A neuter pronoun (e.g. τί, τι, ὅ τι, or τοῦτο) may be added as a cognate accusative (§ 159, N. 2); as τί τούτοις χρήσομαι; what shall I do with these? (lit. what use shall I make of these?). Νομίζω has sometimes the same meaning and construction as χράομαι.

2. The dative of manner is used with comparatives to denote the degree of difference. E.g.

Πολλῷ κρεῖττόν ἐστιν, it is much better (better by much); τῇ κεφαλῇ μείζων (or ἐλάττων), a head taller (or shorter); τοσούτῳ ἥδιον ζῶ, I live so much the more happily; τέχνη ἀνάγκης ἀσθενεστέρα μακρῷ; art is weaker than necessity by far.

So sometimes with superlatives, and even with other expressions which imply comparison; as μακρῷ κάλλιστά τε καὶ ἄριστα, by far the most beautiful and the best; δέκα ἔτεσι πρὸ τῆς ἐν Σαλαμῖνι ναυμαχίας, ten years before the battle of Salamis.

3. The dative sometimes denotes the agent with passive verbs, especially with the perfect and pluperfect. E.g.

Τοῦτο ἤδη σοι πέπρακται, this has now been done by you; ἐπειδὴ παρεσκεύαστο τοῖς Κορινθίοις, when preparation had been made by the Corinthians (when the Corinthians had their preparation made).

Here there seems to be a reference to the agent’s interest in the result of the completed action expressed by the perfect and pluperfect. With other tenses, the agent is regularly expressed by ὑπό, &c. and the genitive (§ 197, 1); rarely by the dative, except in poetry.

4. With the verbal adjective in -τέος, in its personal (passive) construction, the agent is expressed by the dative; in its impersonal (active) construction, by the dative or the accusative. See § 281.

5. The dative is used to denote that by which any person or thing is accompanied. E.g.

Ἦλθον οἱ Πέρσαι παμπληθεῖ στόλῳ, the Persians came with an army in full force; ἡμεῖς καὶ ἵπποις τοῖς δυνατωτάτοις καὶ ἀνδράσι πορευώμεθα, let us march both with the strongest horses and with men; οἱ Λακεδαιμόνιοι τῷ τε κατὰ γῆν στρατῷ προσέβαλλον τῷ τειχίσματι καὶ ταῖς ναυσίν, the Lacedaemonians attacked the wall both with their land army and with their ships.

This dative is used chiefly in reference to military forces, and is originally connected with the dative of means or instrument. The last example might be placed equally well under § 188, 1.

Note. This dative sometimes takes the dative of αὐτός for emphasis; as μίαν (ναῦν) αὐτοῖς ἀνδράσιν εἷλον, they took one (ship) men and all (see § 145, 1). Here the instrumental force disappears, and the dative may refer to any class of persons or things: thus δένδρεα αὐτῇσιν ῥίζῃσι, trees with their very roots. Hom.

Dative of Time.

§ 189

The dative without a preposition often denotes time when. This is confined chiefly to nouns denoting day, night, month, or year, and to names of festivals. E.g.

Τῇ αὐτῇ ἡμέρᾳ ἀπέθανεν, he died on the same day; Ἑρμαῖ μιᾷ νυκτὶ οἱ πλεῖστοι περιεκόπησαν, the most of the Hermae were mutilated in one night; οἱ Σάμιοι ἐξεπολιορκήθησαν ἐνάτῳ μηνί, the Samians were taken by siege in the ninth month; τετάρτῳ ἔτει ξυνέβησαν, they came to terms in the fourth year; ὡσπερεὶ Θεσμοφορίοις νηστεύομεν, we fast as if it were on the Thesmophoria. So τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ (sc. ἡμέρᾳ), on the following day, and δευτέρᾳ, τρίτῃ, on the second, third, &c., in giving the day of the month (§ 139, 1, Note).

Note. 1. Even the words mentioned, except names of festivals, generally take ἐν when no adjective word is joined with them. Thus ἐν νυκτί, at night (rarely, in poetry, νυκτί), but μιᾷ νυκτί, in one night.

Note. 2. A few expressions occur like ὑστέρῳ χρόνῳ, in after time; χειμῶνος ὥρᾳ, in the winter season; νουμηνίᾳ (new-moon day), on the first of the month; and others in poetry.

Dative of Place (Poetic).

§ 190

In poetry, the dative without a preposition often denotes the place where. E.g.

Ἑλλάδι ναίων, dwelling in Hellas; αἰθέρι ναίων, dwelling in heaven; οὔρεσι, on the mountains; τόξ᾽ ὤμοισιν ἔχων, having the bow on his shoulders; μίμνει ἀγρῷ, he remains in the country. Hom. Ἧσθαι δόμοις, to sit at home. Aesch. Νῦν ἀγροῖσι τυγχάνει, now he happens to be in the country. Soph.

Note. 1. In prose, the dative of place is chiefly confined to the names of Attic demes; as Μαραθῶνι μάχη, the battle at Marathon; but ἐν Ἀθήναις. Still some exceptions occur.

> Note. 2. Some adverbs of place are really local datives; as ταύτῃ, τῇδε, here; οἴκοι, at home; κύκλῳ, in a circle, all around. See § 61, N. 2.

§191-193

PREPOSITIONS

PREPOSITIONS

191

The prepositions were originally adverbs, and it is chiefly as such that they appear in composition with verbs. They are used also as independent words, to connect nouns (or words used as nouns) with other parts of the sentence. Besides the prepositions properly so called, there are certain adverbs used in the same way, which cannot be compounded with verbs: these are called improper prepositions, and are

ἄνευ, ἄτερ, ἄχρι, μέχρι, μεταξύ, ἕνεκα, πλήν, ὡς. All of these take the genitive, except ὡς, which takes the accusative.

I. Four prepositions take the genitive only: ἀντί, ἀπό, ἐκ (ἐξ), πρό, – with the improper prepositions ἄνευ, ἄτερ, ἄχρι; μέχρι; μεταξύ, ἕνεκα, πλήν.

ἀντί, instead of, for. Original meaning, over against, against. In comp.: against, in opposition, in return, instead.

ἀπό (Lat. ab, a, Eng. of), from, off from, away from; originally (as opposed to ἐκ) separated from.

(a) of PLACE: ἀφ᾽ ἵππου μάχεσθαι, to fight on horseback (from a horse).

(b) of TIME: ἀπὸ τούτου τοῦ χρόνου, from this time.

(c) of CAUSE: ἀπὸ στάσεων ἐκπίπτειν, to be driven out by factions,

IN COMP.: from, away, off, in return.

ἐκ or ἐξ (§ 13, 2; Lat. e, ex), from, out of; originally (as opposed to ἀπό) from within.;

(a) of PLACE: ἐκ Σπάρτης φεύγει, he is banished from Sparta.

(b) of TIME: ἐκ παλαιοτάτου, from the most ancient time.

(c) of ORIGIN: ὄναρ ἐκ Διός ἐστιν, the dream comes from Zeus. So also with passive verbs (instead of ὑπό with gen.): τιμᾶσθαι ἔκ τινος, to be honored by some one (the agent viewed as the source).

IN COMP.: out, from, away, off.

πρό (Lat. pro), before:

(a) of PLACE: πρὸ θυρῶν, before the door.

(b) of TIME: πρὸ τῆς μάχης, before the battle.

(c) of PREFERENCE: πρὸ τούτων, in preference to this,

(d) of PROTECTION: πρὸ παίδων μάχεσθαι, to fight for one’s children.

IN COMP.: before, forward, forth.

So ἄνευ, ἄτερ, without; ἄχρι, μέχρι, until; μεταξύ, between; ἕνεκα, on account of; πλήν, except.

II. Two take the dative only: ἐν and σύν.

ἐν, in, equivalent to Lat. in with the ablative:

(a) of PLACE: ἐν Σπάρτῃ, in Sparta; - with a word implying number, among: ἐν δήμῳ λέγειν, to speak (among) before the people.

(b) of TIME: ἐν τούτῳ τῷ ἔτει, in this year.

IN COMP.: in, on, at.

σύν or ξύν (Lat. cum), with, i.e. in company with or by aid of.

IN COMP.: with, together.

III. One takes the accusative only: εἰς or ἐς, - with the improper preposition ὡς.

εἰς or ἐς, into, to; originally (as opposed to ἐκ) to within (Lat. in with the accusative or inter):

(a) of PLACE: ἔφυγον εἰς Μέγαρα, they fled into Megara.

(b) of TIME: εἰς νύκτα, (to) till night; εἰς τὸν ἅπαντα χρόνον, for all time.

(c) of NUMBER and MEASURE: εἰς διακοσίους, (amounting) to two hundred; εἰς δύναμιν, up to one’s power.

(d) of PURPOSE or REFERENCE: χρήματα ἀναλίσκειν εἰς τὸν πόλεμον, to spend money on the war; χρήσιμος εἴς τι, useful for anything.

In COMP.: into, in, to.

ὡς, to, only with persons: εἰσιέναι ὥς τινα, to go in to (visit) any one.

IV. Three take the genitive and accusative: διά, κατά, ὑπέρ.

διά, through (Lat. di-, dis-).

(1) with the GENITIVE:

(a) of PLACE: δι’ ἀσπίδος ἦλθεν, it went through a shield.

(b) of TIME: διὰ νυκτός, through the night.

(c) of MEANS: δι’ ἑρμηνέως λέγειν, to speak through an interpreter.

(d) in various phrases like δι᾿ οἴκτου ἔχειν, to pity; διὰ φιλίας ἰέναι, to be in friendship (with one).

(2) with the ACCUSATIVE, on account of, by reason of: δι’ Ἀθήνην, by help of Athena; διὰ τοῦτο, on this account.

IN COMP.: through, also apart (Lat. di-, dis-).

κατά (cf. adverb κάτω, below), originally down (opposed to ἀνά).

(1) with the GENITIVE:

(a) down from: ἅλλεσθαι κατὰ τῆς πέτρας, to leap down from the rock.

(b) down upon: κατὰ τῆς κεφαλῆς καταχεῖν, to pour down upon the head; also against, under, concerning.

(2) with the AccUSATIVE, down along; of motion over, through, among, into, against; also according to, concerning.

(a) of PLACE: κατὰ ῥοῦν, down stream; κατὰ γῆν καὶ θάλασσαν, by land and by sea.

(b) of TIME: κατὰ τὸν πόλεμον, during (at the time of) the war.

(c) DISTRIBUTIVELY: κατὰ τρεῖς, by threes, three by three; καθ' ἡμέραν, day by day, daily.

IN COMP.: down, against.

ὑπέρ, over (Lat. super).

(1) with the GENITIVE:

(a) of PLACE: ὑπὲρ τῆς κεφαλῆς, over (his) head; ὑπὲρ τῆς θαλάσσης, above (away from) the sea.

(b) for, in behalf of (opposed to κατά): μάχεσθαι ὑπέρ τινος, to fight for one (originally over him); ὑπὲρ σοῦ δέδοικα, I fear for you; ὑπέρ τινος λέγειν, to speak in place of one; in the orators sometimes concerning (like περί).

(2) with the ACCUSATIVE, over, beyond, of place and measure.

IN COMP.: over, beyond, exceedingly, in behalf of.

V. One takes the dative and accusative (very rarely the genitive): ἀνά. ἀνά (cf. adverb ἄνω, above), originally up (opposed to κατά).

(1) with the DATIVE (only Epic and Lyric), up on: ἀνὰ σκήπτρῳ, on a sceptre.

(2) with the ACCUSATIVE, up along; and of motion over, through, among (cf. κατά).

(a) of PLACE: ἀνὰ ῥοῦν, up stream; ἀνὰ στρατόν, through the army (Hom.).

(b) of TIME: ἀνὰ πᾶσαν τὴν ἡμέραν, all through the day.

(c) In DISTRIBUTIVE expressions: ἀνὰ τέτταρας, by fours.

IN COMP.: up, back, again.

(3) with the GENITIVE, only in the Homeric expression, ἀνὰ νηὸς βαίνειν, to go on board ship.

VI. Seven take the genitive, dative, and accusative: ἀμφί, ἐπί, μετά, παρά, περί, πρός, ὑπό.

ἀμφί (Lat. amb-), connected with ἄμφω, both; originally on both sides of; hence about.

(1) with the GENITIVE (rare in prose), about, concerning.

(2) with the Dative (only Ionic and poetic), about; hence concerning, on account of.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE, about, near, of place, time, number, etc.: ἀμφ᾽ ἅλα, by the sea; ἀμφὶ δείλην, near evening; ἀμφὶ τὰ ἑξήκοντα, about sixty (circiter sexaginta); so ἀμφί τι ἔχειν, to be (busy) about a thing.

IN COMP.: about, on both sides.

ἐπί, on, upon.

(1) with the GENITIVE:

(a) of PLACE: ἐπὶ πύργου, on a tower; sometimes towards. ἐπὶ Σάμου πλεῖν, to sail (upon) towards Samos.

(b) of TIME: ἐφ᾽ ἡμῶν, in our time.

(2) with the DATIVE:

(a) of PLACE: ἐπὶ τῇ θαλάσσῃ οἰκεῖν, to live upon (by) the sea.

(b) of TIME: ἐπὶ τῷ σημείῳ, upon the signal; ἐπὶ τούτοις, thereupon.

(c) Likewise over, for, at, in addition to, on account of, in the power of; and in many other relations: see the Lexicon.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE, originally up to; then to, towards, against: ἀναβαίνειν ἐφ᾽ ἵππον, to mount a horse; ἐπὶ δεξιά, to the right.

IN COMP.: upon, over, after, toward, to, for, at, against, besides.

μετά (akin to μέσος, Lat. medius), amid, among.

(1) with the GENITIVE, with, on the side of: μετὰ τῶν συμμάχων τοῖς πολεμίοις μάχεσθαι, with (the help of) the allies to fight with (against) the enemy (§ 186, N. 1).

(2) with the DATIVE (poetic, chiefly Epic), among.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE:

(a) into (the midst of), after (in quest of), for (poetic).

(b) generally after, next to: μετὰ τὸν πόλεμον, after the war; μέγιστος μετὰ τὸν Ἴστρον, the largest (river) next to the Ister.

IN COMP.: with (of sharing), among, after (in quest of): it also denotes change, as in μετανοέω, change one’s mind, repent.

παρά, by, near, alongside of (see Note 1).

(1) with the GENITIVE, from beside, from.

(2) with the DATIVE, near: παρὰ Κύρῳ ὄντες, being near Cyrus.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE, to (a place) near, to; also by the side of, beyond or beside, except, along with, because of.

