A Short Grammar of Classical Greek: Part I: On the Sounds.

Английский Грамматика Начальный 20 век Adolf Kaegi James A. Kleist

Pages 1–11 of the book.

This Short Grammar of Classical Greek is an adaptation of the Kurzgefasste Griechische Schulgrammatik of Dr. Adolf Kaegi, Professor in Zurich University, Switzerland. It will be accompanied by an English edition of the Exercise Books of the same author.

The reasons that seem to justify an attempt at making Prof. Kaegi’s books accessible to English‑speaking students of Greek are of a threefold nature: (1) The peculiar character of Kaegi’s Grammar and Exercise Books, (2) the fact that both are based upon the same method of strict criticism, and (3) their favorable reception throughout Europe.

It was in the year 1884 that Prof. Kaegi published his Griech. Schulgrammatik. Some forty Greek grammars were then in use at the Gymnasia of German‑speaking countries, and the author could scarcely venture to add a new one, unless he was convinced that the characteristic features of his own book would justify its appearance and win for it a prominent place among the books that served a similar purpose.

What then are the merits of Kaegi’s School Grammar?

Of late years, but especially since the issue of the Lehrpläne für die höheren Schulen Preussens, it was deemed necessary by men of authority on school matters to reduce the amount of grammar that had to be mastered during the college course by the students of Greek. Accordingly, there soon appeared in Germany a number of grammars which, especially in their etymological parts, discarded much of what was formerly required. The authors of these new text‑books were guided by the correct principle that “it is useless and a loss of time to burden the mind of the young student with material he never or seldom meets with in the authors read at college.”

Thus a considerable advance was made in the line of short school grammars. In many cases, however, the intended reduction was not methodical. It was not always based on an accurate knowledge of what frequently occurred in school authors and thus became necessary, or what but rarely occurred and was in consequence dispensable, in a school grammar. On the contrary, a thorough examination convinced Prof. Kaegi that much had been dropped in a merely eclectic manner, because it seemed superfluous to the authors of these books.

Against such eclecticism Prof. Kaegi made a resolute stand.

In order to find a reliable basis for his own School Grammar, in which he intended to omit all the useless ballast of rare forms, exceptions, finesses, etc., the author went over the whole range of classical literature as far as it came within the reading‑scope of German Gymnasia, with the avowed purpose of preparing upon the above principle a school grammar and sifting the matter to be incorporated into it.

This long protracted labor put a vast amount of grammatical matter at the disposal of the author, and as he correctly thought that the teaching of grammar must be subservient to, and determined by, the reading‑matter, he either omitted all the peculiarities and irregularities which are seldom met with in classical authors, or marked them by small print, or put them in special notes or chapters for reference.

Thus it is that Kaegi’s Schulgrammatik shared on the one hand from its very first appearance the advantage of brevity with other grammars, and on the other far surpassed them, because his system of reducing the grammar was not at all eclectic, but strictly methodical.

Such is a brief sketch of the history of the Schulgrammatik.

In the first edition of this book the author said: “I wish to lay particular stress on this point, that the reduction of the matter might be carried much further, if the circle of classical school authors were drawn still closer than I have purposely done. It would be most useful, especially for a concentration of the teaching of Greek in our schools, if a list of the Standard School Authors (ein Canon der Schulautoren) were fixed upon by competent men.”

The wished‑for list appeared in the Lehrpläne for the Secondary Schools of Prussia in January, 1892.

These new regulations prescribe as obligatory the reading of:—

Xenophon’s Anabasis, Hellenica, Memorabilia.

Plato and Thucydides.

Demosthenes’ Olynthiacs and Philippics.

Herodotus, Homer, and Sophocles.

To these is usually added Lysias.

The time had therefore come for Prof. Kaegi to take a step further, and as the result of his studies he offered in October, 1892, the first edition of the Kurzgefasste Griech. Schulgrammatik.

In this Short Grammar of Classical Greek the author remained faithful to his principle that the study of grammar is but to aid the reading of Greek. Accordingly, all the peculiarities and irregularities that are only occasionally met with in the prescribed authors were either dropped or placed for reference in special chapters (60 and 113).

Those who appreciate Prof. Kaegi’s grammatical methods will readily admit that an English edition of his Exercise Books was equally advisable.

Authors of grammars sometimes fail to publish corresponding readers. Teachers must consequently use grammars and exercise books of different authors. The disadvantages of such an expedient stand to reason: grammars and readers, not written to aid each other, will in many particulars pursue different ends. For instance, the exercise book will contain words, forms, and rules which are not learned in the grammar, or the latter will insist upon rules for the practice of which the former fails to furnish suitable reading‑matter.

We are spared all these inconveniences in the present case; for besides his Grammar, we are indebted to Prof. Kaegi for two Exercise Books, which have been carefully worked out upon the same method of criticism that characterizes his Grammar. Indeed, they are so perfectly based upon the latter, that they furnish abundant material, both in connected sentences and in narratives, for the practice of such words only as are current in the same School Authors from which the material was taken for his Grammar, as well as of such rules only as must be perfectly familiar to the student who wishes to read with ease the classical authors specified in the list of the Standard School Authors.

In view of these characteristic features of Kaegi’s Grammar and Readers, it is hoped that they will prove a help for many a beginner in the study of Greek at the High Schools, Academies, and the High School (or Academical) Departments of Colleges in this country.

A word remains to be said on the extraordinary success of the books of Prof. Kaegi. The Griechische Schulgrammatik made its first appearance in 1884. It has since passed through the second, third, fourth, and fifth editions in the years 1889, 1892, 1896, and 1900 respectively. Soon after the publication there appeared a Bohemian, a Russian, a French, and a Polish edition.

The Short Grammar was received still more favorably. It first appeared in October, 1892, then in March, 1894, next in April of the same year, again in January and April, 1895, the sixth edition came out in January, 1896, the seventh in January, 1897, the eighth in January, 1898, the ninth in January, 1899, the tenth in January, 1900, the eleventh in January, 1901, the twelfth in January, 1902; in a word, within only ten years it has gone through twelve editions, the last of which comprised eight thousand copies. Nor should it be overlooked that Kaegi’s Grammar appeared at a time when, to a superficial observer, there seemed little call for a new Greek grammar in Germany.

The Exercise Books have met with a similar success: within ten years Exercise Book I has been published six times, Exercise Book II has, within seven years, passed through five editions.

The present Short Grammar is not a mere translation, but to some extent an adaptation of Kaegi’s Grammar, inasmuch as the translator has been forced in more than one chapter to depart from the German original, in order to answer the requirements of idiomatic English. Besides several minor changes, some paragraphs were dropped, as they seemed superfluous in an English edition, others were inserted where idiomatic considerations seemed to call for an addition to the German text. These changes are nearly all confined to the Syntactical Part of the work.

In order to conform to the present usage of this country, all Latin expressions, such as genetivus qualitatis, accusativus cum infinito, etc., have been superseded by their English equivalents.

In accordance with the latest researches, the translator has followed the author in adopting the spellings ἀνίπτω, ἀποθρήσκω, μιμνήσκω, ἀκτίζω, μείγνυμι, μείζω, τείζω (of τίνω), etc., although they have not as yet found their way into all text‑editions. The same applies to ἑᾶ, πεῖ, φεῖ, χεῖ, ψεῖ.

In the present work, the name of first perfect is extended only to those active perfects that end in the formative syllable ‑κα; all others, including aspirated forms, are designated as second perfects.

The Tables for Repetition, containing a list of verbs and a summary of the chief rules of Syntax, have been added as an appendix to the Grammar. In the List of Verbs those which are of comparatively rare occurrence are marked by smaller print. They may be omitted when the verbs are learned for the first time, but should not be passed over in the repetition. On the other hand, the regular forms of certain verbs that do not occur in the Standard School Authors have been added from purely practical considerations.