(a) of PLACE: ἀφικνεῖται παρὰ Κῦρον, he comes to Cyrus.

(b) of TIME: παρὰ πάντα τὸν χρόνον, throughout the whole time.

(c) of CAUSE: παρὰ τὴν ἡμετέραν ἀμέλειαν, on account of our neglect.

(d) with idea of beyond or beside, and except: οὐκ ἔστι παρὰ ταῦτα ἄλλα, there are no others besides these; παρὰ τὸν νόμον, contrary to the law (properly beyond it).

IN COMP.: beside, along by, hitherward, wrongly (beside the mark), over (as in overstep).

περί, around (on all sides).

(1) with the GENITIVE, about, concerning (Lat. de): περὶ πατρὸς ἐρέσθαι, to inquire about his father; also (poetic) above; κρατερὸς περὶ πάντων, mighty above all.

(2) with the DATIVE, about, around, concerning, seldom in Attic prose.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE, nearly the same as ἀμφί.

IN COMP.: around, about, exceedingly.

πρός, at or by (in front of), akin to πρό.

(1) with the GENITIVE:

(a) in front of, looking towards: πρὸς Θράκης κεῖσθαι, to be situated over against Thrace; - in swearing: πρὸς θεῶν, before (by) the Gods. Sometimes pertaining to (as character): ἢ κάρτα πρὸς γυναικός ἐστιν, surely it is very like a woman.

(b) from (properly from before): τιμὴν πρὸς Ζηνὸς ἔχοντες, having honor from Zeus; sometimes with passive verbs (like ὑπό). πρός τινος φιλεῖσθαι, to be loved by some one.

(2) with the DATIVE:

(a) at: ὁ Κῦρος ἦν πρὸς Βαβυλῶνι, Cyrus was at Babylon.

(b) in addition to: πρὸς τούτοις, besides this, furthermore.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE:

(a) to: ἰέναι πρὸς Ὄλυμπον, to go to Olympus.

(b) towards: πρὸς Βορρᾶν, towards the North; so of persons: πιστῶς διακεῖσθαι πρός τινα, to be faithfully disposed towards one; πρὸς ἀλλήλους ἡσυχίαν εἶχον, they kept the peace towards one another.

(c) with a view to, in reference to: πρὸς τί με ταῦτ᾽ ἐρωτᾷς, (to what end) for what do you ask me this? πρὸς τὴν δύναμιν, according to one’s power.

IN COMP.: to, towards, against, besides.

ὑπό, under (Lat. sub), by.

(1) with the GENITIVE:

(a) of PLACE: ὑπὸ γῆς, under the earth; sometimes from under.

(b) to denote the AGENT with passive verbs: τιμᾶσθαι ὑπὸ τῶν πολιτῶν, to be honored by the citizens.

(c) of CAUSE: ὑπὸ δέους, through fear; ὑφ᾽ ἡδονῆς, through pleasure.

(2) with the DATIVE (especially poetic): θανεῖν ὑπ’ Ἰλίῳ, to perish under (the walls of) Ilium.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE:

(a) of PLACE, under, properly to (a place) under.

(b) of TIME, towards (entering into): ὑπὸ νύκτα, just before night (Lat. sub noctem): sometimes during.

IN COMP.: under, secretly, slightly, gradually.

Note. 1. Further details of the meaning and use of the prepositions must be learned by practice and from the Lexicon. In general, the accusative is the case used with prepositions to denote that towards which, over which, along which, or upon which motion takes place; the genitive, to denote that from which anything proceeds; the dative, to denote that in which anything takes place. It will be noticed how the peculiar meaning of each case often modifies the expression by which we translate a given preposition: thus παρά means near, alongside of; and we have παρὰ τοῦ βασιλέως, from the neighborhood of the king; παρὰ τῷ βασιλεῖ, in the neighborhood of the king; παρὰ τὸν βασιλέα, into the neighborhood of the king.

Note. 2. The original adverbial use of the prepositions sometimes appears when they are used without a noun; this occurs especially in the older Greek, seldom in Attic prose. Thus περί, roundabout or exceedingly, in Homer; πρὸς δέ or καὶ πρός, and besides, in Herodotus.

Note. 3. The preposition of a compound verb may also stand separately, in which case its adverbial force plainly appears; as ἐπὶ κνέφας ἦλθε (κνέφας ἐπῆλθε), darkness came on; ἡμῖν ἀπὸ λοιγὸν ἀμῦναι (ἀπαμῦναι), to ward off destruction from us. This is called tmesis, and is found chiefly in Homer.

Note. 4. A preposition sometimes follows its case, or a verb to which it belongs; as νεῶν ἄπο, παιδὸς πέρι; ὀλέσας ἄπο (for ἀπολέσας). For the accent see § 23, 2.

Note. 5. A few prepositions are used adverbially with a verb understood; as πάρα for πάρεστι, ἔπι and μέτα (in Homer) for ἔπεστι and μέτεστι. So ἔνι for ἔνεστι, and ἄνα, up! for ἀνάστα (ἀνάστηθι). For the accent see § 23, 2.

Note. 6. Sometimes εἰς with the accusative or ἐκ or ἀπό with the genitive is used in expressions which themselves imply no motion, with reference to some motion implied or expressed in the context; as αἱ ξύνοδοι ἐς τὸ ἱερὸν ἐγίγνοντο, the synods were held in the temple (lit. into the temple, involving the idea of going into the temple to hold the synods); τοῖς ἐκ Πύλου ληφθεῖσι (ἐοικότες), like those captured (in Pylos, and brought home) from Pylos, i.e. the captives from Pylos; διήρπαστο καὶ αὐτὰ τὰ ἀπὸ τῶν οἰκιῶν ξύλα; even the very timbers in the houses (lit. from the houses) had been stolen. So ἐν with the dative sometimes occurs with verbs of motion, referring to rest which follows the motion; as ἐν τῷ ποταμῷ ἔπεσον, they fell (into and remained) in the river; so ἐν γούνασι πίπτειν, to fall on one’s knees. These are instances of what is called the constructio praegnans.

§ 192. (Recapitulation.)

The following prepositions take the genitive: ἀμφί, ἀντί, ἀπό, διά, ἐκ (ἐξ), ἐπί, κατά, μετά, παρά, περί, πρό, πρός, ὑπέρ, ὑπό, - i.e. all except εἰς, ἐν, σύν, ἀνά. Also the improper prepositions ἄνευ, ἄτερ, ἄχρι, μέχρι, μεταξύ, ἕνεκα, πλήν.

The following take the dative: ἀμφί, ἀνά, ἐν, ἐπί, μετά, παρά, περί, πρός, σύν, ὑπό.

The following take the accusative: ἀμφί, ἀνά, διά, εἰς (ἐς), ἐπί, κατά, μετά, παρά, περί, πρός, ὑπέρ, ὑπό, - i.e. all except ἀντί, ἀπό, ἐκ, ἐν, πρό, σύν. So also ὡς (with words denoting persons).

§ 193.

A preposition is often followed by its own case when it is part of a compound verb. E.g.

Παρεκομίζοντο τὴν Ἰταλίαν, they sailed along the coast of Italy; ἐσῆλθέ με, it occurred to me; ἡ μήτηρ συνέπραττεν αὐτῷ ταῦτα, his mother assisted him in this (i.e. ἔπραττε σὺν αὐτῷ). For examples of the genitive, see § 177; for those of the dative, see § 187.

191

The prepositions were originally adverbs, and it is chiefly as such that they appear in composition with verbs. They are used also as independent words, to connect nouns (or words used as nouns) with other parts of the sentence. Besides the prepositions properly so called, there are certain adverbs used in the same way, which cannot be compounded with verbs: these are called improper prepositions, and are

ἄνευ, ἄτερ, ἄχρι, μέχρι, μεταξύ, ἕνεκα, πλήν, ὡς. All of these take the genitive, except ὡς, which takes the accusative.

I. Four prepositions take the genitive only: ἀντί, ἀπό, ἐκ (ἐξ), πρό, – with the improper prepositions ἄνευ, ἄτερ, ἄχρι; μέχρι; μεταξύ, ἕνεκα, πλήν.

1. ἀντί, instead of, for. Original meaning, over against, against. In comp.: against, in opposition, in return, instead.

2. ἀπό (Lat. ab, a, Eng. of), from, off from, away from; originally (as opposed to ἐκ) separated from.

(a) of PLACE: ἀφ᾽ ἵππου μάχεσθαι, to fight on horseback (from a horse).

(b) of TIME: ἀπὸ τούτου τοῦ χρόνου, from this time.

IN COMP.: from, away, off, in return.

3. ἐκ or ἐξ (§ 13, 2; Lat. e, ex), from, out of; originally (as opposed to ἀπό) from within.;

(a) of PLACE: ἐκ Σπάρτης φεύγει, he is banished from Sparta.

(b) of TIME: ἐκ παλαιοτάτου, from the most ancient time.

(c) of ORIGIN: ὄναρ ἐκ Διός ἐστιν, the dream comes from Zeus. So also with passive verbs (instead of ὑπό with gen.): τιμᾶσθαι ἔκ τινος, to be honored by some one (the agent viewed as the source).

IN COMP.: out, from, away, off.

4. πρό (Lat. pro), before:

(a) of PLACE: πρὸ θυρῶν, before the door.

(b) of TIME: πρὸ τῆς μάχης, before the battle.

(d) of PROTECTION: πρὸ παίδων μάχεσθαι, to fight for one’s children.

IN COMP.: before, forward, forth.

5. So ἄνευ, ἄτερ, without; ἄχρι, μέχρι, until; μεταξύ, between; ἕνεκα, on account of; πλήν, except.

II. Two take the dative only: ἐν and σύν.

1. ἐν, in, equivalent to Lat. in with the ablative:

(a) of PLACE: ἐν Σπάρτῃ, in Sparta; - with a word implying number, among: ἐν δήμῳ λέγειν, to speak (among) before the people.

(b) of TIME: ἐν τούτῳ τῷ ἔτει, in this year.

IN COMP.: in, on, at.

2. σύν or ξύν (Lat. cum), with, i.e. in company with or by aid of.

IN COMP.: with, together.

III. One takes the accusative only: εἰς or ἐς, - with the improper preposition ὡς.

1. εἰς or ἐς, into, to; originally (as opposed to ἐκ) to within (Lat. in with the accusative or inter):

(a) of PLACE: ἔφυγον εἰς Μέγαρα, they fled into Megara.

(b) of TIME: εἰς νύκτα, (to) till night; εἰς τὸν ἅπαντα χρόνον, for all time.

(d) of PURPOSE or REFERENCE: χρήματα ἀναλίσκειν εἰς τὸν πόλεμον, to spend money on the war; χρήσιμος εἴς τι, useful for anything.

In COMP.: into, in, to.

2. ὡς, to, only with persons: εἰσιέναι ὥς τινα, to go in to (visit) any one.

IV. Three take the genitive and accusative: διά, κατά, ὑπέρ.

1. διά, through (Lat. di-, dis-).

(1) with the GENITIVE:

(a) of PLACE: δι’ ἀσπίδος ἦλθεν, it went through a shield.

(b) of TIME: διὰ νυκτός, through the night.

(d) in various phrases like δι᾿ οἴκτου ἔχειν, to pity; διὰ φιλίας ἰέναι, to be in friendship (with one).

(2) with the ACCUSATIVE, on account of, by reason of: δι’ Ἀθήνην, by help of Athena; διὰ τοῦτο, on this account.

IN COMP.: through, also apart (Lat. di-, dis-).

2. κατά (cf. adverb κάτω, below), originally down (opposed to ἀνά).

(1) with the GENITIVE:

(a) down from: ἅλλεσθαι κατὰ τῆς πέτρας, to leap down from the rock.

(b) down upon: κατὰ τῆς κεφαλῆς καταχεῖν, to pour down upon the head; also against, under, concerning.

(2) with the AccUSATIVE, down along; of motion over, through, among, into, against; also according to, concerning.

(a) of PLACE: κατὰ ῥοῦν, down stream; κατὰ γῆν καὶ θάλασσαν, by land and by sea.

(b) of TIME: κατὰ τὸν πόλεμον, during (at the time of) the war.

IN COMP.: down, against.

3. ὑπέρ, over (Lat. super).

(1) with the GENITIVE:

(a) of PLACE: ὑπὲρ τῆς κεφαλῆς, over (his) head; ὑπὲρ τῆς θαλάσσης, above (away from) the sea.

(b) for, in behalf of (opposed to κατά): μάχεσθαι ὑπέρ τινος, to fight for one (originally over him); ὑπὲρ σοῦ δέδοικα, I fear for you; ὑπέρ τινος λέγειν, to speak in place of one; in the orators sometimes concerning (like περί).

(2) with the ACCUSATIVE, over, beyond, of place and measure.

IN COMP.: over, beyond, exceedingly, in behalf of.

V. One takes the dative and accusative (very rarely the genitive): ἀνά. ἀνά (cf. adverb ἄνω, above), originally up (opposed to κατά).

(1) with the DATIVE (only Epic and Lyric), up on: ἀνὰ σκήπτρῳ, on a sceptre.

(2) with the ACCUSATIVE, up along; and of motion over, through, among (cf. κατά).

(a) of PLACE: ἀνὰ ῥοῦν, up stream; ἀνὰ στρατόν, through the army (Hom.).

(b) of TIME: ἀνὰ πᾶσαν τὴν ἡμέραν, all through the day.

IN COMP.: up, back, again.

(3) with the GENITIVE, only in the Homeric expression, ἀνὰ νηὸς βαίνειν, to go on board ship.

VI. Seven take the genitive, dative, and accusative: ἀμφί, ἐπί, μετά, παρά, περί, πρός, ὑπό.

1. ἀμφί (Lat. amb-), connected with ἄμφω, both; originally on both sides of; hence about.

(1) with the GENITIVE (rare in prose), about, concerning.

(2) with the Dative (only Ionic and poetic), about; hence concerning, on account of.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE, about, near, of place, time, number, etc.: ἀμφ᾽ ἅλα, by the sea; ἀμφὶ δείλην, near evening; ἀμφὶ τὰ ἑξήκοντα, about sixty (circiter sexaginta); so ἀμφί τι ἔχειν, to be (busy) about a thing.

IN COMP.: about, on both sides.

2. ἐπί, on, upon.

(1) with the GENITIVE:

(a) of PLACE: ἐπὶ πύργου, on a tower; sometimes towards. ἐπὶ Σάμου πλεῖν, to sail (upon) towards Samos.

(b) of TIME: ἐφ᾽ ἡμῶν, in our time.

(2) with the DATIVE:

(a) of PLACE: ἐπὶ τῇ θαλάσσῃ οἰκεῖν, to live upon (by) the sea.

(b) of TIME: ἐπὶ τῷ σημείῳ, upon the signal; ἐπὶ τούτοις, thereupon.

(c) Likewise over, for, at, in addition to, on account of, in the power of; and in many other relations: see the Lexicon.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE, originally up to; then to, towards, against: ἀναβαίνειν ἐφ᾽ ἵππον, to mount a horse; ἐπὶ δεξιά, to the right.

IN COMP.: upon, over, after, toward, to, for, at, against, besides.

3. μετά (akin to μέσος, Lat. medius), amid, among.

(1) with the GENITIVE, with, on the side of: μετὰ τῶν συμμάχων τοῖς πολεμίοις μάχεσθαι, with (the help of) the allies to fight with (against) the enemy (§ 186, N. 1).

(2) with the DATIVE (poetic, chiefly Epic), among.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE:

(a) into (the midst of), after (in quest of), for (poetic).

(b) generally after, next to: μετὰ τὸν πόλεμον, after the war; μέγιστος μετὰ τὸν Ἴστρον, the largest (river) next to the Ister.

IN COMP.: with (of sharing), among, after (in quest of): it also denotes change, as in μετανοέω, change one’s mind, repent.

4. παρά, by, near, alongside of (see Note 1).

(1) with the GENITIVE, from beside, from.

(2) with the DATIVE, near: παρὰ Κύρῳ ὄντες, being near Cyrus.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE, to (a place) near, to; also by the side of, beyond or beside, except, along with, because of.

(a) of PLACE: ἀφικνεῖται παρὰ Κῦρον, he comes to Cyrus.

(b) of TIME: παρὰ πάντα τὸν χρόνον, throughout the whole time.

(d) with idea of beyond or beside, and except: οὐκ ἔστι παρὰ ταῦτα ἄλλα, there are no others besides these; παρὰ τὸν νόμον, contrary to the law (properly beyond it).

IN COMP.: beside, along by, hitherward, wrongly (beside the mark), over (as in overstep).

5. περί, around (on all sides).

(1) with the GENITIVE, about, concerning (Lat. de): περὶ πατρὸς ἐρέσθαι, to inquire about his father; also (poetic) above; κρατερὸς περὶ πάντων, mighty above all.

(2) with the DATIVE, about, around, concerning, seldom in Attic prose.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE, nearly the same as ἀμφί.

IN COMP.: around, about, exceedingly.

6. πρός, at or by (in front of), akin to πρό.

(1) with the GENITIVE:

(a) in front of, looking towards: πρὸς Θράκης κεῖσθαι, to be situated over against Thrace; - in swearing: πρὸς θεῶν, before (by) the Gods. Sometimes pertaining to (as character): ἢ κάρτα πρὸς γυναικός ἐστιν, surely it is very like a woman.

(b) from (properly from before): τιμὴν πρὸς Ζηνὸς ἔχοντες, having honor from Zeus; sometimes with passive verbs (like ὑπό). πρός τινος φιλεῖσθαι, to be loved by some one.

(2) with the DATIVE:

(a) at: ὁ Κῦρος ἦν πρὸς Βαβυλῶνι, Cyrus was at Babylon.

(b) in addition to: πρὸς τούτοις, besides this, furthermore.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE:

(a) to: ἰέναι πρὸς Ὄλυμπον, to go to Olympus.

(b) towards: πρὸς Βορρᾶν, towards the North; so of persons: πιστῶς διακεῖσθαι πρός τινα, to be faithfully disposed towards one; πρὸς ἀλλήλους ἡσυχίαν εἶχον, they kept the peace towards one another.

(c) with a view to, in reference to: πρὸς τί με ταῦτ᾽ ἐρωτᾷς, (to what end) for what do you ask me this? πρὸς τὴν δύναμιν, according to one’s power.

IN COMP.: to, towards, against, besides.

7. ὑπό, under (Lat. sub), by.

(1) with the GENITIVE:

(a) of PLACE: ὑπὸ γῆς, under the earth; sometimes from under.

(b) to denote the AGENT with passive verbs: τιμᾶσθαι ὑπὸ τῶν πολιτῶν, to be honored by the citizens.

(2) with the DATIVE (especially poetic): θανεῖν ὑπ’ Ἰλίῳ, to perish under (the walls of) Ilium.

(3) with the ACCUSATIVE:

(a) of PLACE, under, properly to (a place) under.

(b) of TIME, towards (entering into): ὑπὸ νύκτα, just before night (Lat. sub noctem): sometimes during.

IN COMP.: under, secretly, slightly, gradually.

Note. 1. Further details of the meaning and use of the prepositions must be learned by practice and from the Lexicon. In general, the accusative is the case used with prepositions to denote that towards which, over which, along which, or upon which motion takes place; the genitive, to denote that from which anything proceeds; the dative, to denote that in which anything takes place. It will be noticed how the peculiar meaning of each case often modifies the expression by which we translate a given preposition: thus παρά means near, alongside of; and we have παρὰ τοῦ βασιλέως, from the neighborhood of the king; παρὰ τῷ βασιλεῖ, in the neighborhood of the king; παρὰ τὸν βασιλέα, into the neighborhood of the king.

Note. 2. The original adverbial use of the prepositions sometimes appears when they are used without a noun; this occurs especially in the older Greek, seldom in Attic prose. Thus περί, roundabout or exceedingly, in Homer; πρὸς δέ or καὶ πρός, and besides, in Herodotus.

Note. 3. The preposition of a compound verb may also stand separately, in which case its adverbial force plainly appears; as ἐπὶ κνέφας ἦλθε (κνέφας ἐπῆλθε), darkness came on; ἡμῖν ἀπὸ λοιγὸν ἀμῦναι (ἀπαμῦναι), to ward off destruction from us. This is called tmesis, and is found chiefly in Homer.

Note. 4. A preposition sometimes follows its case, or a verb to which it belongs; as νεῶν ἄπο, παιδὸς πέρι; ὀλέσας ἄπο (for ἀπολέσας). For the accent see § 23, 2.

Note. 5. A few prepositions are used adverbially with a verb understood; as πάρα for πάρεστι, ἔπι and μέτα (in Homer) for ἔπεστι and μέτεστι. So ἔνι for ἔνεστι, and ἄνα, up! for ἀνάστα (ἀνάστηθι). For the accent see § 23, 2.

Note. 6. Sometimes εἰς with the accusative or ἐκ or ἀπό with the genitive is used in expressions which themselves imply no motion, with reference to some motion implied or expressed in the context; as αἱ ξύνοδοι ἐς τὸ ἱερὸν ἐγίγνοντο, the synods were held in the temple (lit. into the temple, involving the idea of going into the temple to hold the synods); τοῖς ἐκ Πύλου ληφθεῖσι (ἐοικότες), like those captured (in Pylos, and brought home) from Pylos, i.e. the captives from Pylos; διήρπαστο καὶ αὐτὰ τὰ ἀπὸ τῶν οἰκιῶν ξύλα; even the very timbers in the houses (lit. from the houses) had been stolen. So ἐν with the dative sometimes occurs with verbs of motion, referring to rest which follows the motion; as ἐν τῷ ποταμῷ ἔπεσον, they fell (into and remained) in the river; so ἐν γούνασι πίπτειν, to fall on one’s knees. These are instances of what is called the constructio praegnans.

§ 192. (Recapitulation.)

1. The following prepositions take the genitive: ἀμφί, ἀντί, ἀπό, διά, ἐκ (ἐξ), ἐπί, κατά, μετά, παρά, περί, πρό, πρός, ὑπέρ, ὑπό, - i.e. all except εἰς, ἐν, σύν, ἀνά. Also the improper prepositions ἄνευ, ἄτερ, ἄχρι, μέχρι, μεταξύ, ἕνεκα, πλήν.

2. The following take the dative: ἀμφί, ἀνά, ἐν, ἐπί, μετά, παρά, περί, πρός, σύν, ὑπό.

3. The following take the accusative: ἀμφί, ἀνά, διά, εἰς (ἐς), ἐπί, κατά, μετά, παρά, περί, πρός, ὑπέρ, ὑπό, - i.e. all except ἀντί, ἀπό, ἐκ, ἐν, πρό, σύν. So also ὡς (with words denoting persons).

§ 193.

A preposition is often followed by its own case when it is part of a compound verb. E.g.

Παρεκομίζοντο τὴν Ἰταλίαν, they sailed along the coast of Italy; ἐσῆλθέ με, it occurred to me; ἡ μήτηρ συνέπραττεν αὐτῷ ταῦτα, his mother assisted him in this (i.e. ἔπραττε σὺν αὐτῷ). For examples of the genitive, see § 177; for those of the dative, see § 187.

§194

ADVERBS

ADVERBS

Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. E.g.

Οὕτως εἶπεν, thus he spoke; ὡς δύναμαι, as I am able; πρῶτον ἀπῆλθε, he first went away; τὸ ἀληθῶς κακόν, that which is truly evil; μᾶλλον πρεπόντως ἠμφιεσμένη, more becomingly dressed.

For adjectives used as adverbs, see § 188, N. 7. For adverbs preceded by the article, and qualifying a noun like adjectives, see § 141, N. 3. For adverbs with the genitive or dative, see §§ 168 (with N. 3); 182, 2; 185; 186. For adverbs as prepositions, see § 191. For negative adverbs, see § 283.

Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. E.g.

Οὕτως εἶπεν, thus he spoke; ὡς δύναμαι, as I am able; πρῶτον ἀπῆλθε, he first went away; τὸ ἀληθῶς κακόν, that which is truly evil; μᾶλλον πρεπόντως ἠμφιεσμένη, more becomingly dressed.

For adjectives used as adverbs, see § 188, N. 7. For adverbs preceded by the article, and qualifying a noun like adjectives, see § 141, N. 3. For adverbs with the genitive or dative, see §§ 168 (with N. 3); 182, 2; 185; 186. For adverbs as prepositions, see § 191. For negative adverbs, see § 283.

§195-199

THE VERB: VOICES

THE VERB: VOICES

Active.

§ 195

In the active voice the subject is represented as acting; as τρέπω τοὺς ὀφθαλμούς, I turn my eyes; ὁ πατὴρ φιλεῖ τὸν παῖδα, the father loves the child; ὁ ἵππος τρέχει, the horse runs.

Note. 1. The form of the active voice includes most intransitive verbs; as τρέχω, run. On the other hand, the form of the middle or passive voice includes many deponent verbs which are active and transitive in meaning; as βούλομαι τοῦτο, I want this. Some transitive verbs have certain intransitive tenses; as ἕστηκα, I stand, ἔστην, I stood, from ἵστημι, place. Such tenses are said to have a middle, or sometimes even a passive, meaning.

Note. 2. The same verb may be both transitive and intransitive; as ἐλαύνω, drive (trans. or intrans.) or march. The intransitive use sometimes arose from the omission of a familiar object; as ἐλαύνειν (ἴππον or ἅρμα), τελευτᾶν (τὸν βίον), to end (life) or to die.

Compare the English verbs drive, turn, move, &c.

Passive.

§ 196

In the passive voice the subject is represented as acted upon; as ὁ παῖς ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς φιλεῖται, the child is loved by the father.

§ 197

The object of the active becomes the subject of the passive. The subject of the active, the agent, is generally expressed by ὑπό and the genitive in the passive construction. (See § 196 and the example.) Even a genitive or dative used as a direct object can become the subject of the passive; as καταφρονεῖται ὑπ᾽ ἐμοῦ, he is despised by me (cf. καταφρονῶ αὐτοῦ, § 171, 2); πιστεύεται ὑπὸ τῶν ἀρχομένων, he is trusted by his subjects (cf. πιστεύουσιν αὐτῷ, § 184, 2); so ἀρχόμενος, ruled over, is passive of ἄρχω, rule (§ 171, 3).

Note. 1. Other prepositions than ὑπό with the genitive of the agent, though used in poetry, are not common in Attic prose. Such are παρά, πρός, ἐκ, and ἀπό.

Note. 2. When the active is followed by two accusatives, or by an accusative of a thing and a dative of a person, the case denoting a person is generally made the subject of the passive, and the other (an accusative) remains unchanged. E.g.

οὐδὲν ἄλλο διδάσκεται ἄνθρωπος, the man is taught nothing else (in the active οὐδὲν ἄλλο διδάσκουσι τὸν ἄνθρωπον). Ἄλλο τι μεῖζον ἐπιταχθήσεσθε, you will have some other greater command imposed on you (active, ἄλλο τι μεῖζον ὑμῖν ἐπιτάξουσιν, they will impose some other greater command on you). Οἱ ἐπιτετραμμένοι τὴν φυλακήν, those to whom the guard has been intrusted (active, ἐπιτρέπειν τὴν φυλακὴν τούτοις). Διφθέραν ἐνημμένος, clad in a leathern jerkin (active, ἐνάπτειν τί τινι, to fit a thing on one). So ἐκκόπτεσθαι τὸν ὀφθαλμόν, to have his eye cut out, and ἀποτέμνεσθαι τὴν κεφαλήν, to have his head cut off, &c., from possible active constructions ἐκκόπτειν τί τινι, and ἀποτέμνειν τί τινι (§ 184, 3, N. 4). This construction has nothing to do with that of § 160.

The first two examples are cases of the cognate accusative of the thing retained with the passive, while the accusative or dative of the person is made the subject (§ 159, Notes 2 and 4).

The perfect and pluperfect passive generally take the dative of the agent (§ 188, 3). The personal verbal in -τέος takes the dative, the impersonal in -τέον the dative or accusative, of the agent (§ 188, 4).

§ 198

The subject of the passive may be a neuter adjective which represents a cognate accusative of the active construction; or the passive may be used impersonally, the subject being implied in the idea of the verb itself. E.g.

Ἀσεβεῖται οὐδέν, no act of impiety is committed (act. ἀσεβεῖν οὐδέν, § 159, N. 2). So παρεσκεύασται, preparation has been made (it is prepared); ἁμαρτάνεται, error is committed (it is erred): cf. ventum est. This occurs chiefly in such participial expressions as τὰ ἠσεβημένα, the impious acts which have been committed; τὰ κινδυνευθέντα, the risks which were run; τὰ ἡμαρτημένα, the errors which have been made, &c. (See § 134, N. 1, d). Even an intransitive verb may thus have a passive voice.

Middle.

§ 199

In the middle voice the subject is represented as acting upon himself, or in some manner which concerns himself.

As acting on himself: ἐτράποντο πρὸς λῃστείαν, they turned themselves to piracy. This, though the most natural, is the least common use of the middle.