The Tables contain, moreover, a column of Syntactical Remarks. They are arranged alphabetically alongside of, and for the most part in connection with, the list of verbs. They may be used exclusively for reference, or for repetition after the study of Syntax, or they may be studied with the respective verbs. In the latter case, the study of Syntax would be prepared and facilitated.

The Chief Rules of Syntax are intended to furnish a brief and concise sketch of the main features of Greek Syntax. They contain those syntactical peculiarities with which a student should be familiar after a few years’ study of Greek. Teachers who have little time at their disposal, and indeed all who want to gain time for reading after the study of etymology, will do well to proceed at once to the Chief Rules and leave the Syntax of the Grammar (114–207) to those who wish to pursue it at greater length.

The translator has availed himself of such works as he found of assistance in his task, notably the Greek‑English Lexicon of Liddell and Scott, the Dictionary to Xenophon’s Anabasis by Professors John W. White and Morris H. Morgan, as well as the grammars of Professors Basil L. Gildersleeve and William W. Goodwin. The treatise on the Ethical Dative was enlarged according to K. W. Krüger’s Sprachlehre.

All who have kindly assisted the translator in preparing the Grammar are asked to accept this public expression of his gratitude. A fair criticism and the suggestions of those who are engaged in teaching will enable him to make this Short Grammar of Classical Greek as perfect as a text‑book for students should be, for whom only the best is good enough, and to make it worthy of its author, Dr. Adolf Kaegi, who has done so much for the advancement of the study of Greek.

St. Louis University, St. Louis, Mo., June 6, 1902.

James A. Kleist, S. J.

TO THE SECOND EDITION

In this second edition a thorough revision of the former has been carefully made. Those who are familiar with the first edition of the Short Grammar will be pleased to find that there is hardly a page in the Syntactical Part of the work which does not bear traces of improvement. I take pleasure in publicly expressing my grateful appreciation for the kindness of all those Professors of Greek at various Colleges of the country who have generously assisted me in the task of revision. My special thanks are due to Professor John J. Toohey, S.J., of Loyola College, Baltimore, Md., for several letters containing criticisms of the first edition, and many practical hints which I have followed to make the book more useful.

Some critics have suggested that all the Greek quotations I have used to exemplify the rules of Syntax be done into English. As a translation of these sentences, no doubt, greatly facilitates the study of the rules they are intended to illustrate, I have gladly availed myself of this suggestion. The plates of the first edition were to be left intact; hence the translation could not be inserted in the text, but will be found, in the form of an Appendix, on pages 241 sqq. of this volume. No pains have been spared to furnish a translation which would be of real help to the student. Due regard has been paid to the context, which ever lends to the expression of a thought a specific, individual coloring. In elaborating my translation I have freely drawn hints and helps from such excellent works as: Goodwin’s Moods and Tenses, Gildersleeve’s Syntax of Classical Greek, Thompson’s Greek Grammar, Goodwin’s and White’s Anabasis. The translations of quotations from Plato are, in most cases, from Jowett’s classical version of that author. For a careful perusal of the Appendix I am indebted to my friend and colleague James J. O’Brien, S.J., Spring Hill College, Mobile, Ala.

The purpose of the Appendix, containing a List of Verbs and a Summary of the Chief Rules of Syntax, has been misjudged by some critics. These I beg to refer to my Preface to the first edition, where they will find the scope of the Appendix explained. The Appendix is not, of course, an integral part of the Grammar. It has been designed for the convenience of those teachers who would be satisfied with a more cursory view of the most important rules of Syntax. Besides, such a summary may not come amiss to students for purposes of repetition.

College of the Sacred Heart, Prairie du Chien, Wis., May 15, 1905.

James A. Kleist, S.J.

LETTERS: THEIR FORM AND PRONUNCIATION.

(1) The Greek alphabet consists of these twenty-four letters :

FORM	SOUND	NAME
Capitals or Uncials	Small Cursives		
A	α	ā (father)	Alpha	Ἄλφα
B	β	b	Bēta	Βῆτα
Γ	γ	g (gold)	Gamma	Γάμμα
Δ	δ	d	Delta	Δέλτα
E	ε	ĕ (bed)	Epsilon	Ἒ ψιλόν
Z	ζ	ds (beds)	Zēta	Ζῆτα
H	η	ē (air)	Eta	Ἦτα
Θ	θ	t'h (hothouse)	Thēta	Θῆτα
I	ι	ĭ (rim), ī (eve)	Iōta	Ἰῶτα
K	κ	k	Kappa	Κάππα
Λ	λ	l	Lambda	Λάμβδα
M	μ	m	Mü	Μῦ
N	ν	n	Nü	Νῦ
Ξ	ξ	ks, x (axe)	Xi	Ξεῖ
O	ο	ŏ (hot)	Omikron	Ὄ μικρόν
Π	π	p	Pi	Πεῖ
P	ρ	r	Rho	Ῥῶ
Σ	σ, ς	s (sing), z (zero)	Sigma	Σῖγμα
T	τ	t	Tau	Ταῦ
Υ	υ	ŭ (dune in French)	Upsilon	Ὓ ψιλόν
Φ	φ	p'h (uphold)	P'hi	Φεῖ
X	χ	k'h (inkhorn)	K'hi	Χεῖ
Ψ	ψ	ps	Psi	Ψεῖ
Ω	ω	ō	Omēga	Ὦ μέγα

(2) The form σ is used at the beginning of, and within, a word ; the form ς at the end ; thus, σάκος, σεισμός. Also εἰσ-βάλλω besides εἰσ-βάλλω, etc.

Note 1. — The letter ϝ (digamma, double gamma) was in primitive Greek used for the sound v (as in have) ; e.g. ϝοῖκος = vīcus, ὄϝις = ὄϊς.

Note 2. — The only trace of another letter which originally belonged to the Greek alphabet, the semivowel j, Iōd, is to be found in certain grammatical facts, which could not otherwise be accounted for. See 77, 3.

(3) Note the following points for pronunciation : γ before γ, κ, χ, ξ is sounded as n before c, g, ch, x ; as ἄγγελος angelus, angel, Ἀγχίσης Anchises, ἄγκυρα ancora, anchor, Σφίγξ Sphinx. ζ is equivalent in sound to ds in beds. θ is neither like t in tell, nor like th in thing, but like t'h, i.e. t followed by h ; thus θείνω strike differs from τείνω stretch. φ is like p followed by h, as in uphold, χ like k followed by h, as in inkhorn. ι is sounded as the vowel i in ink, not as the consonant y in yonder ; hence Ἰωνία I-ōnia. τι is always like ti in tin. σ and ς have the hissing sound, as s in sing, but are pronounced like z before the liquids λ, μ, ν, ρ, or the middle mutes γ, β, δ ; e.g. Σμύρνα Zmyrna. ου has the sound of u in rule, αυ that of ow in brown. Each vowel is distinctly heard in αι, ει, ευ, and οι.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS.

(1) As to quantity, the simple vowels are either short (ε, ο) or long (η, ω) or doubtful (ᾰ, ῐ, ῠ).

(2) Proper diphthongs are αι, ει, οι, υι, as in Μαῖα, Δαρεῖος, Κροῖσος, Ἅρπυιαι, αυ, ευ, ου, ηυ, as in Γλαῦκος, Ζεύς, Μοῦσα, ηὔξανον.

(3) Improper diphthongs arise from a combination of one of the long vowels, ᾱ, η, ω, with a following, (now) silent, ι ; hence, ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ with iota subscript ; e.g. ᾄδω, ᾔδον, ᾠδή, Αι, Ηι, Ωι with iota adscript ; e.g. Ἅιδης, ᾨιδεῖον.