As acting for himself or with reference to himself: ὁ δῆμος τίθεται νόμους, the people make laws for themselves, whereas τίθησι νόμους would properly be said of a lawgiver; τοῦτον μεταπέμπομαι, I send for him (to come to me); ἀπεπέμπετο αὐτούς; he dismissed them.

As acting on an object which belongs to himself: ἦλθε λυσόμενος θύγατρα, he came to ransom his (own) daughter. Hom.

Remark. The last two uses may be united in one verb, as in the last example.

Note. 1. Often the middle expresses no more than is implied in the active; thus τρόπαιον ἵστασθαι, to raise a trophy for themselves, generally adds nothing but the expression to what is implied in τρόπαιον ἱστάναι, to raise a trophy; and either form can be used. The middle sometimes appears not to differ at all from the active in meaning; as the poetic ἰδέσθαι, to see, and ἰδεῖν.

Note. 2. The middle sometimes has a causative meaning; as ἐδιδαξάμην σε, I had you taught.

This gives rise to some special uses of the middle; as in δανείζω, lend, δανείζομαι, borrow (cause somebody to lend to one’s self). So μισθῶ, let, μισθοῦμαι, hire (cause to be let to one’s self); I let myself for pay is ἐμαυτὸν μισθῶ.

Note. 3. The middle of certain verbs is peculiar in its meaning.

Thus, ἀποδίδωμι, give back, ἀποδίδομαι, sell; γράφω, write or propose a vote, γράφομαι, indict; τιμωρῶ τινι, I avenge a person, τιμωροῦμαί τινα, I avenge myself on a person or I punish a person; ἅπτω, fasten, ἅπτομαι, cling to (fasten myself to); so ἔχομαι, hold to.

The passive of some of these verbs is used as a passive to both active and middle; thus γραφῆναι can mean either to be written or to be indicted.

Note. 4. The future middle of some verbs has a passive sense; as ἀδικῶ, wrong, ἀδικήσομαι, I shall be wronged.

Active.

§ 195

In the active voice the subject is represented as acting; as τρέπω τοὺς ὀφθαλμούς, I turn my eyes; ὁ πατὴρ φιλεῖ τὸν παῖδα, the father loves the child; ὁ ἵππος τρέχει, the horse runs.

Note. 1. The form of the active voice includes most intransitive verbs; as τρέχω, run. On the other hand, the form of the middle or passive voice includes many deponent verbs which are active and transitive in meaning; as βούλομαι τοῦτο, I want this. Some transitive verbs have certain intransitive tenses; as ἕστηκα, I stand, ἔστην, I stood, from ἵστημι, place. Such tenses are said to have a middle, or sometimes even a passive, meaning.

Note. 2. The same verb may be both transitive and intransitive; as ἐλαύνω, drive (trans. or intrans.) or march. The intransitive use sometimes arose from the omission of a familiar object; as ἐλαύνειν (ἴππον or ἅρμα), τελευτᾶν (τὸν βίον), to end (life) or to die.

Compare the English verbs drive, turn, move, &c.

Passive.

§ 196

In the passive voice the subject is represented as acted upon; as ὁ παῖς ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς φιλεῖται, the child is loved by the father.

§ 197

1. The object of the active becomes the subject of the passive. The subject of the active, the agent, is generally expressed by ὑπό and the genitive in the passive construction. (See § 196 and the example.) Even a genitive or dative used as a direct object can become the subject of the passive; as καταφρονεῖται ὑπ᾽ ἐμοῦ, he is despised by me (cf. καταφρονῶ αὐτοῦ, § 171, 2); πιστεύεται ὑπὸ τῶν ἀρχομένων, he is trusted by his subjects (cf. πιστεύουσιν αὐτῷ, § 184, 2); so ἀρχόμενος, ruled over, is passive of ἄρχω, rule (§ 171, 3).

Note. 1. Other prepositions than ὑπό with the genitive of the agent, though used in poetry, are not common in Attic prose. Such are παρά, πρός, ἐκ, and ἀπό.

Note. 2. When the active is followed by two accusatives, or by an accusative of a thing and a dative of a person, the case denoting a person is generally made the subject of the passive, and the other (an accusative) remains unchanged. E.g.

οὐδὲν ἄλλο διδάσκεται ἄνθρωπος, the man is taught nothing else (in the active οὐδὲν ἄλλο διδάσκουσι τὸν ἄνθρωπον). Ἄλλο τι μεῖζον ἐπιταχθήσεσθε, you will have some other greater command imposed on you (active, ἄλλο τι μεῖζον ὑμῖν ἐπιτάξουσιν, they will impose some other greater command on you). Οἱ ἐπιτετραμμένοι τὴν φυλακήν, those to whom the guard has been intrusted (active, ἐπιτρέπειν τὴν φυλακὴν τούτοις). Διφθέραν ἐνημμένος, clad in a leathern jerkin (active, ἐνάπτειν τί τινι, to fit a thing on one). So ἐκκόπτεσθαι τὸν ὀφθαλμόν, to have his eye cut out, and ἀποτέμνεσθαι τὴν κεφαλήν, to have his head cut off, &c., from possible active constructions ἐκκόπτειν τί τινι, and ἀποτέμνειν τί τινι (§ 184, 3, N. 4). This construction has nothing to do with that of § 160.

The first two examples are cases of the cognate accusative of the thing retained with the passive, while the accusative or dative of the person is made the subject (§ 159, Notes 2 and 4).

2. The perfect and pluperfect passive generally take the dative of the agent (§ 188, 3). The personal verbal in -τέος takes the dative, the impersonal in -τέον the dative or accusative, of the agent (§ 188, 4).

§ 198

The subject of the passive may be a neuter adjective which represents a cognate accusative of the active construction; or the passive may be used impersonally, the subject being implied in the idea of the verb itself. E.g.

Ἀσεβεῖται οὐδέν, no act of impiety is committed (act. ἀσεβεῖν οὐδέν, § 159, N. 2). So παρεσκεύασται, preparation has been made (it is prepared); ἁμαρτάνεται, error is committed (it is erred): cf. ventum est. This occurs chiefly in such participial expressions as τὰ ἠσεβημένα, the impious acts which have been committed; τὰ κινδυνευθέντα, the risks which were run; τὰ ἡμαρτημένα, the errors which have been made, &c. (See § 134, N. 1, d). Even an intransitive verb may thus have a passive voice.

Middle.

§ 199

In the middle voice the subject is represented as acting upon himself, or in some manner which concerns himself.

1. As acting on himself: ἐτράποντο πρὸς λῃστείαν, they turned themselves to piracy. This, though the most natural, is the least common use of the middle.

2. As acting for himself or with reference to himself: ὁ δῆμος τίθεται νόμους, the people make laws for themselves, whereas τίθησι νόμους would properly be said of a lawgiver; τοῦτον μεταπέμπομαι, I send for him (to come to me); ἀπεπέμπετο αὐτούς; he dismissed them.

3. As acting on an object which belongs to himself: ἦλθε λυσόμενος θύγατρα, he came to ransom his (own) daughter. Hom.

Remark. The last two uses may be united in one verb, as in the last example.

Note. 1. Often the middle expresses no more than is implied in the active; thus τρόπαιον ἵστασθαι, to raise a trophy for themselves, generally adds nothing but the expression to what is implied in τρόπαιον ἱστάναι, to raise a trophy; and either form can be used. The middle sometimes appears not to differ at all from the active in meaning; as the poetic ἰδέσθαι, to see, and ἰδεῖν.

Note. 2. The middle sometimes has a causative meaning; as ἐδιδαξάμην σε, I had you taught.

This gives rise to some special uses of the middle; as in δανείζω, lend, δανείζομαι, borrow (cause somebody to lend to one’s self). So μισθῶ, let, μισθοῦμαι, hire (cause to be let to one’s self); I let myself for pay is ἐμαυτὸν μισθῶ.

Note. 3. The middle of certain verbs is peculiar in its meaning.

Thus, ἀποδίδωμι, give back, ἀποδίδομαι, sell; γράφω, write or propose a vote, γράφομαι, indict; τιμωρῶ τινι, I avenge a person, τιμωροῦμαί τινα, I avenge myself on a person or I punish a person; ἅπτω, fasten, ἅπτομαι, cling to (fasten myself to); so ἔχομαι, hold to.

The passive of some of these verbs is used as a passive to both active and middle; thus γραφῆναι can mean either to be written or to be indicted.

Note. 4. The future middle of some verbs has a passive sense; as ἀδικῶ, wrong, ἀδικήσομαι, I shall be wronged.

§200-201

THE VERB: TENSES: I. TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE

THE VERB: TENSES: I. TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE

§ 200

The tenses of the indicative express action as follows: –

PRESENT, continued or repeated present action: γράφω, I am writing or I write (habitually).

IMPERFECT, continued or repeated past action: ἔγραφον, I was writing or I used to write.

PERFECT, action finished in present time: γέγραφα, I have written.

PLUPERFECT, action finished in past time: ἐγεγράφειν, I had written.

AORIST, simple past action (N. 5): ἔγραψα, I wrote.

FUTURE, future action: γράψω, I shall write or I shall be writing.

FUTURE PERFECT, action to be finished in future time: γεγράψεται, it will have been written.

Note. 1. In narration, the present is sometimes used vividly for the aorist; as πορεύεται πρὸς βασιλέα ᾗ ἐδύνατο τάχιστα, he goes (went) to the king as fast as he could.

For the present expressing a general truth, see § 205, 1.

Note. 2. The present and especially the imperfect often express an attempted action; as πείθουσιν ὑμᾶς, they are trying to persuade you; Ἀλόννησον ἐδίδου, he offered (tried to give) Halonnesus; ὃ ἐπράσσετο οὐκ ἐγένετο, what was attempted did not happen.

Note. 3. (a) The presents ἥκω, I am come, and οἴχομαι, I am gone, have the force of perfects; the imperfects having the force of pluperfects. (Cf. N. 6.)

(b) The present εἶμι, I am going, has a future sense, and is used as a future of ἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι not being ordinarily used in Attic prose.

Note. 4. The present with πάλαι or any other expression of past time has the force of a present and perfect combined; as πάλαι σοι τοῦτο λέγω, I have long been telling you this (which I now tell).

Note. 5. (a) The aorist takes its name (ἀόριστος, unlimited, unqualified) from its denoting a simple past occurrence, with none of the limitations (ὅροι) as to completion, continuance, repetition, &c. which belong to the other past tenses. It corresponds exactly to the so-called imperfect in English, whereas the Greek imperfect corresponds to the forms I was doing, &c. Thus, ἐποίει τοῦτο is he was doing this or he did this habitually; πεποίηκε τοῦτο is he has already done this; ἐπεποιήκει τοῦτο is he had already (at some past time) done this; but ἐποίησε τοῦτο is simply he did this, without qualification of any kind.

(b) The aorist of verbs which denote a state or condition generally expresses the entrance into that state or condition; as πλουτῶ, I am rich; ἐπλούτουν, I was rich; ἐπλούτησα, I became rich. So ἐβασίλευσε; he became king; ἦρξε, he obtained office.

(c) The distinction between the imperfect and aorist was sometimes neglected, especially in the earlier Greek. See βαῖνον and βῆ in Il. i. 437 and 439; βάλλετο and βάλετο in Il. ii. 43 and 45; ἔλιπεν and λεῖπε, Il. ii. 106 and 107.

Note. 6. Some perfects have a present meaning; as θνήσκειν, to die, τεθνηκέναι, to be dead; γίγνεσθαι, to become, γεγονέναι, to be; μιμνήσκειν, to remind, μεμνῆσθαι, to remember; καλεῖν, to call, κεκλῆσθαι, to be called. So οἶδα, I know, novi. This is usually explained by the meaning of the verb. In such verbs the pluperfect has the force of an imperfect; as ᾔδειν, I knew (§ 127). (Cf. N. 3, a.)

Note. 7. The perfect sometimes refers vividly to the future; as εἴ με αἰσθήσεται ὄλωλα, if he shall perceive me, I am ruined (perii). So sometimes the present; as ἀπόλλυμαι, I perish! (for I shall perish).

Note. 8. The second person of the future may express a permission, or even a command; as πράξεις οἷον ἂν θέλῃς, you may act as you please; πάντως δὲ τοῦτο δράσεις, and by all means do this (you shall do this). So in imprecations; as ἀπολεῖσθε, to destruction with you! (lit. you shall perish). See § 257, where the future with οὐ μή is explained in this way.

Note. 9. The future perfect is sometimes merely an emphatic future, denoting that a future act will be immediate or decisive; as φράζε καὶ πεπράξεται, speak, and it shall be (no sooner said than) done. Compare the similar use of the perfect infinitive, § 202, 2, N. 2.

§ 201

The division of the tenses of the indicative into primary and secondary (or historical) is explained in § 90, 2.

In dependent clauses, when the construction allows both subjunctive and optative, or both indicative and optative, the subjunctive or indicative regularly follows primary tenses, and the optative follows secondary tenses. E.g.

Πράττουσιν ἃ ἂν βούλωνται, they do whatever they please;

ἔπραττον ἃ βούλοιντο, they did whatever they pleased.

Λέγουσιν ὅτι τοῦτο βούλονται, they say that they wish for this;

ἔλεξαν ὅτι τοῦτο βούλοιντο, they said that they wished for this.

These constructions will be explained hereafter (§§ 233, 248).

Note. The gnomic aorist is a primary tense, as it refers to present time (§ 205, 2); and the historic present is secondary, as it refers to past time (§ 200, N. 1).

Note. 1. The only exception to this principle occurs in indirect discourse, where the form of the direct discourse can always be retained, even after secondary tenses. See § 242, § 248, Note, § 216, 2.

Note. 2. The distinction into primary and secondary tenses extends to the dependent moods only where the tenses keep the same distinction of time which they have in the indicative, as in the optative and infinitive of indirect discourse (§ 208).

An optative of future time generally assimilates a dependent conditional relative clause or protasis to the optative when it might otherwise be in the subjunctive: thus we should generally have πράττοιεν ἂν ἃ βούλοιντο, they would do whatever they (might please) pleased (see the first example under § 201). See § 235,1. Such an optative seldom assimilates the subjunctive or indicative of a final or object clause (§ 215) in prose; but oftener in poetry. It very rarely assimilates an indicative of indirect discourse, although it may assimilate an interrogative subjunctive (§ 244, N. 1).

§ 200

The tenses of the indicative express action as follows: –

PRESENT, continued or repeated present action: γράφω, I am writing or I write (habitually).

IMPERFECT, continued or repeated past action: ἔγραφον, I was writing or I used to write.

PERFECT, action finished in present time: γέγραφα, I have written.