(4) The simple consonants are classified according to the part of the organ of speech which produces them and according to their characteristic sound, as follows :

Characteristic Sound	Orders of Sounds	Gutturals Throat Sounds (κ-Sounds)	Labials Lip Sounds (π-Sounds)	Dentals Tooth Sounds (τ-Sounds)
Mutes Momentary Sounds	Smooth Mutes	κ	π	τ
	Middle Mutes	γ	β	δ
	Rough Mutes	χ	φ	θ
Semivowels Continuous Sounds	Liquids	λ		ρ
	Nasals	γ = ng	μ	ν
	Spirants	j	F	σ

Note. — The term Liquids is often applied to both the liquids proper and the nasals μ and ν, hence to λ, μ, ν, ρ.

(5) Double consonants are ξ = κσ, ψ = πσ, ζ = ds.

BREATHINGS AND ACCENTS.

(1) Every initial vowel or diphthong is marked by a breathing or spiritus, which is either

a) rough, spiritus asper (῾), as the English h : ἥρως hero, Αἵμων Haemon ; or

b) smooth, spiritus lenis (᾿), which is not pronounced : Ἔρως Eros, Αἴγινα Aegina.

(2) Every initial ρ is aspirated, i.e. marked by the spiritus asper; e.g. ῥήτωρ rhetor, Ῥόδος Rhodos.

Double ρ in the middle of a word takes either both or neither of the breathings; e.g. Πύρρος or Πύῤῥος Pyrrhus.

(3) There are three accents to mark the tone or pitch of voice :

a) the circumflex (ˆ) indicates a lengthened, drawn out tone: Ἆγις, Ἀθῆναι, ὀρθῶς.

b) the acute (´) indicates a high pitch of voice : ἄγω, ἀγέλη, ὀρθός.

c) the grave (`) indicates a low pitch of voice : ὀρθὸς ἦν ὁ λόγος. See 6, 3.

Note. — The Greek accents originally conveyed a musical meaning; we now treat them simply as stress accents.

(4) Position of Breathings and Accents. — They are placed

in case of small letters over the vowel: ὁ ἀνήρ,

in case of capitals before the vowel at the top: ἡ Ἑλλάς,

in proper diphthongs over the second vowel: Αἰγαί, εἶ, εὐποίητος.

When breathing and accent fall on the same vowel, the breathing is placed before the acute or grave, but under the circumflex, e.g. Αἴας ὤμοσεν, ὃς ἄριστος ἦν.

When improper diphthongs (2, 3) are used as capitals, they take breathing and accent before the first vowel: Ἅιδης, Ὠιδεῖον — ᾄδω, ᾠδή.

OTHER READING AND PUNCTUATION SIGNS.

The sign of diaeresis (¨) shows that two vowels do not form a diphthong, but are to be pronounced separately, e.g. Ἀτρεΐδης, πραΰνω.

The double dot need not be written, whenever accent and breathing sufficiently mark the diaeresis, as in ἀυτή, ὄις.

Punctuation Signs. — The Greek uses the period (.) and the comma (,) as the English; its colon and semicolon is a dot above the line (˙); its interrogation point is like our semicolon (;).

DIVISION AND QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES.

(1) Every single consonant and every combination of consonants, which can begin a Greek word, is joined to the following vowel. E.g. ἔ-χο-μεν, ἐ-σθής, ὅ-πλον, δε-σμός, νυ-κτός, ἔ-στροφα, — but δελ-φίς, ἄρ-μα, ἀν-δρός — Πύρ-ρος, ἀγ-γέλ-λω — Βάκ-χος.

(2) Compound words are divided according to their component parts: συν-έχω, προσ-άπτω, ἀπ-έρχομαι, ὥσ-περ.

(3) A syllable is short by nature, when it has a short vowel followed by only one simple consonant: ἄ-γο-μεν, ἔ-χο-μεν, γέ-νε-σις.

(4) A syllable is long by nature, when it has a long vowel or a diphthong: ἥρως, Εὐ-ρώ-πη, ᾠ-δή.

(5) A syllable is long by position, when it has a short vowel followed by two or more consonants or a double consonant: ἄχθος, ὀρθός, ἐχθρός, ἄξων, ἕζομαι, ὄψομαι.

(6) The pronunciation of syllables which are long by nature must be carefully distinguished from that of syllables which are only long by position. Thus there is a difference between:

πράσσω and τάσσω, πρᾶξις and τάξις,

πρᾶγμα and τάγμα, μᾶλλον and κάλλος,

βέβηκε and ἕνεκα, ἄνθρωπος and ῥήτορες.

Nearly every Greek word (see 8) has one or other of the accents mentioned in 3, 3.

General Principles :

(1) The acute can stand on short and long syllables. The circumflex is confined to syllables which are long by nature.

(2) The acute can stand on any one of the last three syllables, but on the antepenult only when the ultima is short; e.g. πόλεμος, πολέμιος, σώματα.

(3) An acute on the final syllable of a word which is not separated from the following word by some sign of punctuation is changed to the grave; hence Οἱ μὲν αὐτῶν ἦσαν ἀγαθοί, οἱ δὲ κακοί.

Note. — Exceptions are τίς, τί (67, 1).

(4) The circumflex can stand on either of the last two syllables, but on the penult only when the ultima is short; e.g. δῶρον, δῶρα, φεῦγε.

(5) Every accented penult must have the circumflex, provided it is long by nature and followed by a short ultima; hence,

θήρ, but θῆρες, πολίτης, but πολῖτα,

σώφρων, but σῶφρον, φεύγω, but φεῦγε.

Note. — Exceptions are given in 9, note 3.

(6) In compound words the accent generally recedes toward the beginning of the word as far as the above rules will allow (recessive accent);

e.g. ὁ φίλος the friend, but ἄφιλος friendless,

ἡ τιμή the honor, ἄτιμος dishonored,

ὁ νοῦς the mind, εὔνους well-minded,

ἑκών willing, ἄκων (ἀέκων) unwilling.

A word

with the acute on the ultima is called Oxytone: τιμή, ὁδός.

with the acute on the penult is called Paroxytone: λόγος.

with the acute on the antepenult is called Proparoxytone: ἄνθρωπος.

with the circumflex on the ultima is called Perispōmenon: τιμῶν.

with the circumflex on the penult is called Properispōmenon: δῶρον.

without any accent on the ultima is called Barytone: λόγος, δῶρον.

(1) Ten monosyllables are called Atonics (toneless) or Proclitics (leaning forward) because they attach themselves so closely to the following word as to have no accent of their own. The proclitics are:

a) the four forms of the article: ὁ, ἡ, οἱ, αἱ.

b) the three prepositions: εἰς, ἐν, and ἐκ (ἐξ).

c) the two conjunctions: εἰ (if) and ὡς (how, that, as).

d) the negative: οὐ (οὐκ, οὐχ).

(2) Still these proclitics sometimes take an accent:

a) All are accented, when followed by an enclitic (9 seqq.): ὅδε, εἴτε, οὔτε.

b) Besides, the negative οὐ is accented before a punctuation mark, i.e. at the end of a sentence where it has no following word to lean upon.

§9

(1) Some few words of one or two syllables are called Enclitics (leaning upon) because they attach themselves so closely to the preceding word as generally either to lose their own accent or to throw it as an acute upon the preceding word. The enclitics are:

a) nine forms of the personal pronoun: μοῦ, μοί, μέ — σοῦ, σοί, σέ — οὗ, οἷ, ἕ.

b) the indefinite pronoun τις, τι in all its cases.

c) the indefinite adverbs πού, ποί, ποθέν, πώς, πή, ποτέ.

d) the present indicatives of φημί and εἰμί, except φής and εἶ.

e) the particles γέ, τέ, τοί, νύν, πέρ, πώ.

f) the inseparable suffix -δε in ὅδε, τοσόσδε, οἴκόνδε, etc.

(2) The following rules illustrate the different cases of enclisis:

a) The accent of the enclitic is lost

after a perispomenon: σοφῶν τις, σοφῶν ἐστιν.

after an oxytone or an atonic word; these, however, receive the acute (not the grave): σοφός τις, σοφοί εἰσιν, οὔτε—οὔποτε.

after a proparoxytone or a properispomenon, which, in addition to their own accent, receive an acute on their ultima: ἄνθρωπός τις, ἄνθρωποί εἰσιν, δῶρά ἐστιν.

b) After a paroxytone, enclitics of one syllable lose their accents, enclitics of two syllables keep them: λόγος τις, λόγοι τινές, λόγων τινῶν.

Note 1. — In the use of enclitics it never happens that more than two syllables remain without an accent; hence σοφοί τινες and σοφῶν τινων, but λόγοι τινές and λόγων τινῶν.

Note 2. — When several enclitics follow in succession, each throws its accent as acute upon the preceding: εἴ πώς τίς τινά ποι πέμποι.

Note 3. — By joining certain of the enclitics to the preceding words, compounds arise whose accents deviate from the rule given in 6, 5; e.g. οὔτε, μήτε, ὥστε, οὔτις.

§10

Enclitics are accented or orthotoned:

a) according to 9, 2 b: after paroxytones, when the enclitic is dissyllabic.

b) according to 9, note 2: before other enclitics.

c) when special stress is required: σὺν σοί, πρὸς σέ.

d) when the syllable upon which the accent was to fall is elided; e.g. καλὸς δ᾽ ἐστίν.

e) at the beginning of a sentence; e.g. εἰσὶν ἑκάστοις λόγοι— φαμὲν τοίνυν.

For οἷ, σφίσιν, see §62; for ἔστιν see §104. 3. 1, 2.

THE PRINCIPAL PHONETIC LAWS

§11

Changes of Vowels. — A certain regularity in the change of vowels often appears in words which belong to the same stem, both in regard to the quantity and the quality of the vowel.

(1) Change of Quantity ("Weakening or Shortening of Vowels"). — The following examples show a substitution of weaker (short) for stronger (long) sounds, or the reverse:

ᾱ and ᾰ: ἐᾱ́σω, ἐᾰ́ω.

η and ᾱ: τιμήσω, τῑμᾰ́ω.

η and ε: ποιήσω, ποιέω.

ω and ο: δουλώσω, δουλόω.

ει and ῐ: λείπω, λῐπεῖν.

ῑ and ῐ: τρῑ́βω, τρῐβή.

ευ and ῠ: φεύγω, φῠγή.

ῡ and ῠ: λύσω, λῠτός.

(2) Change of Quality (Ablaut). — In like manner there is a change of quality between ε and ο, ει and οι, ευ and ου, η and ω.

e.g. ε and ο: λέγω, λόγος, νέμω, νομή, τεκεῖν, τέτοκα.

ει and οι: λείπω, λοιπός, κεῖμαι, κοίτη, πείθω, πέποιθα.

ευ and ου: σπεύδω, σπουδή, κέλευθος, ἀκόλουθος.

η and ω: ἀρήγω, ἀρωγός, πτήσσω, πτωχός, ῥήγνυμι, ἔρρωγα.

(3) The following table results from a combination of either change:

Quantity strong	Quantity weak	Quality ablaut	Examples 1	Examples 2
η	ᾱ	ω	φήμη, φᾶτός, φωνή	βῆναι, βάσις, βωμός
η	ε	ω	θημών, θετός, θωμός	ᾖσω, ἔτος, ἀνέωμαι
αι	ᾰι	αι	λείπειν, λῖπείν, λοιπός	πείθειν, πεπίθειν, πέποιθα
ευ	ᾰυ	ου	σείω, ἔσσυμαι, ἔσσουσα	ἐλεύσομαι, ἤλυθον, εἰλήλουθα

Moreover, the proximity and influence of the liquids cause the interchange of

Quantity strong	Quantity weak	Quality ablaut	Examples 1	Examples 2
ε	ᾰ	ο	τρέπω, τρᾰπεῖν, τρόπος; τέμνω, ταμίας, τομή	στέλλω, στᾰλῆναι, στόλος; μένος, μᾰνῆναι, μέμονα

§12

The Lengthening of Vowels in the Nominative. — The long vowels η and ω in the nominative singular are often due only to a lengthening of ε and ο, which reappear in the other cases;

e.g. ποιμήν, but ποιμέν-ος, etc., δαίμων, but δαίμον-ος, etc.,

χιών, but χιόν-ος, etc., ῥήτωρ, but ῥήτορ-ος, etc.

§13

Compensative Lengthening is the lengthening of a vowel to make up for the loss of consonants. A short vowel with two or three consonants is replaced by a long vowel with one consonant, and consequently a vowel long by position is replaced by one long by nature. This compensative lengthening changes:

Vowel	Result	Example 1	Example 2	Example 3	Example 4
ᾰ mostly to ᾱ:	thus:	παντ‑ς	λυσαντ‑σι	ἐμιαν‑σα	μελανς
	becomes:	πᾶς	λύσᾱσι	ἐμιᾱνα	μἐλᾱς
ᾰ more rarely to η	thus:	ἐφαν‑σα			
	becomes:	ἔφηνα
ε always to ει	thus:	χαριεντ‑ς	λυθεντ‑σι	ἐστελ-σα	ἑνς
	becomes:	χαρίεις	λυθεῖσι	ἔστειλα	εἷς
ο always to ου	thus:	διδοντ‑ς	γεροντ‑σι	παιδευοντ-σι	
	becomes:	διδούς	γέρουσι	παιδεύουσιν
ἰ always to ῑ	thus:	ἐκριν‑σα			
	becomes:	ἔκρῑνα
ῠ always to ῡ	thus:	φυντ‑ς	δεικνυντ‑σι	ἤμυν-σα	
	becomes:	φῡς	δεικνῦσι	ἤμῡνα

§14

Syncope (a cutting up or short) consists in dropping within a word a short vowel between consonants; e.g. γίγνομαι, stem γεν, for γιγένομαι. Compare gigno, genui.

§15

Metathesis (transposition) consists in placing a short vowel after a simple liquid (λ, μ, ν, ρ) instead of before the same. The vowel is generally lengthened;

e.g. θάρσος, κᾰλ-έω, τέμ-νω, θᾰν-ατος, πορ-εῖν,

θράσος, κλη-τός, τμῆ-σις, θνη-τός, πέ-πρω-ται.

§16

(1) Contraction unites in one long vowel or diphthong two vowels that follow each other within a word. Thus τιμά-ων becomes τιμῶν, πλό-ου becomes πλοῦ, γένε-ος becomes γένους.

For the different modes of contraction, see the treatise on Inflection.

(2) The contracted syllable receives an accent, if either of the two contracted vowels was accented: the circumflex, if the accent was on the first, the acute, if it was on the second vowel. Thus

τίμαε becomes τίμᾱ, ἐτίμαον becomes ἐτίμων,

τιμάων becomes τιμῶν, βεβαώς becomes βεβώς,

τιμάετε becomes τιμᾶτε, τιμαέτω becomes τιμάτω.

§17

(1) Elision consists in dropping a short final vowel before a word beginning with a vowel. The sign of elision is the apostrophe (’); e.g. ἐπ’ αὐτῷ for ἐπὶ αὐτῷ, ἀλλ’ ἐγώ for ἀλλὰ ἐγώ, ἀπέχω from ἀπό and ἔχω.