PLUPERFECT, action finished in past time: ἐγεγράφειν, I had written.

AORIST, simple past action (N. 5): ἔγραψα, I wrote.

FUTURE, future action: γράψω, I shall write or I shall be writing.

FUTURE PERFECT, action to be finished in future time: γεγράψεται, it will have been written.

Note. 1. In narration, the present is sometimes used vividly for the aorist; as πορεύεται πρὸς βασιλέα ᾗ ἐδύνατο τάχιστα, he goes (went) to the king as fast as he could.

For the present expressing a general truth, see § 205, 1.

Note. 2. The present and especially the imperfect often express an attempted action; as πείθουσιν ὑμᾶς, they are trying to persuade you; Ἀλόννησον ἐδίδου, he offered (tried to give) Halonnesus; ὃ ἐπράσσετο οὐκ ἐγένετο, what was attempted did not happen.

Note. 3. (a) The presents ἥκω, I am come, and οἴχομαι, I am gone, have the force of perfects; the imperfects having the force of pluperfects. (Cf. N. 6.)

(b) The present εἶμι, I am going, has a future sense, and is used as a future of ἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι not being ordinarily used in Attic prose.

Note. 4. The present with πάλαι or any other expression of past time has the force of a present and perfect combined; as πάλαι σοι τοῦτο λέγω, I have long been telling you this (which I now tell).

Note. 5. (a) The aorist takes its name (ἀόριστος, unlimited, unqualified) from its denoting a simple past occurrence, with none of the limitations (ὅροι) as to completion, continuance, repetition, &c. which belong to the other past tenses. It corresponds exactly to the so-called imperfect in English, whereas the Greek imperfect corresponds to the forms I was doing, &c. Thus, ἐποίει τοῦτο is he was doing this or he did this habitually; πεποίηκε τοῦτο is he has already done this; ἐπεποιήκει τοῦτο is he had already (at some past time) done this; but ἐποίησε τοῦτο is simply he did this, without qualification of any kind.

(b) The aorist of verbs which denote a state or condition generally expresses the entrance into that state or condition; as πλουτῶ, I am rich; ἐπλούτουν, I was rich; ἐπλούτησα, I became rich. So ἐβασίλευσε; he became king; ἦρξε, he obtained office.

(c) The distinction between the imperfect and aorist was sometimes neglected, especially in the earlier Greek. See βαῖνον and βῆ in Il. i. 437 and 439; βάλλετο and βάλετο in Il. ii. 43 and 45; ἔλιπεν and λεῖπε, Il. ii. 106 and 107.

Note. 6. Some perfects have a present meaning; as θνήσκειν, to die, τεθνηκέναι, to be dead; γίγνεσθαι, to become, γεγονέναι, to be; μιμνήσκειν, to remind, μεμνῆσθαι, to remember; καλεῖν, to call, κεκλῆσθαι, to be called. So οἶδα, I know, novi. This is usually explained by the meaning of the verb. In such verbs the pluperfect has the force of an imperfect; as ᾔδειν, I knew (§ 127). (Cf. N. 3, a.)

Note. 7. The perfect sometimes refers vividly to the future; as εἴ με αἰσθήσεται ὄλωλα, if he shall perceive me, I am ruined (perii). So sometimes the present; as ἀπόλλυμαι, I perish! (for I shall perish).

Note. 8. The second person of the future may express a permission, or even a command; as πράξεις οἷον ἂν θέλῃς, you may act as you please; πάντως δὲ τοῦτο δράσεις, and by all means do this (you shall do this). So in imprecations; as ἀπολεῖσθε, to destruction with you! (lit. you shall perish). See § 257, where the future with οὐ μή is explained in this way.

Note. 9. The future perfect is sometimes merely an emphatic future, denoting that a future act will be immediate or decisive; as φράζε καὶ πεπράξεται, speak, and it shall be (no sooner said than) done. Compare the similar use of the perfect infinitive, § 202, 2, N. 2.

§ 201

The division of the tenses of the indicative into primary and secondary (or historical) is explained in § 90, 2.

In dependent clauses, when the construction allows both subjunctive and optative, or both indicative and optative, the subjunctive or indicative regularly follows primary tenses, and the optative follows secondary tenses. E.g.

Πράττουσιν ἃ ἂν βούλωνται, they do whatever they please;

ἔπραττον ἃ βούλοιντο, they did whatever they pleased.

Λέγουσιν ὅτι τοῦτο βούλονται, they say that they wish for this;

ἔλεξαν ὅτι τοῦτο βούλοιντο, they said that they wished for this.

These constructions will be explained hereafter (§§ 233, 248).

Note. The gnomic aorist is a primary tense, as it refers to present time (§ 205, 2); and the historic present is secondary, as it refers to past time (§ 200, N. 1).

Note. 1. The only exception to this principle occurs in indirect discourse, where the form of the direct discourse can always be retained, even after secondary tenses. See § 242, § 248, Note, § 216, 2.

Note. 2. The distinction into primary and secondary tenses extends to the dependent moods only where the tenses keep the same distinction of time which they have in the indicative, as in the optative and infinitive of indirect discourse (§ 208).

An optative of future time generally assimilates a dependent conditional relative clause or protasis to the optative when it might otherwise be in the subjunctive: thus we should generally have πράττοιεν ἂν ἃ βούλοιντο, they would do whatever they (might please) pleased (see the first example under § 201). See § 235,1. Such an optative seldom assimilates the subjunctive or indicative of a final or object clause (§ 215) in prose; but oftener in poetry. It very rarely assimilates an indicative of indirect discourse, although it may assimilate an interrogative subjunctive (§ 244, N. 1).

§202-203

THE VERB: TENSES: II. TENSES OF DEPENDENT MOODS

THE VERB: TENSES: II. TENSES OF DEPENDENT MOODS

A. Not in Indirect Discourse.

§ 202

In the subjunctive and imperative, and also in the optative and infinitive when they are not in indirect discourse (§ 203), the tenses chiefly used are the present and aorist.

These tenses here differ only in this, that the present denotes a continued or repeated action, while the aorist denotes a simple occurrence of the action, the time of both being precisely the same. E.g.

Ἐὰν ποιῇ τοῦτο, if he shall do this (habitually),

ἐὰν ποιήσῃ τοῦτο, (simply) if he shall do this;

εἰ ποιοίη τοῦτο, if he should do this (habitually), εἰ ποιήσειε τοῦτο, (simply) if he should do this;

ποίει τοῦτο, do this (habitually), ποίησον τοῦτο, (simply) do this.

Οὕτω νικήσαιμί τ᾽ ἐγὼ καὶ νομιζοίμην σοφός, on this condition may I gain the victory (aor.) and be considered (pres.) wise.

Βούλεται τοῦτο ποιεῖν, he wishes to do this (habitually);

βούλεται τοῦτο ποιῆσαι, (simply) he wishes to do this.

This is a distinction entirely unknown to the Latin, which has (for example) only one form, si faciat, corresponding to εἰ ποιοίη and εἰ ποιήσειεν. Even the Greek does not always regard it; and in many cases it is indifferent which tense is used.

The perfect, which seldom occurs in these constructions, represents an action as finished at the time at which the present would represent it as going on. E.g.

Δέδοικα μὴ λήθην πεποιήκῃ, I fear lest it may prove to have caused forgetfulness (μὴ ποιῇ would mean lest it may cause).

Μηδενὶ βοηθεῖν ὃς μὴ πρότερος βεβοηθηκὼς ὑμῖν ᾖ, to help no one who shall not previously have helped you (ὃς ἂν μὴ . . . βοηθῇ would mean who shall not previously help you).

Οὐκ ἂν διὰ τοῦτό γ᾽ εἶεν οὐκ εὐθὺς δεδωκότες, they would not (on enquiry) prove to have failed to pay immediately on this account (with διδοῖεν this would mean they would not fail to pay).

Οὐ βουλεύεσθαι ἔτι ὥρα, ἀλλὰ βεβουλεῦσθαι, it is no longer time to be deliberating, but (it is time) to have finished deliberating.

Note. 1. The perfect imperative generally expresses a command that something shall be decisive and permanent; as ταῦτα εἰρήσθω, let this have been said (i.e. let what has been said be final), or let this (which follows) be said once for all; μέχρι τοῦδε ὡρίσθω ὑμῶν ἡ βραδυτής, at this point let the limit of your sluggishness be fixed. This is confined to the third person singular passive; the rare second person singular middle being merely emphatic. The active is used only when the perfect has a present meaning (§ 200, N. 6).

Note. 2. The perfect infinitive sometimes expresses decision or permanence (like the imperative, N. 1), and sometimes it is merely more emphatic than the present; as εἶπον τὴν θύραν κεκλεῖσθαι, they ordered the gate to be shut (and kept so); ἤλαυνεν ἐπὶ τοὺς Μένωνος, ὥστ᾽ ἐκείνους ἐκπεπλῆχθαι καὶ τρέχειν ἐπὶ τὰ ὅπλα, so that they were (once for all) thoroughly frightened and ran to arms. The regular meaning of this tense, when it is not in indirect discourse, is that given in § 202, 2. See § 95, 1, Note.

(a) The future infinitive is regularly used only to represent the future indicative in indirect discourse (§ 203).

(b) It occurs occasionally in other constructions, in place of the regular present or aorist, to make more emphatic a future idea which the infinitive receives from the context. E.g.

Ἐδεήθησαν τῶν Μεγαρέων ναυσὶ σφᾶς ξυμπροπέμψειν, they asked the Megarians to escort them with ships: οὐκ ἀποκωλύσειν δυνατοὶ ὄντες, not being able to prevent.

So rarely after ὥστε, and to express a purpose. In all these constructions the future is strictly exceptional, the only regular forms of the infinitive out of indirect discourse being the present and aorist, except in the few cases in which the perfect is used (§ 202, 2) and in the case mentioned in the following Note. See also § 203, N. 2.

Note. One regular exception to the principle just stated is found in the periphrastic future (§ 118, 6), where the present and future infinitives with μέλλω are equally common, but the aorist seldom occurs.

The future optative is used only in indirect discourse and constructions which involve this (§ 203, N. 3).

B. In Indirect Discourse.

Note. The term indirect discourse includes all clauses depending on a verb of saying or thinking which contain the thoughts or words of any person stated indirectly, i.e. incorporated into the general structure of the sentence. It includes of course all indirect quotations and questions.

§ 203

When the optative and infinitive stand in indirect discourse, each tense represents the corresponding tense of the same verb in direct discourse. E.g.

Ἔλεγεν ὅτι γράφοι, he said that he was writing (he said γράφω, I am writing);

ἔλεγεν ὅτι γράψοι, he said that he would write (he said γράψω, I will write);

ἔλεγεν ὅτι γράψειεν, he said that he had written (he said ἔγραψα);

ἔλεγεν ὅτι γεγραφὼς εἴη, he said that he had already written (he said γέγραφα).

Ἤρετο εἴ τις ἐμοῦ εἴη σοφώτερος, he asked whether any one was wiser than I (he asked ἔστι τις;).

Φησὶ γράφειν, he says that he is writing (he says γράφω);

φησὶ γράψειν, he says that he will write (γράψω);

φησὶ γράψαι, he says that he wrote (ἔγραψα);

φησὶ γεγραφέναι, he says that he has written (γέγραφα).

Εἶπεν ὅτι ἄνδρα ἄγοι ὃν εἶρξαι δέοι, he said that he was bringing a man whom it was necessary to confine (he said ἄνδρα ἄγω ὃν εἶρξαι δεῖ).

Ἐλογίζοντο ὡς, εἰ μὴ μάχοιντο, ἀποστήσοιντο αἱ πόλεις, they considered that, if they should not fight, the cities would revolt (they thought ἐὰν μὴ μαχώμεθα, ἀποστήσονται, if we do not fight, they will revolt).

These constructions will be explained in § 243, § 246, and § 247.

Here they merely show the different force of the tenses in indirect discourse and in other constructions. Compare especially the difference between φησὶ γράφειν and φησὶ γράψαι under § 208 with that between βούλεται ποιεῖν and βούλεται ποιῆσαι under § 202. Notice also the same distinction in respect to the present and aorist optative.

Note. 1. The present infinitive may represent the imperfect as well as the present indicative; as τίνας εὐχὰς ὑπολαμβάνετ᾽ εὔχεσθαι τὸν Φίλιππον ὅτ᾽ ἔσπενδεν; what prayers do you suppose Philip made when he was pouring libations? (i.e. τίνας ηὔχετο;). The perfect infinitive likewise represents both perfect and pluperfect. In such cases the time of the infinitive must always be shown by the context (as above by ὅτ᾽ ἔσπενδεν).

So rarely the present optative represents the imperfect indicative (§ 248, Note 1). See § 204, Note 1.

Note. 2. Verbs of hoping, expecting, promising, &c. form an intermediate class between verbs which take the infinitive in indirect discourse and those which do not (see Rem. before § 203); and they allow either the future infinitive (as in § 203) or the present and aorist (as in § 202). E.g.

Ἤλπιζον μάχην ἔσεσθαι, they expected that there would be a battle (Thuc.); but

ἃ οὔποτε ἤλπισεν παθεῖν, what he never expected to suffer (Eur.).

Ὑπέσχετό μοι βουλεύσασθαι, and ὑπέσχετο μηχανὴν παρέξειν (both in Xen.).

The construction of indirect discourse (the future) is the more common here. In English we can say I hope (expect or promise) to do this, like ποιεῖν or ποιῆσαι; or I hope I shall do this, like ποιήσειν.

Note. 3. The future optative is never used except as the representative of the future indicative, either in indirect discourse (as in the examples under § 203), or in the construction of § 217 (which is governed by the principles of indirect discourse). Even here the future indicative is generally retained. See § 217, and § 248, Note.

A. Not in Indirect Discourse.

§ 202

In the subjunctive and imperative, and also in the optative and infinitive when they are not in indirect discourse (§ 203), the tenses chiefly used are the present and aorist.

1. These tenses here differ only in this, that the present denotes a continued or repeated action, while the aorist denotes a simple occurrence of the action, the time of both being precisely the same. E.g.

Ἐὰν ποιῇ τοῦτο, if he shall do this (habitually),

ἐὰν ποιήσῃ τοῦτο, (simply) if he shall do this;

εἰ ποιοίη τοῦτο, if he should do this (habitually), εἰ ποιήσειε τοῦτο, (simply) if he should do this;

ποίει τοῦτο, do this (habitually), ποίησον τοῦτο, (simply) do this.

Οὕτω νικήσαιμί τ᾽ ἐγὼ καὶ νομιζοίμην σοφός, on this condition may I gain the victory (aor.) and be considered (pres.) wise.