Note. — The vowel υ, — α and ο in monosyllables, — ῐ in περί, ἄχρι, μέχρι, τί, τι and ὅτι are never elided.

(2) Elision influences the accent as follows:

a) in oxytone prepositions and conjunctions it is lost: thus ἐπ’ ἐμοί for ἐπὶ ἐμοί, ἀλλ’ ἐγώ for ἀλλὰ ἐγώ.

b) in all other oxytones it recedes as acute upon the preceding syllable: Εἴ δείν’ ἔδρασας, δεινὰ καὶ παθεῖν σε χρή, — τὰ ἀγάθ’ ἦν for τὰ ἀγαθὰ ἦν, φήμ’ ἐγώ for φημὶ ἐγώ.

c) in all barytones it remains unchanged: οὔτε σοὶ οὔτ’ ἐμοὶ ταῦτ’ ἔλεγον.

§18

(1) Crasis (mixture) is the contraction of the final vowel or diphthong with the initial vowel of the following word [1]. Its sign is the coronis (’).

The contracted vowel receives an iota subscript, if the last of the vowels to be contracted was an ι; thus ἐγᾦμαι for ἐγὼ οἶμαι, but κἄν for καὶ ἄν.

[1] Elision, therefore, serves to avoid an hiatus which occurs when the final and the initial vowel of two successive words collide. Crasis serves the same purpose.

(2) Crasis is most frequent with the article, the relative and with καί and πρό.

ὁ ἀνήρ becomes ἀνήρ,

τὰ ἄλλα becomes τἆλλα,

ἃ ἐγώ becomes ἁγώ,

καὶ ἐν becomes κἀν,

καὶ ἄν becomes κἄν,

προέλεγον becomes προὔλεγον.

(3) The accent of the first word is generally lost, that of the second determines which syllable is to have the accent after the contraction.

§19

Concurrence of Consonants. — Two or more adjoining consonants are hardly ever left unchanged. They are subject to certain modifications according to definite principles. The second consonant is generally left unaltered and a change is produced only in the first of the two sounds. This euphonic change is especially brought about by assimilation (change to a like sound), dissimilation (change to a different sound), and elision (suppression of a sound).

Special attention is due to the euphonic changes:

a) in the nom. sg. and dat. pl. of the 3d decl., 38 seqq.

b) in the third class of verbs (with -jω in the present), 77, 3.

c) in the formation of tenses of mute verbs, 82; 83.

d) in the final consonants of prepositions in compounds, as in 20.

§20

Before the rough breathing a smooth mute is changed to the corresponding rough: thus

οὐκ οὗτος becomes οὐχ οὗτος,

ἀπ’ οὗ becomes ἀφ’ οὗ,

ἀντ’ ὧν becomes ἀνθ’ ὧν,

ἐπ’ and ὁδός becomes ἔφοδος.

§21

Changes in the Rough Mutes. —

(1) If two successive syllables begin each with a rough mute, generally one of the two is changed to the corresponding smooth; in particular

the first is changed in the reduplication: πεφύτευκα — τίθημι,

and in the aor. pass. of θύω and τίθημι: ἐτύθην, ἐτέθην.

the second is changed in the aor. imper. pass.: παιδεύθητι for παιδεύθηθι.

In other cases, however, both rough mutes remain unchanged. Thus in ὠρθώθην, ἠθύνθην, ἐθέλχθην, ἐφάνθην, πεφάνθαι, ἐκαθάρθην, κεκαθάρθαι, φάθι, ἐχύθην, etc.

(2) Whenever in several monosyllabic stems the final rough mute is dropped, the initial consonant is changed to the corresponding rough; thus in the stems ταφ-, ταχ-, τρεφ-, τρεχ-, τρυφ- and τριχ-.

Compare τάφος, ταχύς, τρέφω, τρέχω, τρυφή, τρίχες,

with θάπτω, θάττων, θρέψω, ἔθρεξα, θρύπτω, θριξίν.

There are initial and final rough mutes in τεθράφθαι (from τρέφω, but τετράφθαι from τρέπω), τεθάφθαι and ἐθάφθην (from θάπτω).

§22

Initial ρ is doubled when a short vowel precedes it whether as augment or as reduplication:

ἔρριπτον, ἔρριψα, — ἔρριφα, ἔρρωμαι.

Thus also in composition: ἐπιρρίπτω, διαρρήγνυμι, ἄρρωστος, ἀπόρρητος.

§23

Rule for Consonantal Termination. — No Greek word can end in any other consonant than ν, ρ, or σ (ξ, ψ). Consequently, other consonants which by rights should stand at the end of a word must be dropped. Thus παῖ is for παιδ, σῶμα for σωματ.

Note. — The two particles ἐκ and οὐκ are only apparent exceptions; for these proclitics attach themselves so closely to the following word as to coalesce into one; consequently, κ must be considered as being in the middle of the word thus formed. Compare οὐκέτι, and 24, 2. 3.

MOVABLE FINAL CONSONANTS.

(1) Ν movable (ν ἐφελκυστικόν drawn after) is added [1]

a) to third persons in -ε(ν) and -σι(ν): ἐπαίδευε(ν), ἐπαίδευσε(ν), παιδεύουσι(ν), δίδωσι(ν), διδόασι(ν), εἰσί(ν).

b) to datives and locatives in -σι(ν): πᾶσι(ν), Ἀθήνησι(ν).

c) to some other words with similar endings: εἴκοσι(ν), ἐστί(ν).

This ν may or may not stand before a following consonant, it must stand before a following vowel, as well as before punctuation marks.

[1] See foot-note on page 9.

(2) Σ movable is taken by οὕτω thus, and ἐκ out; the spelling is οὕτως and ἐξ before vowels. E.g. οὕτω γράφω, but οὕτως ἔγραφον — ἐκ τοῦ οἴκου, but ἐξ οἴκου.

(3) A movable guttural is sometimes added to the negative οὐ. Use:

οὐκ before vowels with the smooth breathing: οὐκ ἀγαθόν,

οὐχ before vowels with the rough breathing: οὐχ ἁπλῶς,

οὐ before all consonants: οὐ καλῶς, οὐ ῥᾳδίως.

Note. — Before a punctuation mark, οὐ is accented, οὔ, even when followed by a vowel:

Ἐξικνοῦντο γὰρ οὔ, οὐδ᾽ ἔβλαπτον οὐδέν.

Εἴτε μηνύουσιν εἴτε καὶ οὔ· ἀμφότερα γὰρ εἰκάζεται.

§11-23

THE PRINCIPAL PHONETIC LAWS

THE PRINCIPAL PHONETIC LAWS

§11

Changes of Vowels. — A certain regularity in the change of vowels often appears in words which belong to the same stem, both in regard to the quantity and the quality of the vowel.

(1) Change of Quantity ("Weakening or Shortening of Vowels"). — The following examples show a substitution of weaker (short) for stronger (long) sounds, or the reverse:

ᾱ and ᾰ: ἐᾱ́σω, ἐᾰ́ω.

η and ᾱ: τιμήσω, τῑμᾰ́ω.

η and ε: ποιήσω, ποιέω.

ω and ο: δουλώσω, δουλόω.

ει and ῐ: λείπω, λῐπεῖν.

ῑ and ῐ: τρῑ́βω, τρῐβή.

ευ and ῠ: φεύγω, φῠγή.

ῡ and ῠ: λύσω, λῠτός.

(2) Change of Quality (Ablaut). — In like manner there is a change of quality between ε and ο, ει and οι, ευ and ου, η and ω.

e.g. ε and ο: λέγω, λόγος, νέμω, νομή, τεκεῖν, τέτοκα.

ει and οι: λείπω, λοιπός, κεῖμαι, κοίτη, πείθω, πέποιθα.

ευ and ου: σπεύδω, σπουδή, κέλευθος, ἀκόλουθος.

η and ω: ἀρήγω, ἀρωγός, πτήσσω, πτωχός, ῥήγνυμι, ἔρρωγα.

(3) The following table results from a combination of either change:

Quantity strong	Quantity weak	Quality ablaut	Examples 1	Examples 2
η	ᾱ	ω	φήμη, φᾶτός, φωνή	βῆναι, βάσις, βωμός
η	ε	ω	θημών, θετός, θωμός	ᾖσω, ἔτος, ἀνέωμαι
αι	ᾰι	αι	λείπειν, λῖπείν, λοιπός	πείθειν, πεπίθειν, πέποιθα
ευ	ᾰυ	ου	σείω, ἔσσυμαι, ἔσσουσα	ἐλεύσομαι, ἤλυθον, εἰλήλουθα

Moreover, the proximity and influence of the liquids cause the interchange of

Quantity strong	Quantity weak	Quality ablaut	Examples 1	Examples 2
ε	ᾰ	ο	τρέπω, τρᾰπεῖν, τρόπος; τέμνω, ταμίας, τομή	στέλλω, στᾰλῆναι, στόλος; μένος, μᾰνῆναι, μέμονα

§12

The Lengthening of Vowels in the Nominative. — The long vowels η and ω in the nominative singular are often due only to a lengthening of ε and ο, which reappear in the other cases;

e.g. ποιμήν, but ποιμέν-ος, etc., δαίμων, but δαίμον-ος, etc.,

χιών, but χιόν-ος, etc., ῥήτωρ, but ῥήτορ-ος, etc.

§13

Compensative Lengthening is the lengthening of a vowel to make up for the loss of consonants. A short vowel with two or three consonants is replaced by a long vowel with one consonant, and consequently a vowel long by position is replaced by one long by nature. This compensative lengthening changes:

Vowel	Result	Example 1	Example 2	Example 3	Example 4
ᾰ mostly to ᾱ:	thus:	παντ‑ς	λυσαντ‑σι	ἐμιαν‑σα	μελανς
	becomes:	πᾶς	λύσᾱσι	ἐμιᾱνα	μἐλᾱς
ᾰ more rarely to η	thus:	ἐφαν‑σα			
	becomes:	ἔφηνα
ε always to ει	thus:	χαριεντ‑ς	λυθεντ‑σι	ἐστελ-σα	ἑνς
	becomes:	χαρίεις	λυθεῖσι	ἔστειλα	εἷς
ο always to ου	thus:	διδοντ‑ς	γεροντ‑σι	παιδευοντ-σι	
	becomes:	διδούς	γέρουσι	παιδεύουσιν
ἰ always to ῑ	thus:	ἐκριν‑σα			
	becomes:	ἔκρῑνα
ῠ always to ῡ	thus:	φυντ‑ς	δεικνυντ‑σι	ἤμυν-σα	
	becomes:	φῡς	δεικνῦσι	ἤμῡνα

§14

Syncope (a cutting up or short) consists in dropping within a word a short vowel between consonants; e.g. γίγνομαι, stem γεν, for γιγένομαι. Compare gigno, genui.

§15

Metathesis (transposition) consists in placing a short vowel after a simple liquid (λ, μ, ν, ρ) instead of before the same. The vowel is generally lengthened;

e.g. θάρσος, κᾰλ-έω, τέμ-νω, θᾰν-ατος, πορ-εῖν,

θράσος, κλη-τός, τμῆ-σις, θνη-τός, πέ-πρω-ται.

§16

(1) Contraction unites in one long vowel or diphthong two vowels that follow each other within a word. Thus τιμά-ων becomes τιμῶν, πλό-ου becomes πλοῦ, γένε-ος becomes γένους.

For the different modes of contraction, see the treatise on Inflection.

(2) The contracted syllable receives an accent, if either of the two contracted vowels was accented: the circumflex, if the accent was on the first, the acute, if it was on the second vowel. Thus

τίμαε becomes τίμᾱ, ἐτίμαον becomes ἐτίμων,

τιμάων becomes τιμῶν, βεβαώς becomes βεβώς,

τιμάετε becomes τιμᾶτε, τιμαέτω becomes τιμάτω.

§17

(1) Elision consists in dropping a short final vowel before a word beginning with a vowel. The sign of elision is the apostrophe (’); e.g. ἐπ’ αὐτῷ for ἐπὶ αὐτῷ, ἀλλ’ ἐγώ for ἀλλὰ ἐγώ, ἀπέχω from ἀπό and ἔχω.

Note. — The vowel υ, — α and ο in monosyllables, — ῐ in περί, ἄχρι, μέχρι, τί, τι and ὅτι are never elided.

(2) Elision influences the accent as follows:

a) in oxytone prepositions and conjunctions it is lost: thus ἐπ’ ἐμοί for ἐπὶ ἐμοί, ἀλλ’ ἐγώ for ἀλλὰ ἐγώ.

b) in all other oxytones it recedes as acute upon the preceding syllable: Εἴ δείν’ ἔδρασας, δεινὰ καὶ παθεῖν σε χρή, — τὰ ἀγάθ’ ἦν for τὰ ἀγαθὰ ἦν, φήμ’ ἐγώ for φημὶ ἐγώ.

c) in all barytones it remains unchanged: οὔτε σοὶ οὔτ’ ἐμοὶ ταῦτ’ ἔλεγον.

§18

(1) Crasis (mixture) is the contraction of the final vowel or diphthong with the initial vowel of the following word [1]. Its sign is the coronis (’).

The contracted vowel receives an iota subscript, if the last of the vowels to be contracted was an ι; thus ἐγᾦμαι for ἐγὼ οἶμαι, but κἄν for καὶ ἄν.

[1] Elision, therefore, serves to avoid an hiatus which occurs when the final and the initial vowel of two successive words collide. Crasis serves the same purpose.

(2) Crasis is most frequent with the article, the relative and with καί and πρό.

ὁ ἀνήρ becomes ἀνήρ,

τὰ ἄλλα becomes τἆλλα,

ἃ ἐγώ becomes ἁγώ,

καὶ ἐν becomes κἀν,

καὶ ἄν becomes κἄν,

προέλεγον becomes προὔλεγον.

(3) The accent of the first word is generally lost, that of the second determines which syllable is to have the accent after the contraction.

§19

Concurrence of Consonants. — Two or more adjoining consonants are hardly ever left unchanged. They are subject to certain modifications according to definite principles. The second consonant is generally left unaltered and a change is produced only in the first of the two sounds. This euphonic change is especially brought about by assimilation (change to a like sound), dissimilation (change to a different sound), and elision (suppression of a sound).

Special attention is due to the euphonic changes:

a) in the nom. sg. and dat. pl. of the 3d decl., 38 seqq.

b) in the third class of verbs (with -jω in the present), 77, 3.

c) in the formation of tenses of mute verbs, 82; 83.

d) in the final consonants of prepositions in compounds, as in 20.

§20

Before the rough breathing a smooth mute is changed to the corresponding rough: thus

οὐκ οὗτος becomes οὐχ οὗτος,

ἀπ’ οὗ becomes ἀφ’ οὗ,

ἀντ’ ὧν becomes ἀνθ’ ὧν,

ἐπ’ and ὁδός becomes ἔφοδος.

§21

Changes in the Rough Mutes. —

(1) If two successive syllables begin each with a rough mute, generally one of the two is changed to the corresponding smooth; in particular

the first is changed in the reduplication: πεφύτευκα — τίθημι,

and in the aor. pass. of θύω and τίθημι: ἐτύθην, ἐτέθην.

the second is changed in the aor. imper. pass.: παιδεύθητι for παιδεύθηθι.