Βούλεται τοῦτο ποιεῖν, he wishes to do this (habitually);

βούλεται τοῦτο ποιῆσαι, (simply) he wishes to do this.

This is a distinction entirely unknown to the Latin, which has (for example) only one form, si faciat, corresponding to εἰ ποιοίη and εἰ ποιήσειεν. Even the Greek does not always regard it; and in many cases it is indifferent which tense is used.

2. The perfect, which seldom occurs in these constructions, represents an action as finished at the time at which the present would represent it as going on. E.g.

Δέδοικα μὴ λήθην πεποιήκῃ, I fear lest it may prove to have caused forgetfulness (μὴ ποιῇ would mean lest it may cause).

Μηδενὶ βοηθεῖν ὃς μὴ πρότερος βεβοηθηκὼς ὑμῖν ᾖ, to help no one who shall not previously have helped you (ὃς ἂν μὴ . . . βοηθῇ would mean who shall not previously help you).

Οὐκ ἂν διὰ τοῦτό γ᾽ εἶεν οὐκ εὐθὺς δεδωκότες, they would not (on enquiry) prove to have failed to pay immediately on this account (with διδοῖεν this would mean they would not fail to pay).

Οὐ βουλεύεσθαι ἔτι ὥρα, ἀλλὰ βεβουλεῦσθαι, it is no longer time to be deliberating, but (it is time) to have finished deliberating.

Note. 1. The perfect imperative generally expresses a command that something shall be decisive and permanent; as ταῦτα εἰρήσθω, let this have been said (i.e. let what has been said be final), or let this (which follows) be said once for all; μέχρι τοῦδε ὡρίσθω ὑμῶν ἡ βραδυτής, at this point let the limit of your sluggishness be fixed. This is confined to the third person singular passive; the rare second person singular middle being merely emphatic. The active is used only when the perfect has a present meaning (§ 200, N. 6).

Note. 2. The perfect infinitive sometimes expresses decision or permanence (like the imperative, N. 1), and sometimes it is merely more emphatic than the present; as εἶπον τὴν θύραν κεκλεῖσθαι, they ordered the gate to be shut (and kept so); ἤλαυνεν ἐπὶ τοὺς Μένωνος, ὥστ᾽ ἐκείνους ἐκπεπλῆχθαι καὶ τρέχειν ἐπὶ τὰ ὅπλα, so that they were (once for all) thoroughly frightened and ran to arms. The regular meaning of this tense, when it is not in indirect discourse, is that given in § 202, 2. See § 95, 1, Note.

3. (a) The future infinitive is regularly used only to represent the future indicative in indirect discourse (§ 203).

(b) It occurs occasionally in other constructions, in place of the regular present or aorist, to make more emphatic a future idea which the infinitive receives from the context. E.g.

Ἐδεήθησαν τῶν Μεγαρέων ναυσὶ σφᾶς ξυμπροπέμψειν, they asked the Megarians to escort them with ships: οὐκ ἀποκωλύσειν δυνατοὶ ὄντες, not being able to prevent.

So rarely after ὥστε, and to express a purpose. In all these constructions the future is strictly exceptional, the only regular forms of the infinitive out of indirect discourse being the present and aorist, except in the few cases in which the perfect is used (§ 202, 2) and in the case mentioned in the following Note. See also § 203, N. 2.

Note. One regular exception to the principle just stated is found in the periphrastic future (§ 118, 6), where the present and future infinitives with μέλλω are equally common, but the aorist seldom occurs.

4. The future optative is used only in indirect discourse and constructions which involve this (§ 203, N. 3).

B. In Indirect Discourse.

Note. The term indirect discourse includes all clauses depending on a verb of saying or thinking which contain the thoughts or words of any person stated indirectly, i.e. incorporated into the general structure of the sentence. It includes of course all indirect quotations and questions.

§ 203

When the optative and infinitive stand in indirect discourse, each tense represents the corresponding tense of the same verb in direct discourse. E.g.

Ἔλεγεν ὅτι γράφοι, he said that he was writing (he said γράφω, I am writing);

ἔλεγεν ὅτι γράψοι, he said that he would write (he said γράψω, I will write);

ἔλεγεν ὅτι γράψειεν, he said that he had written (he said ἔγραψα);

ἔλεγεν ὅτι γεγραφὼς εἴη, he said that he had already written (he said γέγραφα).

Ἤρετο εἴ τις ἐμοῦ εἴη σοφώτερος, he asked whether any one was wiser than I (he asked ἔστι τις;).

Φησὶ γράφειν, he says that he is writing (he says γράφω);

φησὶ γράψειν, he says that he will write (γράψω);

φησὶ γράψαι, he says that he wrote (ἔγραψα);

φησὶ γεγραφέναι, he says that he has written (γέγραφα).

Εἶπεν ὅτι ἄνδρα ἄγοι ὃν εἶρξαι δέοι, he said that he was bringing a man whom it was necessary to confine (he said ἄνδρα ἄγω ὃν εἶρξαι δεῖ).

Ἐλογίζοντο ὡς, εἰ μὴ μάχοιντο, ἀποστήσοιντο αἱ πόλεις, they considered that, if they should not fight, the cities would revolt (they thought ἐὰν μὴ μαχώμεθα, ἀποστήσονται, if we do not fight, they will revolt).

These constructions will be explained in § 243, § 246, and § 247.

Here they merely show the different force of the tenses in indirect discourse and in other constructions. Compare especially the difference between φησὶ γράφειν and φησὶ γράψαι under § 208 with that between βούλεται ποιεῖν and βούλεται ποιῆσαι under § 202. Notice also the same distinction in respect to the present and aorist optative.

Note. 1. The present infinitive may represent the imperfect as well as the present indicative; as τίνας εὐχὰς ὑπολαμβάνετ᾽ εὔχεσθαι τὸν Φίλιππον ὅτ᾽ ἔσπενδεν; what prayers do you suppose Philip made when he was pouring libations? (i.e. τίνας ηὔχετο;). The perfect infinitive likewise represents both perfect and pluperfect. In such cases the time of the infinitive must always be shown by the context (as above by ὅτ᾽ ἔσπενδεν).

So rarely the present optative represents the imperfect indicative (§ 248, Note 1). See § 204, Note 1.

Note. 2. Verbs of hoping, expecting, promising, &c. form an intermediate class between verbs which take the infinitive in indirect discourse and those which do not (see Rem. before § 203); and they allow either the future infinitive (as in § 203) or the present and aorist (as in § 202). E.g.

Ἤλπιζον μάχην ἔσεσθαι, they expected that there would be a battle (Thuc.); but

ἃ οὔποτε ἤλπισεν παθεῖν, what he never expected to suffer (Eur.).

Ὑπέσχετό μοι βουλεύσασθαι, and ὑπέσχετο μηχανὴν παρέξειν (both in Xen.).

The construction of indirect discourse (the future) is the more common here. In English we can say I hope (expect or promise) to do this, like ποιεῖν or ποιῆσαι; or I hope I shall do this, like ποιήσειν.

Note. 3. The future optative is never used except as the representative of the future indicative, either in indirect discourse (as in the examples under § 203), or in the construction of § 217 (which is governed by the principles of indirect discourse). Even here the future indicative is generally retained. See § 217, and § 248, Note.

§204

THE VERB: TENSES: III. TENSES OF THE PARTICIPLE

THE VERB: TENSES: III. TENSES OF THE PARTICIPLE

The tenses of the participle generally express the same time as those of the indicative; but they are present, past, or future relatively to the time of the verb with which they are connected. E.g.

Ἁμαρτάνει τοῦτο ποιῶν, he errs in doing this;

ἡμάρτανε τοῦτο ποιῶν, he erred in doing this;

ἁμαρτήσεται τοῦτο ποιῶν, he will err in doing this. (Here ποιῶν is first present, then past, then future, absolutely; but always present to the verb of the sentence.)

Ταῦτα εἰπόντες ἀπῆλθον, having said this, they departed.

Οὐ πολλοὶ φαίνονται ξυνελθόντες, not many appear to have joined the expedition.

Ἐπήνεσαν τοὺς εἰρηκότας, they praised those who had (already) spoken.

Τοῦτο ποιήσων ἔρχεται, he is coming to do this;

τοῦτο ποιήσων ἦλθεν, he came to do this.

Ἄπελθε ταῦτα λαβών, take this and be off (λαβών being past to ἄπελθε, but absolutely future).

Note. 1. The present may here also represent the imperfect; as οἶδα κἀκείνω σωφρονοῦντε, ἔστε Σωκράτει συνήστην, I know that they both were continent as long as they associated with Socrates (i.e. ἐσωφρονείτην). See § 203, Note 1.

Note. 2. The aorist participle in certain constructions does not denote time past with reference to the leading verb, but expresses a simple occurrence without regard to time (like the aorist infinitive in § 202). This is so in the following examples: –

Ἔτυχεν ἐλθών, he happened to come;

ἔλαθεν ἐλθών, he came secretly;

ἔφθη ἐλθών, he came first. (See § 279, 4.)

Περιιδεῖν τὴν γῆν τμηθεῖσαν, to allow the land to be ravaged (to see it ravaged). (See § 279, 3.)

So sometimes when the participle denotes that in which the action of the verb consists (§ 277); as εὖ γ᾽ ἐποίησας ἀναμνήσας με, you did well in reminding me.

The tenses of the participle generally express the same time as those of the indicative; but they are present, past, or future relatively to the time of the verb with which they are connected. E.g.

Ἁμαρτάνει τοῦτο ποιῶν, he errs in doing this;

ἡμάρτανε τοῦτο ποιῶν, he erred in doing this;

ἁμαρτήσεται τοῦτο ποιῶν, he will err in doing this. (Here ποιῶν is first present, then past, then future, absolutely; but always present to the verb of the sentence.)

Ταῦτα εἰπόντες ἀπῆλθον, having said this, they departed.

Οὐ πολλοὶ φαίνονται ξυνελθόντες, not many appear to have joined the expedition.

Ἐπήνεσαν τοὺς εἰρηκότας, they praised those who had (already) spoken.

Τοῦτο ποιήσων ἔρχεται, he is coming to do this;

τοῦτο ποιήσων ἦλθεν, he came to do this.

Ἄπελθε ταῦτα λαβών, take this and be off (λαβών being past to ἄπελθε, but absolutely future).

Note. 1. The present may here also represent the imperfect; as οἶδα κἀκείνω σωφρονοῦντε, ἔστε Σωκράτει συνήστην, I know that they both were continent as long as they associated with Socrates (i.e. ἐσωφρονείτην). See § 203, Note 1.

Note. 2. The aorist participle in certain constructions does not denote time past with reference to the leading verb, but expresses a simple occurrence without regard to time (like the aorist infinitive in § 202). This is so in the following examples: –

Ἔτυχεν ἐλθών, he happened to come;

ἔλαθεν ἐλθών, he came secretly;

ἔφθη ἐλθών, he came first. (See § 279, 4.)

Περιιδεῖν τὴν γῆν τμηθεῖσαν, to allow the land to be ravaged (to see it ravaged). (See § 279, 3.)

So sometimes when the participle denotes that in which the action of the verb consists (§ 277); as εὖ γ᾽ ἐποίησας ἀναμνήσας με, you did well in reminding me.

§205-206

THE VERB: TENSES: IV. GNOMIC AND ITERATIVE TENSES

THE VERB: TENSES: IV. GNOMIC AND ITERATIVE TENSES

§ 205

The present is the tense commonly used in Greek, as in English, to denote a general truth or an habitual action; as πλοῖον εἰς Δῆλον Ἀθηναῖοι πέμπουσιν, the Athenians send a ship to Delos (annually).

In animated language the aorist is used in this sense. This is called the gnomic aorist, and is generally translated by the English present. E.g.

Ἤν τις τούτων τι παραβαίνῃ, ζημίαν αὐτοῖς ἐπέθεσαν, i.e. they impose a penalty on all who transgress.

Μί᾽ ἡμέρα τὸν μὲν καθεῖλεν ὑψόθεν, τὸν δ᾽ ἦρ᾽ ἄνω, one day (often) brings down one man from a height and raises another high.

Note. 1. Here one distinct case in past time is vividly used to represent all possible cases. Examples containing such adverbs as πολλάκις, often, ἤδη, already, οὔπω, never yet, illustrate the construction; as ἀθυμοῦντες ἄνδρες οὔπω τρόπαιον ἔστησαν, disheartened men never yet raised a trophy, i.e. never raise a trophy.

Note. 2. An aorist resembling the gnomic is found in Homeric similes; as ἤριπε δ᾽ ὡς ὅτε τις δρῦς ἤριπεν, and he fell, as when some oak falls (lit. as when an oak once fell).

Note. 3. The gnomic aorist sometimes occurs in indirect discourse in the infinitive and participle, and even in the optative.

The perfect is sometimes gnomic, like the aorist. E.g.

Τὸ δὲ μὴ ἐμποδὼν ἀνανταγωνίστῳ εὐνοίᾳ τετίμηται, but those who are not before men’s eyes are honored with a good will which has no rivalry.

The gnomic perfect may be used in the infinitive.

§ 206

The imperfect and aorist are sometimes used with the adverb ἄν to denote a customary action. E.g.

Διηρώτων ἂν αὐτοὺς τί λέγοιεν, I used to ask them (I would often ask them) what they said.

Πολλάκις ἠκούσαμεν ἂν ὑμᾶς, we used often to hear you.

Remark. This construction must be carefully distinguished from the ordinary apodosis with ἄν (§ 222). It is equivalent to our phrase he would often do this for he used to do this, and was probably developed from the past potential construction (§ 226, 2, N. 2).

Note. The Ionic has iterative forms in -σκον and -σκόμην in both imperfect and aorist. (See § 119, 10.) Herodotus uses these also with ἄν, as above.

§ 205

1. The present is the tense commonly used in Greek, as in English, to denote a general truth or an habitual action; as πλοῖον εἰς Δῆλον Ἀθηναῖοι πέμπουσιν, the Athenians send a ship to Delos (annually).

2. In animated language the aorist is used in this sense. This is called the gnomic aorist, and is generally translated by the English present. E.g.

Ἤν τις τούτων τι παραβαίνῃ, ζημίαν αὐτοῖς ἐπέθεσαν, i.e. they impose a penalty on all who transgress.

Μί᾽ ἡμέρα τὸν μὲν καθεῖλεν ὑψόθεν, τὸν δ᾽ ἦρ᾽ ἄνω, one day (often) brings down one man from a height and raises another high.