In other cases, however, both rough mutes remain unchanged. Thus in ὠρθώθην, ἠθύνθην, ἐθέλχθην, ἐφάνθην, πεφάνθαι, ἐκαθάρθην, κεκαθάρθαι, φάθι, ἐχύθην, etc.

(2) Whenever in several monosyllabic stems the final rough mute is dropped, the initial consonant is changed to the corresponding rough; thus in the stems ταφ-, ταχ-, τρεφ-, τρεχ-, τρυφ- and τριχ-.

Compare τάφος, ταχύς, τρέφω, τρέχω, τρυφή, τρίχες,

with θάπτω, θάττων, θρέψω, ἔθρεξα, θρύπτω, θριξίν.

There are initial and final rough mutes in τεθράφθαι (from τρέφω, but τετράφθαι from τρέπω), τεθάφθαι and ἐθάφθην (from θάπτω).

§22

Initial ρ is doubled when a short vowel precedes it whether as augment or as reduplication:

ἔρριπτον, ἔρριψα, — ἔρριφα, ἔρρωμαι.

Thus also in composition: ἐπιρρίπτω, διαρρήγνυμι, ἄρρωστος, ἀπόρρητος.

§23

Rule for Consonantal Termination. — No Greek word can end in any other consonant than ν, ρ, or σ (ξ, ψ). Consequently, other consonants which by rights should stand at the end of a word must be dropped. Thus παῖ is for παιδ, σῶμα for σωματ.

Note. — The two particles ἐκ and οὐκ are only apparent exceptions; for these proclitics attach themselves so closely to the following word as to coalesce into one; consequently, κ must be considered as being in the middle of the word thus formed. Compare οὐκέτι, and 24, 2. 3.

§11

Changes of Vowels. — A certain regularity in the change of vowels often appears in words which belong to the same stem, both in regard to the quantity and the quality of the vowel.

(1) Change of Quantity ("Weakening or Shortening of Vowels"). — The following examples show a substitution of weaker (short) for stronger (long) sounds, or the reverse:
ᾱ and ᾰ: ἐᾱ́σω, ἐᾰ́ω.
η and ᾱ: τιμήσω, τῑμᾰ́ω.
η and ε: ποιήσω, ποιέω.
ω and ο: δουλώσω, δουλόω.
ει and ῐ: λείπω, λῐπεῖν.
ῑ and ῐ: τρῑ́βω, τρῐβή.
ευ and ῠ: φεύγω, φῠγή.
ῡ and ῠ: λύσω, λῠτός.

(2) Change of Quality (Ablaut). — In like manner there is a change of quality between ε and ο, ει and οι, ευ and ου, η and ω.
e.g. ε and ο: λέγω, λόγος, νέμω, νομή, τεκεῖν, τέτοκα.
ει and οι: λείπω, λοιπός, κεῖμαι, κοίτη, πείθω, πέποιθα.
ευ and ου: σπεύδω, σπουδή, κέλευθος, ἀκόλουθος.
η and ω: ἀρήγω, ἀρωγός, πτήσσω, πτωχός, ῥήγνυμι, ἔρρωγα.

(3) The following table results from a combination of either change:

Quantity strong	Quantity weak	Quality ablaut	Examples 1	Examples 2
η	ᾱ	ω	φήμη, φᾶτός, φωνή	βῆναι, βάσις, βωμός
η	ε	ω	θημών, θετός, θωμός	ᾖσω, ἔτος, ἀνέωμαι
αι	ᾰι	αι	λείπειν, λῖπείν, λοιπός	πείθειν, πεπίθειν, πέποιθα
ευ	ᾰυ	ου	σείω, ἔσσυμαι, ἔσσουσα	ἐλεύσομαι, ἤλυθον, εἰλήλουθα

Moreover, the proximity and influence of the liquids cause the interchange of

Quantity strong	Quantity weak	Quality ablaut	Examples 1	Examples 2
ε	ᾰ	ο	τρέπω, τρᾰπεῖν, τρόπος; τέμνω, ταμίας, τομή	στέλλω, στᾰλῆναι, στόλος; μένος, μᾰνῆναι, μέμονα

§12

The Lengthening of Vowels in the Nominative. — The long vowels η and ω in the nominative singular are often due only to a lengthening of ε and ο, which reappear in the other cases;
e.g. ποιμήν, but ποιμέν-ος, etc., δαίμων, but δαίμον-ος, etc.,
χιών, but χιόν-ος, etc., ῥήτωρ, but ῥήτορ-ος, etc.

§13

Compensative Lengthening is the lengthening of a vowel to make up for the loss of consonants. A short vowel with two or three consonants is replaced by a long vowel with one consonant, and consequently a vowel long by position is replaced by one long by nature. This compensative lengthening changes:

Vowel	Result	Example 1	Example 2	Example 3	Example 4
ᾰ mostly to ᾱ:	thus:	παντ‑ς	λυσαντ‑σι	ἐμιαν‑σα	μελανς
	becomes:	πᾶς	λύσᾱσι	ἐμιᾱνα	μἐλᾱς
ᾰ more rarely to η	thus:	ἐφαν‑σα
	becomes:	ἔφηνα
ε always to ει	thus:	χαριεντ‑ς	λυθεντ‑σι	ἐστελ-σα	ἑνς
	becomes:	χαρίεις	λυθεῖσι	ἔστειλα	εἷς
ο always to ου	thus:	διδοντ‑ς	γεροντ‑σι	παιδευοντ-σι
	becomes:	διδούς	γέρουσι	παιδεύουσιν
ἰ always to ῑ	thus:	ἐκριν‑σα
	becomes:	ἔκρῑνα
ῠ always to ῡ	thus:	φυντ‑ς	δεικνυντ‑σι	ἤμυν-σα
	becomes:	φῡς	δεικνῦσι	ἤμῡνα

§14

Syncope (a cutting up or short) consists in dropping within a word a short vowel between consonants; e.g. γίγνομαι, stem γεν, for γιγένομαι. Compare gigno, genui.

§15

Metathesis (transposition) consists in placing a short vowel after a simple liquid (λ, μ, ν, ρ) instead of before the same. The vowel is generally lengthened;
e.g. θάρσος, κᾰλ-έω, τέμ-νω, θᾰν-ατος, πορ-εῖν,
θράσος, κλη-τός, τμῆ-σις, θνη-τός, πέ-πρω-ται.

§16

(1) Contraction unites in one long vowel or diphthong two vowels that follow each other within a word. Thus τιμά-ων becomes τιμῶν, πλό-ου becomes πλοῦ, γένε-ος becomes γένους.

For the different modes of contraction, see the treatise on Inflection.

(2) The contracted syllable receives an accent, if either of the two contracted vowels was accented: the circumflex, if the accent was on the first, the acute, if it was on the second vowel. Thus
τίμαε becomes τίμᾱ, ἐτίμαον becomes ἐτίμων,
τιμάων becomes τιμῶν, βεβαώς becomes βεβώς,
τιμάετε becomes τιμᾶτε, τιμαέτω becomes τιμάτω.

§17

(1) Elision consists in dropping a short final vowel before a word beginning with a vowel. The sign of elision is the apostrophe (’); e.g. ἐπ’ αὐτῷ for ἐπὶ αὐτῷ, ἀλλ’ ἐγώ for ἀλλὰ ἐγώ, ἀπέχω from ἀπό and ἔχω.

Note. — The vowel υ, — α and ο in monosyllables, — ῐ in περί, ἄχρι, μέχρι, τί, τι and ὅτι are never elided.

(2) Elision influences the accent as follows:
a) in oxytone prepositions and conjunctions it is lost: thus ἐπ’ ἐμοί for ἐπὶ ἐμοί, ἀλλ’ ἐγώ for ἀλλὰ ἐγώ.
b) in all other oxytones it recedes as acute upon the preceding syllable: Εἴ δείν’ ἔδρασας, δεινὰ καὶ παθεῖν σε χρή, — τὰ ἀγάθ’ ἦν for τὰ ἀγαθὰ ἦν, φήμ’ ἐγώ for φημὶ ἐγώ.
c) in all barytones it remains unchanged: οὔτε σοὶ οὔτ’ ἐμοὶ ταῦτ’ ἔλεγον.

§18

(1) Crasis (mixture) is the contraction of the final vowel or diphthong with the initial vowel of the following word [1]. Its sign is the coronis (’).

The contracted vowel receives an iota subscript, if the last of the vowels to be contracted was an ι; thus ἐγᾦμαι for ἐγὼ οἶμαι, but κἄν for καὶ ἄν.

[1] Elision, therefore, serves to avoid an hiatus which occurs when the final and the initial vowel of two successive words collide. Crasis serves the same purpose.

(2) Crasis is most frequent with the article, the relative and with καί and πρό.
ὁ ἀνήρ becomes ἀνήρ,
τὰ ἄλλα becomes τἆλλα,
ἃ ἐγώ becomes ἁγώ,
καὶ ἐν becomes κἀν,
καὶ ἄν becomes κἄν,
προέλεγον becomes προὔλεγον.

(3) The accent of the first word is generally lost, that of the second determines which syllable is to have the accent after the contraction.

§19

Concurrence of Consonants. — Two or more adjoining consonants are hardly ever left unchanged. They are subject to certain modifications according to definite principles. The second consonant is generally left unaltered and a change is produced only in the first of the two sounds. This euphonic change is especially brought about by assimilation (change to a like sound), dissimilation (change to a different sound), and elision (suppression of a sound).

Special attention is due to the euphonic changes:
a) in the nom. sg. and dat. pl. of the 3d decl., 38 seqq.
b) in the third class of verbs (with -jω in the present), 77, 3.
c) in the formation of tenses of mute verbs, 82; 83.
d) in the final consonants of prepositions in compounds, as in 20.

§20

Before the rough breathing a smooth mute is changed to the corresponding rough: thus
οὐκ οὗτος becomes οὐχ οὗτος,
ἀπ’ οὗ becomes ἀφ’ οὗ,
ἀντ’ ὧν becomes ἀνθ’ ὧν,
ἐπ’ and ὁδός becomes ἔφοδος.

§21

Changes in the Rough Mutes. —

(1) If two successive syllables begin each with a rough mute, generally one of the two is changed to the corresponding smooth; in particular
the first is changed in the reduplication: πεφύτευκα — τίθημι,
and in the aor. pass. of θύω and τίθημι: ἐτύθην, ἐτέθην.
the second is changed in the aor. imper. pass.: παιδεύθητι for παιδεύθηθι.

In other cases, however, both rough mutes remain unchanged. Thus in ὠρθώθην, ἠθύνθην, ἐθέλχθην, ἐφάνθην, πεφάνθαι, ἐκαθάρθην, κεκαθάρθαι, φάθι, ἐχύθην, etc.

(2) Whenever in several monosyllabic stems the final rough mute is dropped, the initial consonant is changed to the corresponding rough; thus in the stems ταφ-, ταχ-, τρεφ-, τρεχ-, τρυφ- and τριχ-.

Compare τάφος, ταχύς, τρέφω, τρέχω, τρυφή, τρίχες,
with θάπτω, θάττων, θρέψω, ἔθρεξα, θρύπτω, θριξίν.

There are initial and final rough mutes in τεθράφθαι (from τρέφω, but τετράφθαι from τρέπω), τεθάφθαι and ἐθάφθην (from θάπτω).

§22

Initial ρ is doubled when a short vowel precedes it whether as augment or as reduplication:

ἔρριπτον, ἔρριψα, — ἔρριφα, ἔρρωμαι.

Thus also in composition: ἐπιρρίπτω, διαρρήγνυμι, ἄρρωστος, ἀπόρρητος.

§23

Rule for Consonantal Termination. — No Greek word can end in any other consonant than ν, ρ, or σ (ξ, ψ). Consequently, other consonants which by rights should stand at the end of a word must be dropped. Thus παῖ is for παιδ, σῶμα for σωματ.

Note. — The two particles ἐκ and οὐκ are only apparent exceptions; for these proclitics attach themselves so closely to the following word as to coalesce into one; consequently, κ must be considered as being in the middle of the word thus formed. Compare οὐκέτι, and 24, 2. 3.

§24

MOVABLE FINAL CONSONANTS

MOVABLE FINAL CONSONANTS

(1) Ν movable (ν ἐφελκυστικόν drawn after) is added [1]

a) to third persons in -ε(ν) and -σι(ν): ἐπαίδευε(ν), ἐπαίδευσε(ν), παιδεύουσι(ν), δίδωσι(ν), διδόασι(ν), εἰσί(ν).

b) to datives and locatives in -σι(ν): πᾶσι(ν), Ἀθήνησι(ν).

c) to some other words with similar endings: εἴκοσι(ν), ἐστί(ν).

This ν may or may not stand before a following consonant, it must stand before a following vowel, as well as before punctuation marks.

[1] See foot-note on page 9.

(2) Σ movable is taken by οὕτω thus, and ἐκ out; the spelling is οὕτως and ἐξ before vowels. E.g. οὕτω γράφω, but οὕτως ἔγραφον — ἐκ τοῦ οἴκου, but ἐξ οἴκου.

(3) A movable guttural is sometimes added to the negative οὐ. Use:

οὐκ before vowels with the smooth breathing: οὐκ ἀγαθόν,

οὐχ before vowels with the rough breathing: οὐχ ἁπλῶς,

οὐ before all consonants: οὐ καλῶς, οὐ ῥᾳδίως.

Note. — Before a punctuation mark, οὐ is accented, οὔ, even when followed by a vowel:

Ἐξικνοῦντο γὰρ οὔ, οὐδ᾽ ἔβλαπτον οὐδέν.

Εἴτε μηνύουσιν εἴτε καὶ οὔ· ἀμφότερα γὰρ εἰκάζεται.

(1) Ν movable (ν ἐφελκυστικόν drawn after) is added [1]
a) to third persons in -ε(ν) and -σι(ν): ἐπαίδευε(ν), ἐπαίδευσε(ν), παιδεύουσι(ν), δίδωσι(ν), διδόασι(ν), εἰσί(ν).
b) to datives and locatives in -σι(ν): πᾶσι(ν), Ἀθήνησι(ν).
c) to some other words with similar endings: εἴκοσι(ν), ἐστί(ν).

This ν may or may not stand before a following consonant, it must stand before a following vowel, as well as before punctuation marks.

[1] See foot-note on page 9.

(2) Σ movable is taken by οὕτω thus, and ἐκ out; the spelling is οὕτως and ἐξ before vowels. E.g. οὕτω γράφω, but οὕτως ἔγραφον — ἐκ τοῦ οἴκου, but ἐξ οἴκου.

(3) A movable guttural is sometimes added to the negative οὐ. Use:
οὐκ before vowels with the smooth breathing: οὐκ ἀγαθόν,
οὐχ before vowels with the rough breathing: οὐχ ἁπλῶς,
οὐ before all consonants: οὐ καλῶς, οὐ ῥᾳδίως.

Note. — Before a punctuation mark, οὐ is accented, οὔ, even when followed by a vowel:
Ἐξικνοῦντο γὰρ οὔ, οὐδ᾽ ἔβλαπτον οὐδέν.
Εἴτε μηνύουσιν εἴτε καὶ οὔ· ἀμφότερα γὰρ εἰκάζεται.