Note. 1. Here one distinct case in past time is vividly used to represent all possible cases. Examples containing such adverbs as πολλάκις, often, ἤδη, already, οὔπω, never yet, illustrate the construction; as ἀθυμοῦντες ἄνδρες οὔπω τρόπαιον ἔστησαν, disheartened men never yet raised a trophy, i.e. never raise a trophy.

Note. 2. An aorist resembling the gnomic is found in Homeric similes; as ἤριπε δ᾽ ὡς ὅτε τις δρῦς ἤριπεν, and he fell, as when some oak falls (lit. as when an oak once fell).

Note. 3. The gnomic aorist sometimes occurs in indirect discourse in the infinitive and participle, and even in the optative.

3. The perfect is sometimes gnomic, like the aorist. E.g.

Τὸ δὲ μὴ ἐμποδὼν ἀνανταγωνίστῳ εὐνοίᾳ τετίμηται, but those who are not before men’s eyes are honored with a good will which has no rivalry.

The gnomic perfect may be used in the infinitive.

§ 206

The imperfect and aorist are sometimes used with the adverb ἄν to denote a customary action. E.g.

Διηρώτων ἂν αὐτοὺς τί λέγοιεν, I used to ask them (I would often ask them) what they said.

Πολλάκις ἠκούσαμεν ἂν ὑμᾶς, we used often to hear you.

Remark. This construction must be carefully distinguished from the ordinary apodosis with ἄν (§ 222). It is equivalent to our phrase he would often do this for he used to do this, and was probably developed from the past potential construction (§ 226, 2, N. 2).

Note. The Ionic has iterative forms in -σκον and -σκόμην in both imperfect and aorist. (See § 119, 10.) Herodotus uses these also with ἄν, as above.

§207-212

THE PARTICLE ἌΝ

THE PARTICLE ἌΝ

§ 207

The adverb ἄν (Epic κέ) has two distinct uses.

It is joined to all the secondary tenses of the indicative (in Homer also to the future indicative), and to the optative, infinitive, or participle, to denote that the action of the verb is dependent on some condition, expressed or implied. Here it belongs to the verb.

It is joined regularly to εἰ, if, and to all relative and temporal words (and occasionally to the final particles ὡς, ὅπως, and ὄφρα), when these are followed by the subjunctive. Here it belongs entirely to the particle or relative, with which it often forms one word, as in ἐάν, ὅταν, ἐπειδάν.

There is no English word which can translate ἄν. In its first use it is expressed in the would or should of the verb (βούλοιτο ἄν, he would wish;ἑλοίμην ἄν, I should choose). In its second use it has no force which can be made apparent in English.

Remark. The above statement (§ 207) includes all regular uses of ἄν except the Epic construction explained in § 255, and the iterative construction of § 206.

The following sections (§§ 208-211) enumerate the various uses of ἄν: when these are explained more fully elsewhere, reference is made to the proper sections.

§ 208

The present and perfect indicative never take ἄν.

The future indicative often takes ἄν (or κέ) in the early poets, especially Homer; very rarely in Attic Greek. E.g.

Καί κέ τις ὧδ᾽ ἐρέει, and perhaps some one will thus speak;

ἄλλοι, οἵ κέ με τιμήσουσι, others who will honor me (if occasion offers).

The future with ἄν seems to have been an intermediate form between the simple future, will honor, and the optative with ἄν, would honor. One of the few examples found in Attic prose is in Plat. Apol. p. 29 C.

The most common use of ἄν with the indicative is when it forms an apodosis with the secondary tenses. It here denotes that the condition upon which the action of the verb depends is not or was not fulfilled. See § 222. For the past potential construction with ἄν, see § 226, 2, N. 2; for the iterative construction with ἄν, see § 206.

§ 209

In Attic Greek the subjunctive is used with ἄν only in the constructions mentioned in § 207, 2, where ἄν belongs to the introductory word. See § 223, § 225, § 232, 3, § 233; also § 216, 1, N. 2.

In Epic poetry, where the subjunctive is often used nearly or quite in the sense of the future indicative (§ 255), it may, like the future (§ 208, 2), take ἄν or κέ. E.g.

Εἰ δέ κε μὴ δώωσιν, ἐγὼ δέ κεν αὐτὸς ἕλωμαι, and if they do not give her up, I will take her myself.

§ 210

The optative with ἄν forms an apodosis, with which a condition must be either expressed or implied. It denotes what would happen if the condition should be fulfilled (§ 224).

Note. The future optative is never used with ἄν. See § 203.

§ 211

The present and aorist (rarely the perfect) infinitive and participle are used with ἄν to form an apodosis. Each tense is here equivalent to the corresponding tense of the indicative or optative with ἄν, — the present representing also the imperfect, and the perfect also the pluperfect.

Thus the present infinitive or participle with ἄν may represent either an imperfect indicative or a present optative with ἄν; the aorist, either an aorist indicative or an aorist optative with ἄν; the perfect, either a pluperfect indicative or a perfect optative with ἄν. E.g.

(Pres.) Φησὶν αὐτοὺς ἐλευθέρους ἂν εἶναι, εἰ τοῦτο ἔπραξαν, he says that they would (now) be free (ἦσαν ἄν), if they had done this; φησὶν αὐτοὺς ἐλευθέρους ἂν εἶναι, εἰ τοῦτο πράξειαν, he says that they would (hereafter) be free (εἶεν ἄν), if they should do this. Οἶδα αὐτοὺς ἐλευθέρους ἂν ὄντας, εἰ τοῦτο ἔπραξαν, I know that they would (now) be free (ἦσαν ἄν), if they had done this; οἶδα αὐτοὺς ἐλευθέρους ἂν ὄντας, εἰ ταῦτα πράξειαν, I know that they would (hereafter) be free (εἶεν ἄν), if they should do this.

(Aor.) Φασὶν αὐτὸν ἐλθεῖν ἂν (or οἶδα αὐτὸν ἐλθόντα ἂν), εἰ τοῦτο ἐγένετο, they say (or I know) that he would have come (ἦλθεν ἄν), if this had happened; φασὶν αὐτὸν ἐλθεῖν ἂν (or οἶδα αὐτὸν ἐλθόντα ἂν), εἰ τοῦτο γένοιτο, they say (or I know) that he would come (ἔλθοι ἄν), if this should happen.

(Perf.) Εἰ μὴ τὰς ἀρετὰς ἐκείνας παρέσχοντο, πάντα ταῦθ᾽ ὑπὸ τῶν βαρβάρων ἂν ἑαλωκέναι (φήσειεν ἄν τις), had they not exhibited those exploits of valor, we might say that all this would have been captured by the barbarians (ἑαλώκει ἄν); οὐκ ἂν ἡγοῦμαι αὐτοὺς δίκην ἀξίαν δεδωκέναι, εἰ αὐτῶν καταψηφίσαισθε, I do not think they would (then, in the future) have suffered proper punishment (δεδωκότες ἂν εἶεν), if you should condemn them.

The context must decide in each case whether we have the equivalent of the indicative or of the optative with ἄν. In the examples given, the form of the protasis generally settles the question.

Note. As the early poets who use the future indicative with ἄν (§ 208, 2) do not use this construction, the future infinitive and participle with ἄν are very rarely found.

§ 212

When ἄν is used with the subjunctive (as in § 207, 2), it is generally separated from the introductory word only by monosyllabic particles like μέν, δέ, τέ, γάρ, &c.

In a long apodosis ἄν may be used twice or even three times with the same verb; as οὐκ ἂν ἡγεῖσθ᾽ αὐτὸν κἂν ἐπιδραμεῖν; do you not think that he would even have rushed thither? In Thuc. ii. 41, ἄν is used three times with παρέχεσθαι.

Ἄν may be used elliptically with a verb understood; as οἱ οἰκέται ῥέγκουσιν· ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἂν πρὸ τοῦ (sc. ἔρρεγκον), the slaves are snoring; but in old times they would n’t have done so. So in φοβούμενος ὥσπερ ἂν εἰ παῖς, fearing like a child (ὥσπερ ἂν ἐφοβεῖτο εἰ παῖς ἦν).

When an apodosis consists of several co-ordinate verbs, ἄν generally stands only with the first; as οὐδὲν ἂν διάφορον τοῦ ἑτέρου ποιοῖ, ἀλλ᾽ ἐπὶ ταὐτὸν ἀμφότεροι ἴοιεν, he would do nothing different from the other, but both would aim at the same object (ἄν belongs also to ἴοιεν).

Note. The adverb τάχα, quickly, soon, readily, is often prefixed to ἄν, in which case τάχ᾽ ἄν is nearly equivalent to ἴσως, perhaps. The ἄν here always forms an apodosis, as usual, with the verb of the sentence; as τάχ᾽ ἂν ἔλθοι, perhaps he would come.

§ 207

The adverb ἄν (Epic κέ) has two distinct uses.

1. It is joined to all the secondary tenses of the indicative (in Homer also to the future indicative), and to the optative, infinitive, or participle, to denote that the action of the verb is dependent on some condition, expressed or implied. Here it belongs to the verb.

2. It is joined regularly to εἰ, if, and to all relative and temporal words (and occasionally to the final particles ὡς, ὅπως, and ὄφρα), when these are followed by the subjunctive. Here it belongs entirely to the particle or relative, with which it often forms one word, as in ἐάν, ὅταν, ἐπειδάν.

There is no English word which can translate ἄν. In its first use it is expressed in the would or should of the verb (βούλοιτο ἄν, he would wish;ἑλοίμην ἄν, I should choose). In its second use it has no force which can be made apparent in English.

Remark. The above statement (§ 207) includes all regular uses of ἄν except the Epic construction explained in § 255, and the iterative construction of § 206.

The following sections (§§ 208-211) enumerate the various uses of ἄν: when these are explained more fully elsewhere, reference is made to the proper sections.

§ 208

1. The present and perfect indicative never take ἄν.

2. The future indicative often takes ἄν (or κέ) in the early poets, especially Homer; very rarely in Attic Greek. E.g.

Καί κέ τις ὧδ᾽ ἐρέει, and perhaps some one will thus speak;

ἄλλοι, οἵ κέ με τιμήσουσι, others who will honor me (if occasion offers).

The future with ἄν seems to have been an intermediate form between the simple future, will honor, and the optative with ἄν, would honor. One of the few examples found in Attic prose is in Plat. Apol. p. 29 C.

3. The most common use of ἄν with the indicative is when it forms an apodosis with the secondary tenses. It here denotes that the condition upon which the action of the verb depends is not or was not fulfilled. See § 222. For the past potential construction with ἄν, see § 226, 2, N. 2; for the iterative construction with ἄν, see § 206.

§ 209

1. In Attic Greek the subjunctive is used with ἄν only in the constructions mentioned in § 207, 2, where ἄν belongs to the introductory word. See § 223, § 225, § 232, 3, § 233; also § 216, 1, N. 2.

2. In Epic poetry, where the subjunctive is often used nearly or quite in the sense of the future indicative (§ 255), it may, like the future (§ 208, 2), take ἄν or κέ. E.g.

Εἰ δέ κε μὴ δώωσιν, ἐγὼ δέ κεν αὐτὸς ἕλωμαι, and if they do not give her up, I will take her myself.

§ 210

The optative with ἄν forms an apodosis, with which a condition must be either expressed or implied. It denotes what would happen if the condition should be fulfilled (§ 224).

Note. The future optative is never used with ἄν. See § 203.

§ 211

The present and aorist (rarely the perfect) infinitive and participle are used with ἄν to form an apodosis. Each tense is here equivalent to the corresponding tense of the indicative or optative with ἄν, — the present representing also the imperfect, and the perfect also the pluperfect.

Thus the present infinitive or participle with ἄν may represent either an imperfect indicative or a present optative with ἄν; the aorist, either an aorist indicative or an aorist optative with ἄν; the perfect, either a pluperfect indicative or a perfect optative with ἄν. E.g.

(Pres.) Φησὶν αὐτοὺς ἐλευθέρους ἂν εἶναι, εἰ τοῦτο ἔπραξαν, he says that they would (now) be free (ἦσαν ἄν), if they had done this; φησὶν αὐτοὺς ἐλευθέρους ἂν εἶναι, εἰ τοῦτο πράξειαν, he says that they would (hereafter) be free (εἶεν ἄν), if they should do this. Οἶδα αὐτοὺς ἐλευθέρους ἂν ὄντας, εἰ τοῦτο ἔπραξαν, I know that they would (now) be free (ἦσαν ἄν), if they had done this; οἶδα αὐτοὺς ἐλευθέρους ἂν ὄντας, εἰ ταῦτα πράξειαν, I know that they would (hereafter) be free (εἶεν ἄν), if they should do this.

(Aor.) Φασὶν αὐτὸν ἐλθεῖν ἂν (or οἶδα αὐτὸν ἐλθόντα ἂν), εἰ τοῦτο ἐγένετο, they say (or I know) that he would have come (ἦλθεν ἄν), if this had happened; φασὶν αὐτὸν ἐλθεῖν ἂν (or οἶδα αὐτὸν ἐλθόντα ἂν), εἰ τοῦτο γένοιτο, they say (or I know) that he would come (ἔλθοι ἄν), if this should happen.

(Perf.) Εἰ μὴ τὰς ἀρετὰς ἐκείνας παρέσχοντο, πάντα ταῦθ᾽ ὑπὸ τῶν βαρβάρων ἂν ἑαλωκέναι (φήσειεν ἄν τις), had they not exhibited those exploits of valor, we might say that all this would have been captured by the barbarians (ἑαλώκει ἄν); οὐκ ἂν ἡγοῦμαι αὐτοὺς δίκην ἀξίαν δεδωκέναι, εἰ αὐτῶν καταψηφίσαισθε, I do not think they would (then, in the future) have suffered proper punishment (δεδωκότες ἂν εἶεν), if you should condemn them.

The context must decide in each case whether we have the equivalent of the indicative or of the optative with ἄν. In the examples given, the form of the protasis generally settles the question.

Note. As the early poets who use the future indicative with ἄν (§ 208, 2) do not use this construction, the future infinitive and participle with ἄν are very rarely found.

§ 212

1. When ἄν is used with the subjunctive (as in § 207, 2), it is generally separated from the introductory word only by monosyllabic particles like μέν, δέ, τέ, γάρ, &c.

2. In a long apodosis ἄν may be used twice or even three times with the same verb; as οὐκ ἂν ἡγεῖσθ᾽ αὐτὸν κἂν ἐπιδραμεῖν; do you not think that he would even have rushed thither? In Thuc. ii. 41, ἄν is used three times with παρέχεσθαι.

3. Ἄν may be used elliptically with a verb understood; as οἱ οἰκέται ῥέγκουσιν· ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἂν πρὸ τοῦ (sc. ἔρρεγκον), the slaves are snoring; but in old times they would n’t have done so. So in φοβούμενος ὥσπερ ἂν εἰ παῖς, fearing like a child (ὥσπερ ἂν ἐφοβεῖτο εἰ παῖς ἦν).

4. When an apodosis consists of several co-ordinate verbs, ἄν generally stands only with the first; as οὐδὲν ἂν διάφορον τοῦ ἑτέρου ποιοῖ, ἀλλ᾽ ἐπὶ ταὐτὸν ἀμφότεροι ἴοιεν, he would do nothing different from the other, but both would aim at the same object (ἄν belongs also to ἴοιεν).

Note. The adverb τάχα, quickly, soon, readily, is often prefixed to ἄν, in which case τάχ᾽ ἄν is nearly equivalent to ἴσως, perhaps. The ἄν here always forms an apodosis, as usual, with the verb of the sentence; as τάχ᾽ ἂν ἔλθοι, perhaps he would come.

§213-214

THE MOODS

THE MOODS

§ 213

The indicative is used in simple, absolute assertions; as γράφει, he writes; ἔγραψεν, he wrote; γράψει, he will write;γέγραφεν, he has written. It has a tense to express every variety of time which is recognized by the Greek verb, and it can thus state a supposition as well as make an assertion in the past, present, or future. It also expresses certain other relations which in other languages (as in Latin) are generally expressed by a different mood. The following examples will illustrate these uses: –

Εἰ τοῦτο ἀληθές ἐστι, χαίρω, if this is true, I rejoice (§ 221);

εἰ ἔγραψεν, ἦλθον ἄν, if he had written, I should have come (§ 222);

εἰ γράψει, γνώσομαι, if he shall write (or if he writes), I shall know (§ 223, N. 1).

Ἐπιμελεῖται ὅπως τοῦτο γενήσεται, he takes care that this shall happen (§ 217).

Λέγει ὅτι τοῦτο ποιεῖ, he says that he is doing this; sometimes, εἶπεν ὅτι τοῦτο ποιεῖ, he said that he was doing this (he said ποιῶ).

Εἴθε με ἔκτεινας, ὡς μήποτε τοῦτο ἐποίησα, O that thou hadst killed me, that I might never have done this! (§ 251, 2; § 216, 3).

Εἴθε τοῦτο ἀληθὲς ἦν, O that this were true! (§ 251, 2).

Remark. These constructions are explained in the sections referred to. Their variety shows the impossibility of giving any precise single definition, which will be of practical value, including all the uses even of the indicative. With the subjunctive and optative it is equally impossible.

The various uses of the subjunctive are shown by the following examples: —

Ἔρχεται ἵνα τοῦτο ἴδῃ, he is coming that he may see this (§ 216);

φοβεῖται μὴ τοῦτο γένηται; he fears lest this may happen (§ 218).

Ἐὰν ἔλθῃ, τοῦτο ποιήσω, if he shall come (or if he comes), I shall do this (§ 228);

ἐάν τις ἔλθῃ, τοῦτο ποιῶ, if any one (ever) comes, I (always) do this (§ 225).

Ὅταν ἔλθῃ, τοῦτο ποιήσω, when he shall come (or when he comes), I shall do this (§ 232, 3);

ὅταν τις ἔλθῃ, τοῦτο ποιῶ, when any one comes, I (always) do this (§ 233).

Ἴωμεν, let us go (§ 258). Μὴ θαυμάσητε, do not wonder (§ 254).

Τί εἴπω; what shall I say? (§ 256).

Οὐ μὴ τοῦτο γένηται, this (surely) will not happen (§ 257).

Ἴδωμαι, I shall see (Hom., § 255).

These constructions are explained in the sections referred to.

Remark. The subjunctive, in its simplest and apparently most primitive use, expresses simple futurity, like the future indicative; this is seen in the Homeric independent construction, ἴδωμαι, I shall see; εἴπῃσί τις, one will say. Then, in exhortations and prohibitions it is still future; as ἴωμεν, let us go; μὴ ποιήσητε τοῦτο, do not do this. In final and object clauses it expresses a future purpose or a future object of fear. In conditional and conditional relative sentences it expresses a future supposition; except in general conditions, where it is indefinite (but never strictly present) in its time.

The various uses of the optative are shown by the following examples: —

Ἦλθεν ἵνα τοῦτο ἴδοι, he came that he might see this (§ 216);

ἐφοβεῖτο μὴ τοῦτο γένοιτο, he feared lest this should happen (§ 218).

Εἰ ἔλθοι, τοῦτ᾽ ἂν ποιήσαιμι, if he should come, I should do this (§ 224);

εἴ τις ἔλθοι, τοῦτ᾽ ἐποίουν, if any one (ever) came, I (always) did this (§ 225).

Ὅτε ἔλθοι, τοῦτ᾽ ἂν ποιήσαιμι, whenever he should come (at any time when he should come), I should do this (§ 232, 4);

ὅτε τις ἔλθοι, τοῦτ᾽ ἐποίουν, whenever any one came, I (always) did this (§ 233).

Ἐπεμελεῖτο ὅπως τοῦτο γενήσοιτο, he took care that this should happen (§ 217).

Εἶπεν (or ἔλεγεν) ὅτι τοῦτο ποιοίη (ποιήσοι or ποιήσειε), he said that he was doing (would do or had done) this (§ 243).

Ἔλθοι ἄν, he might go (if he should wish to) (§ 226, 2). Εἴθε μὴ ἀπόλοιντο, O that they may not perish! Μὴ γένοιτο, may it not

happen (§ 251, 1).

These constructions are explained in the sections referred to.

Remark. The optative in many of its uses is a vaguer and less distinct form of expression than the subjunctive, in constructions of the same general character. This appears especially in its independent uses; as in the Homeric Ἑλένην ἄγοιτο, he may take Helen away (cf. ἀγέσθω, let him take); ἴοιμεν, may we go (cf. ἴωμεν, let us go); μὴ γένοιτο, may it not happen (cf. μὴ γένηται, let it not happen); ἕλοιτο ἄν (Hom. sometimes ἕλοιτο alone), he would take (cf. Hom. ἕληται, sometimes with κέ, he will take). So in future conditions; as εἰ γένοιτο, if it should happen (cf. ἐὰν γένηται, if it shall happen).

In other dependent clauses it is generally a correlative of the subjunctive, sometimes of the indicative; it expresses the changed relation of a dependent subjunctive or indicative in these constructions when the verb on which it depends is changed from present or future to past time. The same change in relation is expressed in English by a change from shall, will, may, do, is, &c. to should, would, might, did, was, &c. To illustrate these last relations, compare ἔρχεται ἵνα ἴδῃ, φοβεῖται μὴ γένηται, ἐάν τις ἔλθῃ τοῦτο ποιῶ, ἐπιμελεῖται ὅπως τοῦτο γενήσεται, and λέγει ὅτι τοῦτο ποιεῖ, with the corresponding forms after past leading verbs given in § 213, 3.

The imperative is used to express commands and prohibitions; as τοῦτο ποίει, do this; μὴ φεύγετε, do not fly.

The infinitive is a verbal noun, which expresses the simple idea of a verb without restriction of person or number.

§ 214

The following sections (§§ 215-257) treat of all constructions which require any other form of the finite verb than the indicative in simple assertions (§ 213, 1). The infinitive and participle are included here only so far as they are used in indirect discourse or in protasis and apodosis. These constructions are divided as follows: —

I. Final and Object clauses after ἵνα, ὡς, ὅπως, and μή.

II. Conditional sentences.

III. Relative and Temporal sentences.

IV. Indirect Discourse.

V. Causal sentences.

VI. Wishes.

VII. Commands, Exhortations, and Prohibitions.

VIII. Homeric Subjunctive (like Future Indicative). — Interrogative Subjunctive. — Οὐ μή with Subjunctive or Future Indicative.

§ 213

1. The indicative is used in simple, absolute assertions; as γράφει, he writes; ἔγραψεν, he wrote; γράψει, he will write;γέγραφεν, he has written. It has a tense to express every variety of time which is recognized by the Greek verb, and it can thus state a supposition as well as make an assertion in the past, present, or future. It also expresses certain other relations which in other languages (as in Latin) are generally expressed by a different mood. The following examples will illustrate these uses: –

Εἰ τοῦτο ἀληθές ἐστι, χαίρω, if this is true, I rejoice (§ 221);

εἰ ἔγραψεν, ἦλθον ἄν, if he had written, I should have come (§ 222);

εἰ γράψει, γνώσομαι, if he shall write (or if he writes), I shall know (§ 223, N. 1).

Ἐπιμελεῖται ὅπως τοῦτο γενήσεται, he takes care that this shall happen (§ 217).

Λέγει ὅτι τοῦτο ποιεῖ, he says that he is doing this; sometimes, εἶπεν ὅτι τοῦτο ποιεῖ, he said that he was doing this (he said ποιῶ).

Εἴθε με ἔκτεινας, ὡς μήποτε τοῦτο ἐποίησα, O that thou hadst killed me, that I might never have done this! (§ 251, 2; § 216, 3).

Εἴθε τοῦτο ἀληθὲς ἦν, O that this were true! (§ 251, 2).

Remark. These constructions are explained in the sections referred to. Their variety shows the impossibility of giving any precise single definition, which will be of practical value, including all the uses even of the indicative. With the subjunctive and optative it is equally impossible.

2. The various uses of the subjunctive are shown by the following examples: —

Ἔρχεται ἵνα τοῦτο ἴδῃ, he is coming that he may see this (§ 216);

φοβεῖται μὴ τοῦτο γένηται; he fears lest this may happen (§ 218).

Ἐὰν ἔλθῃ, τοῦτο ποιήσω, if he shall come (or if he comes), I shall do this (§ 228);

ἐάν τις ἔλθῃ, τοῦτο ποιῶ, if any one (ever) comes, I (always) do this (§ 225).

Ὅταν ἔλθῃ, τοῦτο ποιήσω, when he shall come (or when he comes), I shall do this (§ 232, 3);

ὅταν τις ἔλθῃ, τοῦτο ποιῶ, when any one comes, I (always) do this (§ 233).

Ἴωμεν, let us go (§ 258). Μὴ θαυμάσητε, do not wonder (§ 254).

Τί εἴπω; what shall I say? (§ 256).

Οὐ μὴ τοῦτο γένηται, this (surely) will not happen (§ 257).

Ἴδωμαι, I shall see (Hom., § 255).

These constructions are explained in the sections referred to.

Remark. The subjunctive, in its simplest and apparently most primitive use, expresses simple futurity, like the future indicative; this is seen in the Homeric independent construction, ἴδωμαι, I shall see; εἴπῃσί τις, one will say. Then, in exhortations and prohibitions it is still future; as ἴωμεν, let us go; μὴ ποιήσητε τοῦτο, do not do this. In final and object clauses it expresses a future purpose or a future object of fear. In conditional and conditional relative sentences it expresses a future supposition; except in general conditions, where it is indefinite (but never strictly present) in its time.

3. The various uses of the optative are shown by the following examples: —

Ἦλθεν ἵνα τοῦτο ἴδοι, he came that he might see this (§ 216);

ἐφοβεῖτο μὴ τοῦτο γένοιτο, he feared lest this should happen (§ 218).

Εἰ ἔλθοι, τοῦτ᾽ ἂν ποιήσαιμι, if he should come, I should do this (§ 224);

εἴ τις ἔλθοι, τοῦτ᾽ ἐποίουν, if any one (ever) came, I (always) did this (§ 225).

Ὅτε ἔλθοι, τοῦτ᾽ ἂν ποιήσαιμι, whenever he should come (at any time when he should come), I should do this (§ 232, 4);

ὅτε τις ἔλθοι, τοῦτ᾽ ἐποίουν, whenever any one came, I (always) did this (§ 233).

Ἐπεμελεῖτο ὅπως τοῦτο γενήσοιτο, he took care that this should happen (§ 217).

Εἶπεν (or ἔλεγεν) ὅτι τοῦτο ποιοίη (ποιήσοι or ποιήσειε), he said that he was doing (would do or had done) this (§ 243).

Ἔλθοι ἄν, he might go (if he should wish to) (§ 226, 2). Εἴθε μὴ ἀπόλοιντο, O that they may not perish! Μὴ γένοιτο, may it not

happen (§ 251, 1).

These constructions are explained in the sections referred to.

Remark. The optative in many of its uses is a vaguer and less distinct form of expression than the subjunctive, in constructions of the same general character. This appears especially in its independent uses; as in the Homeric Ἑλένην ἄγοιτο, he may take Helen away (cf. ἀγέσθω, let him take); ἴοιμεν, may we go (cf. ἴωμεν, let us go); μὴ γένοιτο, may it not happen (cf. μὴ γένηται, let it not happen); ἕλοιτο ἄν (Hom. sometimes ἕλοιτο alone), he would take (cf. Hom. ἕληται, sometimes with κέ, he will take). So in future conditions; as εἰ γένοιτο, if it should happen (cf. ἐὰν γένηται, if it shall happen).

In other dependent clauses it is generally a correlative of the subjunctive, sometimes of the indicative; it expresses the changed relation of a dependent subjunctive or indicative in these constructions when the verb on which it depends is changed from present or future to past time. The same change in relation is expressed in English by a change from shall, will, may, do, is, &c. to should, would, might, did, was, &c. To illustrate these last relations, compare ἔρχεται ἵνα ἴδῃ, φοβεῖται μὴ γένηται, ἐάν τις ἔλθῃ τοῦτο ποιῶ, ἐπιμελεῖται ὅπως τοῦτο γενήσεται, and λέγει ὅτι τοῦτο ποιεῖ, with the corresponding forms after past leading verbs given in § 213, 3.

4. The imperative is used to express commands and prohibitions; as τοῦτο ποίει, do this; μὴ φεύγετε, do not fly.

5. The infinitive is a verbal noun, which expresses the simple idea of a verb without restriction of person or number.

§ 214

The following sections (§§ 215-257) treat of all constructions which require any other form of the finite verb than the indicative in simple assertions (§ 213, 1). The infinitive and participle are included here only so far as they are used in indirect discourse or in protasis and apodosis. These constructions are divided as follows: —

I. Final and Object clauses after ἵνα, ὡς, ὅπως, and μή.

II. Conditional sentences.

III. Relative and Temporal sentences.

IV. Indirect Discourse.

V. Causal sentences.

VI. Wishes.

VII. Commands, Exhortations, and Prohibitions.

VIII. Homeric Subjunctive (like Future Indicative). — Interrogative Subjunctive. — Οὐ μή with Subjunctive or Future Indicative.